Sociology Study Guide

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Five distinguishing traits of a minority group:

(1) unequal treatment and less power over their lives, (2) distinguishing physical or cultural traits like skin color or language, (3) involuntary membership in the group, (4) awareness of subordination, and (5) high rate of in-group marriage.

Crime & types of crime

Crime--a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions Hate crime, Violent crime, Street Crime, Victimless Crime, and Corporate Crime

What is a status? a role? a master status? an ascribed vs. achieved status?

Status-- the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to his or her rank and role in society Role-- patterns of behavior that are representative of a person's social status Master status-- a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual Ascribed Status-- the status outside of an individual's control, such as sex or race Achieved Status-- the status a person chooses, such as a level of education or income

What did the Arizona Senate Bill 1070 propose?

The law requires that during a lawful stop, detention, or arrest, Arizona police officers must establish the immigration status of anyone they suspect may be here illegally. The law makes it a crime for individuals to fail to have documents confirming their legal status, and it gives police officers the right to detain people they suspect may be in the country illegally.

What does sovereignty mean?

Sovereignty is the right of a government to have complete control over its area. ... A sovereign government is the only maker of laws in the land, water or air where international law says it is sovereign.

What was the significance of Kenneth and Mamie Clark's research?

The research of sociologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark helped the Supreme Court decide to end "separate but equal" racial segregation in schools in the United States.

W.E.B. DuBois

W.E.B. Du Bois is a critical figure in the development of sociology. He made lasting and profound contributions to the social sciences by pioneering several sociological methodologies. For many years though, these efforts were largely ignored and omitted from history. His now well-known studies introduced and implemented many of the principles that became the foundation for modern sociology, some 20 years before the University of Chicago developed what is considered the first department of sociology in the United States. Du Bois was an impressive scholar, skilled civil rights activist, prolific social scientist, and the first African American to graduate from Harvard University with a doctorate.

What is Weber's view on society? What does he mean by the "iron cage"?

Weber's primary focus on the structure of society lay in the elements of class, status, and power. Similar to Marx, Weber saw class as economically determined. Society, he believed, was split between owners and laborers. Status, on the other hand, was based on noneconomic factors such as education, kinship, and religion. Both status and class determined an individual's power, or influence over ideas. Unlike Marx, Weber believed that these ideas formed the base of society. iron cage-- a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions

What is an operational definition?

define the concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept.

Loving vs. Virginia

made laws prohibiting interracial marriage (miscegenation) unconstitutional

What are manifest and latent functions?

manifest- are the consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated latent- are the unsought consequences of a social process.

Heteronormative Society

meaning many people assume heterosexual orientation is biologically determined and unambiguous.

Sanctions

means of enforcing rules Positive and Negative Formal and informal

Discuss George Herbert Mead's Theory of Development.

studied the self, a person's distinct identity that is developed through social interaction. In order to engage in this process of "self," an individual has to be able to view him or herself through the eyes of others. That's not an ability that we are born with

Differential Association theory

suggested that individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance. According to Sutherland, deviance is less a personal choice and more a result of differential socialization processes.

cultural deviance theory

suggests that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime.

Scapegoat Theory

suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group.

Gender Socialization and in which four major agents of socialization.

that teaches boys and girls societal norms and behaviors expected of them based on their sex Four major agents of socialization: family, education, peer groups, and mass media.

Institutionalization

the act of implanting a convention or norm into society

Racial Steering

the act of real estate agents directing prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race

Labeling Theory

the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society

Biological Determinism

the belief that men and women behave differently due to differences in their biology.

Colorism

the belief that one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group

White-privilege

the benefits people receive simply by being part of the dominant group

collective conscience

the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society

Status Consistency

the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual's rank across social categories like income, education, and occupation

Genocide

the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group, is the most toxic intergroup relationship.

Cultural Lag

the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture's acceptance of it

habitulization

the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit

Globalization

the integration of international trade and finance markets

Social facts

the laws, mores, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life, that may contribute to these changes in the family life.

"Standard of Living"

the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle

the moral views and principles of a group

What are the three branches of the U.S. criminal justice system?

the police, the courts, and the corrections system.

