Sociology final
the presence and engaged coexistence of numerous distinct groups in one society
pluralism
Which group believed that different races were distinct species?
polygenists
the estimated minimum level of income needed to secure the necessities of life
poverty line
the belief that members of separate races possess . different and unequal traits
racism
one who rejects both socially acceptable means and goals by completely retreating from, or not participating in, society
retreatist
The point at which a household's income falls below the necessary level to purchase food to physically sustain its members.
Absolute poverty
a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises when we can no longer reasonably expect life to be predictable; too little social regulation; normlessness
anomie
Talcott Parsons's theory that men and women perform their sex roles as breadwinners and wives / mothers , respectively , because the nuclear family is the ideal arrangement in modern societies , fulfilling the function of reproducing workers
sex role theory .
an organized effort to change a power hierarchy on the part of a less - powerful group in a society
collective resistance
the view that racial inequality is perpetuated by a supposedly color - blind stance that ends up reinforcing historical and contemporary inequities , disparate impact , and institutional bias by " ignoring " them in favor of a technically neutral approach .
color - blind racism .
According to Robert Merton, which of the following describes a person who accepts both the goals defined by society and the means to achieve them?
conformist
individual who accepts both the goals and the strategies that are considered socially acceptable to achieve those goals
conformist
the idea that people can occupy locations in the class structure that fall between the two " pure " classes a system
contradictory class locations
a particular type of white-collar crime committed by the officers (CEOs and other executives) of a corporation
corporate crime
Violation of laws enacted by society is also known as
crime
occurs when a person's sex or gender is the basis for judgment , discrimination , or other differential treatment against that person
sexism
A stratification system with a governing elite—that is, the few leaders who broadly hold the power in a society—is called a(n) ________ system.
elite-mass dichotomy
the idea that everyone should have an equal starting point
equality of condition
A capitalist society with a continuing history of inequality in wealth, income, and power can still have
equality of opportunity
the idea that everyone has an equal chance to achieve wealth , social prestige , and power because the rules of the game , so to speak , are the same for everyone
equality of opportunity
the idea that each player must end up with the same amount regardless of the fairness of the " game . "
equality of outcome
arguments explaining social phenomena in terms of natural , biological , or evolutionary inevitabilities .
essentialist
a politically based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility
estate system
one's ethnic quality or affiliation . It is voluntary , self defined , nonhierarchal , fluid and multiple , and based . on cultural differences , not physical ones per se .
ethnicity
the belief that one's own culture or group is superior to others , and the tendency to view all other cultures from the perspective of one's own
ethnocentrism
literally meaning " well born ; " a pseudoscience that postulates that controlling the fertility of populations could influence inheritable traits passed on from generation to generation .
eugenics
mobility resulting from the swapping of jobs
exchange mobility
suicide that occurs as a result of too much social regulation
fatalistic suicide
a social movement to get people to understand that gender is an organizing principle in society and to address gender - based inequalities that intersect with other forms of social identity
feminism
A crime such as burglary is also known as which type of deviance?
formal
mechanisms of social control by which rules or laws prohibit deviant criminal behavior
formal social sanctions
the notion that when more than one person is responsible for getting something done , the incentive is for each individual to shirk responsibility and hope others will pull the extra weight
free rider problem
America's first naturalization law, passed in 1790, granted citizenship to
free white persons
a social position , behaviors , and set of attributes that are associated with sex identities
gender
the mass killing of a group of people based on racial , ethnic , or religious traits
genocide
Thomas Malthus believed that the human population grows ________, but the ability to produce food increases ________.
geometrically; arithmetically
an invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder
glass ceiling
When token men enter feminized jobs, they enjoy a quicker rise to leadership positions. This is referred to as the
glass escalator
the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization , especially in feminized jobs
glass escalator
the condition in which men are dominant and privileged , and this dominance and privilege is . invisible
hegemonic masculinity
the idea that heterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation from which other sexualities deviate
heteronormativity
the social identity of a person who has sexual attraction to and / or relations with people of the same sex
homosexual
money received by a person for work or from returns on investments
income
Identify the listed action that would reduce crime, according to differential opportunity theory.
increased returns on legitimate work
the usually unexpressed but widely known rules of group membership; the unspoken rules of social life
informal social sanctions
social deviant who accepts socially acceptable goals but rejects socially acceptable means to achieve them
innovator
institutions and social dynamics that may seem race neutral but actually disadvantage minority groups .
institutional racism
Which group believed that humans were one species, united under God?
monogenists
Clifford Geertz's term to explain the strength of ethnic ties because they are fixed and deeply felt or primordial ties to one's homeland culture
primordialism
Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the source of all social ills was
private property
the working class
proletariat
a group of people who share a set of characteristics typically , but not always , physical ones - and are said . to share a common bloodline
race
the formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people
racialization
individual who rejects both traditional goals and traditional means and wants to alter or destroy the social institutions from which he or she is alienated
rebel
when an individual who has been involved with the criminal justice system reverts to criminal behavior
recidivism
A measurement of poverty based on a percentage of the median income in a given location
relative poverty
individual who rejects socially defined goals but not the means.
ritualist
nineteenth - century theories of race that characterize a period of feverish investigation into the origins , explanations , and classifications of race
scientific racism
subsequent acts of rule breaking that occur after primary deviance and as a result of your new deviant label and people's expectations of you
secondary deviance
An example of horizontal social mobility is a(n)
secretary changing firms but retaining his or her occupational status.
The 1896 Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson upheld
segregation
the legal or social practice of separating people on the basis of their race or ethnicity
segregation
the perceived biological differences that distinguish males from females
sex
Reward structures that lead to suboptimal outcomes by stimulating counterproductive behavior
Perverse incentives
a term for the economic elite
upper class .
a family's or individual's net worth ( i.e. , total assets minus total debts ) .
wealth
offense committed by a professional (or professionals) against a corporation, agency, or other institution
white collar crime
Picking your nose in public is an example of which type of deviance?
informal
social cohesion based on sameness
Mechanical or segmental solidarity
neither masculine nor feminine
androgynous
the capitalist class
bourgeoisie
Most Arabs in the United States are not Muslim, and about 25 percent of U.S. Arabs are
Christians
The argument that poor people adopt certain practices that differ from those of middle-class, "mainstream" society in order to adapt and survive in difficult economic circumstances.
Culture of poverty
a circular building composed of an inner ring and an outer ring designed to serve as a prison in which the guards, housed in the inner ring, can observe the prisoners without the detainees knowing whether they are being watched
Panopticon
Thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment, such as Adam Ferguson and John Miller, believed that private property was a beneficial institution. What was their reasoning?
People are more productive when they are able to keep what they produce.
What group sells its labor to the bourgeoisie to receive wages?
Proletariat
In labeling theory, what is the difference between primary and secondary deviance?
Secondary deviance is an eventual effect of primary deviance, where deviance begins.
The Supreme Court's landmark 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education struck down what doctrine?
Separate but equal
Identify the role of social media in the #BlackLivesMatter movement.
Social media brings attention to police violence.
In one study of television portrayals of Arabs, researchers found basic myths that continue to surround this group, such as
They are uncivilized and barbaric.
Which of the following would be considered a positive trait or characteristic for a man within today's hegemonic masculinity?
a love of sports
Which of the following is an example of the ideology of equality of condition put into practice?
affirmative action
suicide that occurs when one experiences too much social integration
altruistic suicide
suicide that occurs as a result of insufficient social regulation
anomic suicide
an individual who is sexually attracted to both genders / sexes
bisexual
The one-drop rule asserts that just "one drop" of black blood makes a person
black
The modern capitalist society is an example of which type of society?
bourgeois
a society of commerce ( modern capitalist society , for example ) in which the maximization of profit is the primary business incentive
bourgeois society
theory explaining how social context and social cues impact whether individuals act deviantly; specifically, whether local, informal social norms allow deviant acts.