Cultural Relativism

the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards, and not in comparison to another culture

Ethnocentrism

the practice of evaluating another culture according to the standards of one's own culture

Sexism

the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another

degradation ceremony

the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identities and are given new ones

Resocialization

the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place

What is conspicuous consumption?

the purchase and use of certain products to make a social statement about status.

Social Control

the regulation and enforcement of norms.

What does the phrase "social construction of race" mean?

the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable recognizes that the relative darkness or fairness of skin is an evolutionary adaptation to the available sunlight in different regions of the world.

Diffusion

the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another

ideal culture

the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to

What are experiments?

the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions

Class traits?

the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class (also called class markers)

Gender Stratification

the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women

Racial Profiling

the use by law enforcement of race alone to determine whether to stop and detain someone

Norms

the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured

real culture

the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists

anticipatory socialization

the way we prepare for future life roles

Culture of Prejudice Theory

to the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture. We grow up surrounded by images of stereotypes and casual expressions of racism and prejudice.

endogamous marriage

unions of people within the same social category

exogamous marriage

unions of spouses from different social categories

Quantitative Sociology

uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants.

What is secondary data analysis?

using data collected by others but applying new interpretations

Emile Durkheim

(1858-1917), French sociologist. He contributed many important concepts to sociology. His comparison of the suicide rates several countries revealed an underlying social factor. People are more likely to commit suicide if their ties to others in their communities are weak. Durkheim's identification of the key role of social integration and social life remains central to sociology today. · 19th century scholar credited for bringing academic discipline of sociology to forefront · Major work suicide · Goal: demonstrate the importance of social factors in explaining individual behavior · Social location (ones place in the social structure) influences one's actions · Research involved comparing suicide rates Durkheim's research: · Hypothesis: suicide varies inversely with the degree of integration of social group of which the individual forms a part.

Wealth vs. Income

--Wealth: the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance --Income: the money a person earns from work or investments

What are the steps in the research process (scientific method)?

-Ask a question -Research existing sources -Formulate a hypothesis -Design and conduct a study -Draw a conclusion -Report results

What is a hypothesis? What are variables? Be able to identify the independent and dependent variables in a hypothesis.

-is a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables -independent variables are the cause of the change. The dependent variable is the effect, or thing that is changed

Conflict theorist (racial inequalities)

A conflict theory perspective of U.S. history would examine the numerous past and current struggles between the white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, noting specific conflicts that have arisen when the dominant group perceived a threat from the minority group.

Groupthink

A narrowing of thought by a group of people, leading to the perception that there's only one correct answer, in which to even suggest alternatives becomes a sign of disloyalty

What is the bystander effect?

A social condition where in people will avoid intervening as a crime is taking place or refrain from reporting what they saw

Conflict Theorists (Gender)

According to conflict theory, society is a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for scarce resources. When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, we can view men as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. According to conflict theory, social problems are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate groups.

How does Emile Durkheim (a functionalist) view society?

As a functionalist, Émile Durkheim's (1858-1917) perspective on society stressed the necessary interconnectivity of all of its elements. To Durkheim, society was greater than the sum of its parts. He asserted that individual behavior was not the same as collective behavior and that studying collective behavior was quite different from studying an individual's actions. Durkheim called the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society the collective conscience

What is occupational prestige? What are the characteristics of a prestigious occupation?

Aside from the obvious impact that income has on someone's standard of living, occupations also influence social standing through the relative levels of prestige they afford. Employment in medicine, law, or engineering confers high status. Teachers and police officers are generally respected, though not considered particularly prestigious. At the other end of the scale, some of the lowest rankings apply to positions like waitress, janitor, and bus driver.

What are the four types of social bonds that connect people to society according to Travis Hirschi?

Attachment, Commitment, Involvement, Belief

Identify the two systems of stratification. What are the characteristics of each.

Closed systems accommodate little change in social position. They do not allow people to shift levels and do not permit social relationships between levels. Open systems, which are based on achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and classes. Different systems reflect, emphasize, and foster certain cultural values and shape individual beliefs. Stratification systems include class systems and caste systems, as well as meritocracy.

How do Conflict theorists view deviance? How does Karl Marx view deviance?

Conflict theory looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and deviance--see them as evidence of inequality in the system. Though Marx spoke little of deviance, his ideas created the foundation for conflict theorists who study the intersection of deviance and crime with wealth and power.

What are the five ways people respond to the gap between having a socially accepted goal and having no socially accepted way to pursue it?

Conformity: Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially accepted means. Innovation: Those who innovate pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using criminal or deviant means. Ritualism: People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable ways. These members of society focus on conformity rather than attaining a distant dream. Retreatism: Others retreat and reject society's goals and means. Some beggars and street people have withdrawn from society's goal of financial success. Rebellion: A handful of people rebel and replace a society's goals and means with their own. Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society's goals through socially unacceptable means.

Leadership Styles

Democratic-- encourage group participation in all decision making. Laissez-faire--is hands-off, allowing group members to self-manage and make their own decisions. Authoritarian--issue orders and assigns tasks.

What is dramaturgy? What is impression management?

Dramaturgy-- that we use "impression management" to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived.Impression management is a critical component of symbolic interactionism.

What was Erik Erikson's theory regarding personality development?

Erikson believed the personality continued to change over time and was never truly finished. His theory includes eight stages of development, beginning with birth and ending with death. According to Erikson, people move through these stages throughout their lives. In contrast to Freud's focus on psychosexual stages and basic human urges, Erikson's view of self-development gave credit to more social aspects, like the way we negotiate between our own base desires and what is socially accepted (Erikson 1982).

What is the fairness principle? What is the rationality principle? What is the pleasure principle? What is the reciprocity principle?

Fairness Principles-A principle of interaction where in people expect to be treated fairly and get upset when they feel like they were not treated fairly. Rationality Principle- A principle of interaction where in people change their behavior according to whether they think they will be worse or better off as a consequence. Pleasure Principle- Principle of interaction where people seek pleasure to avoid pain. Reciprocity Principle- A principle of interaction where in a person helps other people because he or she has been helped

Feminist Theory (Gender)

Feminist theory is a type of conflict theory that examines inequalities in gender-related issues. It uses the conflict approach to examine the maintenance of gender roles and inequalities. Radical feminism, in particular, considers the role of the family in perpetuating male dominance. In patriarchal societies, men's contributions are seen as more valuable than those of women. Patriarchal perspectives and arrangements are widespread and taken for granted. As a result, women's viewpoints tend to be silenced or marginalized to the point of being discredited or considered invalid.

What are the different waves of feminism?

First wave of feminism dates back to the Civil War period and the abolitionists movement when women started to question gender inequality in the 19 century. 1920 women had one the right to vote 2nd wave of feminism in the late 60s and 70s rethink what it is to be a women and a man. On a practical level to improve women lives (health care domestic violence shelters older women's right and those other issues) 3rd Wave-began in the early 1990s, responding to perceived failures of the second wave and to the backlash against second-wave initiatives. sees women's lives as intersectional, demonstrating how race, ethnicity, class, religion, gender, and nationality are all significant factors when discussing feminism. It examines issues related to women's lives on an international basis.

Interactionism (racial inequalities)

For symbolic interactionists, race and ethnicity provide strong symbols as sources of identity. In fact, some interactionists propose that the symbols of race, not race itself, are what lead to racism.

Structural Functionalism (Gender)

Functionalists argue that gender roles were established well before the pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of the domestic responsibilities in or around the home. These roles were considered functional because women were often limited by the physical restraints of pregnancy and nursing and unable to leave the home for long periods of time. Once established, these roles were passed on to subsequent generations since they served as an effective means of keeping the family system functioning properly.

George Herbert Mead

George Herbert Mead was a philosopher and sociologist whose work focused on the ways in which the mind and the self were developed as a result of social processes (Cronk n.d.). He argued that how an individual comes to view himself or herself is based to a very large extent on interactions with others. Mead called specific individuals that impacted a person's life significant others, and he also conceptualized "generalized others" as the organized and generalized attitude of a social group. Mead's work is closely associated with the symbolic interactionist approach and emphasizes the micro-level of analysis.