broken windows theory of deviance
How does the NCAA determine the sex of athletes?
by hormone levels
a religion-based system of stratification characterized by no social mobility
caste system
describes people whose gender corresponds to their birth sex
cisgender
an economically based hierarchical system characterized by cohesive , oppositional groups and somewhat loose social mobility
class system
philosophy of criminal justice arising from the notion that crime results from a rational calculation of its costs and benefits
deterrence theory
a two-directional relationship following a pattern in which an original statement or thesis is countered with an antithesis, leading to a conclusion that unites the strengths of the original position and the counterarguments
dialectic
a notion of history that privileges conflict over economic , material resources as the central struggle and driver of change in society
dialectic materialism
harmful or negative acts ( not mere thoughts ) against people deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category , without regard to their individual merit .
discrimination
Prejudice is to discrimination as thinking is to
doing
Hegel felt that the relationship between slave and master was dialectic. This meant that
each was dependent on the other
C. Wright Mills argues that there are three major institutions in the United States today that have the power to make decisions for the masses. What are they?
economy, politics, and the military
suicide that occurs when one is not well integrated into a social group
egoistic suicide
What were the types of suicide described by Emile Durkheim?
egoistic, altruistic, anomic, fatalistic
the idea it is critical to understand the interplay between social identities such as race , class , gender , ability status , and sexual orientation , even though many social systems and institutions ( such as the law ) try to treat each category on its own
intersectionality
Although sexual harassment in the workplace can vary from jokes to sexual barter to sexual assault, a key reason sexual harassment contributes to gender inequality is that
it is intended to make people feel uncomfortable and unwelcome.
the belief that individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them, and their reactions to those labels over time form the basis of their self-identity
labeling theory
intersecting domains of oppression that create a social space of domination and , by extension , a unique position within that space based on someone's intersectional identity along the multiple dimensions of gender , age , race , class , sexuality , location , and so on
matrix of domination
Which of Emile Durkheim's types of social solidarity characterized premodern life?
mechanical
a society where status and mobility are based on individual attributes ability , and achievement
meritocracy
a term commonly used to describe those individuals with nonmanual jobs that pay significantly more than the poverty line - though this is a highly debated and expansive category , particularly in the United States , where broad swaths of the population consider themselves middle class
middle class
the technical term for interracial marriage ; literally meaning " a mixing of kinds " ; it is politically and historically charged - sociologists generally prefer exogamy or outmarriage
miscegenation
the movement to protect and preserve indigenous land or culture from the allegedly dangerous and polluting effects of new immigrants
nativism
Social deviance is a breach of ________; crime is a breach of ________.
norms; law
Barack Obama is widely understood to be the first African American elected as President of the United States, even though he has a white mother. This demonstrates the concept of ________ in the United States.
one drop rule
the belief that " one drop " of black blood makes a person black , a concept that evolved from US laws forbidding miscegenation
one-drop rule
the philosophical and religious notion that all people are created equal
ontological equality
Which of Emile Durkheim's types of social solidarity characterizes modern life?
organic
social cohesion based on difference and interdependence of the parts
organic solidarity
A paradigm in which low income, unstable employment, a lack of cultural resources, and a feeling of inferiority from social class comparisons exacerbate household stress levels; this stress, in turn, leads to detrimental parenting practices such as yelling and hitting, which are not conducive to healthy child development
parenting stress hypothesis
a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity
patriarchy
thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group , which lead to preconceived notions and judgments ( often negative ) about the group
prejudice
the first act of rule breaking that may incur a label of "deviant" and thus influence how people think about and act toward you
primary deviance
an illegal form of discrimination revolving around sexuality that can involve everything from inappropriate jokes to sexual " barter " ( where victims feel the need to comply with sexual requests for fear of losing their job ) to outright sexual assault
sexual harassment
desire , sexual preference , and sexual identity and behavior
sexuality
While the notion of sex has typically referred to biological characteristics, the concept of gender refers to ________ characteristics.