Glass escalator and Glass ceiling

Glass Ceiling- invisible barrier so that women can see that they can move the hierarchy but find that they can't move any further because they are women. Shorter careers paths and less growth. Glass escalator is the counterpart to the glass ceiling. It typically benefits men and sex atypical jobs. They are encouraged to move ahead and given preferential treatment.

Harriet Martineau (first woman sociologist)

Harriet Martineau was a writer who addressed a wide range of social science issues. She was an early observer of social practices, including economics, social class, religion, suicide, government, and women's rights. Her writing career began in 1831 with a series of stories titled Illustrations of Political Economy, in which she tried to educate ordinary people about the principles of economics (Johnson 2003). Martineau was the first to translate Comte's writing from French to English and thereby introduced sociology to English-speaking scholars (Hill 1991). She is also credited with the first systematic methodological international comparisons of social institutions in two of her most famous sociological works: Society in America (1837) and Retrospect of Western Travel (1838).

What did Sigmund Freud say about how an individual develops a sense of self?

He believed that personality and sexual development were closely linked, and he divided the maturation process into psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. He posited that people's self-development is closely linked to early stages of development, like breastfeeding, toilet training, and sexual awareness

Which minority group is the largest in the United States today?

Hispanic and Latinos

Functionalism (racial inequalities)

In the view of functionalism, racial and ethnic inequalities must have served an important function in order to exist as long as they have.

Bureaucracy

Is an ideal type of formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality. FIND POSITIVE ASPECTS ON THE SLIDES

Agricultural Society

societies that rely on farming as a way of life

What is Marx's view on society? What are the two classes he describes?

Karl Marx (1818-1883) is certainly among the most significant social thinkers in recent history. While there are many critics of his work, it is still widely respected and influential. For Marx, society's constructions were predicated upon the idea of "base and superstructure." This term refers to the idea that a society's economic character forms its base, upon which rests the culture and social institutions, the superstructure. For Marx, it is the base (economy) that determines what a society will be like. Bourgeoisie and proletariat

Discuss Kolberg's theory of moral development. What was Carol Gilligan's critique?

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) was interested in how people learn to decide what is right and what is wrong. To understand this topic, he developed a theory of moral development that includes three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. sociologist, Carol Gilligan (1936-), recognized that Kohlberg's theory might show gender bias since his research was only conducted on male subjects.

Be familiar with Marx's ideas regarding alienation, what it is, as well as the four types discussed by Marx.

Marx described modern society in terms of alienation. Alienation refers to the condition in which the individual is isolated and divorced from his or her society, work, or the sense of self. -- Alienation from the product of one's labor. --Alienation from the process of one's labor. --Alienation from others. --Alienation from one's self.

What does Marx mean when he says workers are experiencing alienation?

Marx saw workers experience deep alienation, isolation and misery resulting from powerless status levels (Marx 1848). Marx argued that proletariats were oppressed by the money-hungry bourgeois.

Stanley Milgram's experiment on blind obedience

Milgram's experiment in obedience has led to greater understanding of how people obey orders and enter the agentic state when an authority figure tells them to do something. He found 62% of US participants gave 450v shocks to innocent participants, and in the post experiment interview they said it was because the experimenter told them to. However, the study lacks mundane realism and ecological validity, as it took place at Yale uni, so would not expect to kill someone there, and anyone who takes part in psychological studies expects to be deceived. Also, not an everyday task to electrocute someone. Very unethical study, but was it necessary to show that anyone can be evil? Not just Germans. society, we learn to conform and be obedient to authority figures from a young age. This obedience may cause moral strain, however many people will still commit to their orders and carry them out even if it goes against their moral code. People carry out the orders blindly and without thinking. Milgram argued that people enter the agentic state when you think that an authority figure is legitimate and will take responsibility for your actions.

What percentage of the United States are the following? Native Americans Blacks Asian Americans Hispanic Americans

Native Americans- 1% Blacks- 13% Asian Americans- 5% Hispanic Americans- 16%

Sociologist Amitai Etzioni claimed that formal organizations fall into three categories, what are they?

Normative organizations, also called voluntary organizations, are based on shared interests. Coercive organizations are groups that we must be coerced, or pushed, to join. These may include prison or a rehabilitation center. Symbolic interactionist Erving Goffman states that most coercive organizations are total institutions (1961). The third type is utilitarian organizations, which, as the name suggests, are joined because of the need for a specific material reward. High school and the workplace fall into this category—one joined in pursuit of a diploma, the other in order to make money.

The Indian Removal Act of 1830

Passed by Congress under the Jackson administration, this act removed all Indians east of the Mississippi to an "Indian Territory" where they would be "permanently" housed.

Primary Deviance vs. Secondary Deviance

Primary Deviance-- a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual's self-image or interactions with others Secondary Deviance--deviance that occurs when a person's self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society

What is the difference between race and ethnicity?

Race: The idea of race refers to superficial physical differences that a particular society considers significant, while ethnicity describes shared culture. Ethnicity: a term that describes shared culture—the practices, values, and beliefs of a group.

What does positivism mean?

Scientific study of social patterns

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity. Gender refers to behaviors, personal traits, and social positions that society attributes to being female or male.

Plessey vs. Ferguson

Supreme Court case in which "separate but equal" was upheld. 1986

Brown v. Board of Education

Supreme Court declared that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," thus ending de jure segregation in the United States.

Symbolic Interactionism (Gender)

Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction. This is certainly relevant to the discussion of masculinity and femininity.

What group in the US is called "the model minority"?

The Asian groups

What historical event was greatly responsible for global stratification as we see it today?

The Industrial Revolution

What is the Kinsey Scale?

The Kinsey scale indicates that sexuality can be measured by more than just heterosexuality and homosexuality. was among the first to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight. He created a six-point rating scale that ranges from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual.

What did the Harlow's study find?

The necessity for early social contact was demonstrated by the research of Harry and Margaret Harlow. From 1957 to 1963, the Harlows conducted a series of experiments studying how rhesus monkeys, which behave a lot like people, are affected by isolation as babies. They studied monkeys raised under two types of "substitute" mothering circumstances: a mesh and wire sculpture, or a soft terrycloth "mother." The monkeys systematically preferred the company of a soft, terrycloth substitute mother (closely resembling a rhesus monkey) that was unable to feed them, to a mesh and wire mother that provided sustenance via a feeding tube. This demonstrated that while food was important, social comfort was of greater value (Harlow and Harlow 1962; Harlow 1971). Later experiments testing more severe isolation revealed that such deprivation of social contact led to significant developmental and social challenges later in life.

Ibn Khaldun

The next century saw the emergence of the historian some consider to be the world's first sociologist: Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) of Tunisia. He wrote about many topics of interest today, setting a foundation for both modern sociology and economics, including a theory of social conflict, a comparison of nomadic and sedentary life, a description of political economy, and a study connecting a tribe's social cohesion to its capacity for power

What are some of the methods used to determine the standard of living in a country?

The standard of living is based on factors such as income, employment, class, poverty rates, and housing affordability. Because standard of living is closely related to quality of life, it can represent factors such as the ability to afford a home, own a car, and take vacations.

What did Melvin Tumin think about stratification?

Tumin believed social stratification prevented qualified people from attempting to fill roles

The Dawes act of 1887

U.S. law providing for the distribution of Indian reservation land among individual Native Americans, with the aim of creating responsible farmers in the white man's image.

The book identifies three levels of class in the United States, what does it say about each? How does one's class level affect their life?

Upper: The upper class is considered the top, and only the powerful elite get to see the view from there. In the United States, people with extreme wealth make up 1 percent of the population, and they own one-third of the country's wealth Middle: consists of upper and lower middle class. Upper-middle-class people tend to hold bachelor's and postgraduate degrees. medicine. Lower-middle-class members hold bachelor's degrees from four-year colleges or associate's degrees from two-year community or technical colleges.

What are the different types of social mobility?

Upward, downward, intergenerational, intragenerational, structural.

What does "Doing Gender" mean?

When people perform tasks or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them. Gender is something we do or perform, not something we are.

Sanctions

a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors

Georg Simmel

a German art critic who wrote widely on social and political issues as well. Simmel took an anti-positivism stance and addressed topics such as social conflict, the function of money, individual identity in city life, and the European fear of outsiders (Stapley 2010). Much of his work focused on the micro-level theories, and it analyzed the dynamics of two-person and three-person groups. His work also emphasized individual culture as the creative capacities of individuals.