social
the application of Darwinian ideas to society - namely , the evolutionary " survival of the fittest . "
social Darwinism
an individual's position in a stratified social order .
social class or socioeconomic status
social bonds; how well people relate to each other and get along on a day-to-day basis
social cohesion
mechanisms that create normative compliance in individuals
social control
any transgression of socially established norms
social deviance
a condition in which no differences in wealth, power, prestige, or status based on nonnatural conventions exist.
social equality
how well you are integrated into your social group or community
social integration
the movement between different positions within a system of social stratification in any given society .
social mobility
the number of rules guiding your daily life and, more specifically, what you can reasonably expect from the world on a day-to-day basis
social regulation
approach that ranks individuals by socioeconomic status , including income and educational attainment , and seeks to specify the attributes characteristic of people who end up in more desirable occupations .
status attainment model
a system of stratification based on social prestige .
status hierarchy system 0
a negative social label that not only changes others' behavior toward a person but also alters that person's own self-concept and social identity
stigma
Robert Parks's 1920s universal and linear model for how immigrants assimilate : they first arrive , then settle in , and achieve full assimilation in a newly homogenous country
straight - line assimilation
Robert Merton's theory that deviance occurs when a society does not give all of its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals
strain theory
When groups are arranged hierarchically with different levels of power, social prestige, status, or economic resources, this is called
stratification
When sociologists study how race and ethnicity affect income, they are studying
stratification
the hierarchical organization of a society into groups with differing levels of power, social prestige, or status and economic resources
stratification
Illegal drug dealing is an example of which of the following types of crime, as defined by sociologists?
street crime
crime committed in public and often associated with violence, gangs, and poverty
street crime
a theory in which society's many parts , institutions , norms , traditions , and so on ; mesh to produce stable , working whole that evolved over time . Best embodied by Talcott Parsons .
structural functionalism
a theory in which society's many parts institutions , norms , traditions , and so on , mesh to produce a stable working whole that evolved over time . Best embodied by Talcott Parsons
structural functionalism
mobility that is inevitable from changes in the economy
structural mobility
a subordinate , oppressed group of people
subaltern
Elizabeth Warren, a U.S. senator, claimed Native American heritage, a claim that was challenged by her political opponents. Race scholars note white people, like Warren, can choose to identify or not identify with certain ethnic groups. This example demonstrates the concept of
symbolic ethnicity
Steve is a white American whose family has lived in the United States for 200 years. During the Olympics, Steve cheers for Britain in swimming, because, he says, "I'm British!" During soccer, he cheers for Sweden, saying, "I have some Swedish in me, too!" Steve is displaying
symbolic ethnicity
a nationality , not in the sense of carrying the rights and duties of citizenship but of identifying with a past or future nationality . For later generations of white ethnics , something not constraining but easily expressed , with no risks of stigma and all the pleasures of feeling like an individual
symbolic ethnicity
Parsons's sex role theory sees a gendered division of labor as functional for a stable society. In framing gender expectations in this way, Parsons and other structural functionalists
tend to justify the existing order of gender practices in social institutions.
In our society, many people take for granted that sex has only two categories and tend to ignore facts that suggest sex itself is socially constructed. Which of the following is an outcome of this sexual dichotomization?
the exclusion of those who don't fit neatly into one category or the other
Labeling theory focuses on
the social process through which people become deviants.
Gayle Rubin argues that there is a sex/gender system. This system is characterized by
the transformation of biological sex into asymmetric gender statuses.
an institution in which one is totally immersed and that controls all the basics of day-to-day life; no barriers exist between the usual spheres of daily life, and all activity occurs in the same place and under the same single authority
total institution
describes people whose gender does not correspond to their birth sex
transgender
The notion, building on the culture of poverty argument, that the poor not only are different from mainstream society in their inability to take advantage of what society has to offer but also are increasingly deviant and even dangerous to the rest of us
underclass