What does Verstehen mean?

a German word that means to understand in a deep way.

Xenocentrism

a belief that another culture is superior to one's own

aggregate

a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don't interact or share a sense of identity

Global Stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole

Gender Dysphoria

a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces "gender identity disorder"

Values

a culture's standard for discerning what is good and just in society

in-groups

a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of his identity

Subordinate Group

a group of people who have less power than the dominant group

Dominant Group

a group of people who have more power in a society than any of the subordinate groups

out-groups

a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with

Expressive Leader

a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone's emotional wellbeing

Instrumental Leader

a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks

Sexuality

a person's capacity for sexual feelings

Gender Identity

a person's deeply held internal perception of his or her gender

What does sexual orientation mean?

a person's physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)

What is a non-territorial community?

a population that does not function within a particular geographic area; often is based on shared goals(ex: the medical community, the legal community)

Racism

a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others

Power Elite

a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources. C. Wright Mills

What does C. Wright Mills mean when he refers to the "power elite"?

a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources. Wealthy executives, politicians, celebrities, and military leaders often have access to national and international power, and in some cases, their decisions affect everyone in society. Because of this, the rules of society are stacked in favor of a privileged few who manipulate them to stay on top.

Social Stratification

a socioeconomic system that divides society's members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige

What is an interpretive Framework?

a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing

What is meta-analysis?

a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together.

Control Theory

a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society

Triad

a three-member group

Dyad

a two-member group

Strain theory

access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates. Robert Merton

Victimless Crime

activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them

postindustrial society

also called information societies. Digital technology is the steam engine of information societies

Functionalism

also called structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society. Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist, Hebert Spencer (1820-1903), who saw similarities between society and the human body; he argued that just as the various organs of the body work together to keep the body functioning, the various parts of society work together to keep society functioning (Spencer 1898).

Transgender

an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex

Social order

an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society's members base their daily lives.

What is the sociological imagination?

an awareness of the relationship between a person's behavior and experience and the wider culture that shaped the person's choices and perceptions. It's a way of seeing our own and other people's behavior in relationship to history and social structure (1959).-- C. Wright Mills

Culture Shock

an experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life

Homophobia

an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals

self-fulfilling prophecy

an idea that becomes true when acted upon

Heterosexism

an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations

What is the purpose of queer theory?

an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies Western society's rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions its appropriateness

What is anomie and how does industrialization lead to anomie?

anomie-- a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness Anomie is experienced in times of social uncertainty, such as war or a great upturn or downturn in the economy.

Social Group

any connection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and to share a sense that their identity is somehow aligned with the group

Minority Group

any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and unequal treatment

What is a paradigm?

are philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them. Three paradigms have come to dominate sociological thinking, because they provide useful explanations: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

What does the Davis-Moore Thesis state?

argued that the greater the functional importance of a social role, the greater must be the reward. The theory posits that social stratification represents the inherently unequal value of different work. Certain tasks in society are more valuable than others. Qualified people who fill those positions must be rewarded more than others.

Social Disorganization Theory

asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control.

Hate Crime

attacks based on a person's race, religion, or other characteristics

Karl Marx

believed that the roots of human misery lay in class conflict, the exploitation of workers by those who own the means of production. Social change, in the form of the workers overthrowing the capitalist, was inevitable from Mark's perspective. Although Marx did not consider himself a sociologist, his ideas have influenced many sociologists, particularly conflict theorists. · Social conflict is key: conflict between social groups essential to the workings of society and the engine of social change · Wrote Communist Manifesto with Frederick Engels · Two groups in conflict: bourgeoisie (haves) vs. proletariat(have nots) · False consciousness vs. class consciousness · Alienation—experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness

When are individuals aware of their sexual orientation, according to research?

between middle childhood and early adolescence

Prejudice

biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people

C. Wright Mills

coined the term sociological imagination

What is a survey?

collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire. The survey is one of the most widely used scientific research methods. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas.

Nonmaterial Culture

consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society.

The Indian Appropriation Act

created the Indianreservation system and provided funds to move Indian tribes onto farming reservations and hopefully keep them under control. Indians were not allowed to leave the reservations without permission

Street Crime

crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces

Corporate Crime

crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment

Violent Crime

crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force

Gender Roles

society's concept of how men and women should behave

Transsexual

denoting or relating to a transgender person, especially one whose bodily characteristics have been altered through surgery or hormone treatment to bring them into alignment with their gender identity.

Assimilation

describes the process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on the characteristics of the dominant culture.

What does Emile Durkheim believe about deviance?

deviance is a necessary part of a successful society. One way deviance is functional, he argued, is that it challenges people's present views (1893). For instance, when black students across the United States participated in sit-ins during the civil rights movement, they challenged society's notions of segregation. Moreover, Durkheimnoted, when deviance is punished, it reaffirms currently held social norms, which also contributes to society (1893).

Folkways

direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture

Discovery vs Invention

discovery- make known previously unknown but existing aspects of reality. invention- result when something new is formed from existing objects or concepts—when things are put together in an entirely new manner.

Intergenerational Mobility

for different generations of a family to belong to varying social classes.

Symbolic Interactionism

is a micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society. Communication—the exchange of meaning through language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds.

Counterculture

groups that reject and oppose society's widely accepted cultural patterns

Subculture

groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society's majority, even as the members exist within a larger society

Reference Group

groups to which an individual compares herself

Structural Mobility

happens when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down the social class ladder. Structural mobility is attributable to changes in society as a whole, not individual changes.

What is the difference between high culture and popular culture?

high culture- describe the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of a society. People often associate high culture with intellectualism, political power, and prestige. In America, high culture also tends to be associated with wealth. Events considered high culture can be expensive and formal—attending a ballet, seeing a play, or listening to a live symphony performance. Popular culture- refers to the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream society. Popular culture events might include a parade, a baseball game, or the season finale of a television show.

What is Participant Observation?

in which researchers join people and participate in a group's routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context.

What are case studies?

in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual

Preindustrial societies

includes those before the industrial revolution. Includes Hunter-Gatherer societies, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, feudal

Deviance

is a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or codified law (1906).

What is Constructivism?

is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be.

Meritocracy

is an ideal system based on the belief that social stratification is the result of personal effort—or merit—that determines social standing.

What is the Sapir-Whorf (Linguistic Relativity) Hypothesis?

is based on the idea that people experience their world through their language, and that they therefore understand their world through the culture embedded in their language. The hypothesis, which has also been called linguistic relativity, states that language shapes thought.Essentially, the hypothesis argues, if a person can't describe the experience, the person is not having the experience.

Pluralism

is represented by the ideal of the United States as a "salad bowl": a great mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the flavor of the whole.

Conformity

is the extent to which an individual complies with group norms or expectations. Asch concluded that there are two main causes for conformity: people want to be liked by the group or they believe the group is better informed than they are. He found his study results disturbing.

Amalgamation

is the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group. Amalgamation creates the classic "melting pot" analogy; unlike the "salad bowl," in which each culture retains its individuality, the "melting pot" ideal sees the combination of cultures that results in a new culture entirely. Also known as miscegenation

Socialization

is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society. It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society's beliefs, and to be aware of societal values.

Cyberbullying

is the use of interactive media by one person to torment another, and it is on the rise. Cyberbullying can mean sending threatening texts, harassing someone in a public forum (such as Facebook), hacking someone's account and pretending to be him or her, posting embarrassing images online, and so on.

Jane Addams

known as the mother of social work, was a pioneer American settlement activist/reformer, social worker, public philosopher, sociologist, author, and leader in women's suffrage and world peace.

Formal Organization

large, impersonal organizations or likely will become, bureaucracies

Secondary group

larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited Secondary groups are often larger and impersonal. They may also be task-focused and time-limited. These groups serve an instrumental function rather than an expressive one, meaning that their role is more goal- or task-oriented than emotional. A classroom or office can be an example of a secondary group

Conflict Theory

looks at society as a competition for limited resources. This perspective is a macro-level approach most identified with the writings of German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx (1818-1883), who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social classes who must compete for social, material, and political resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time.

What are the two levels of analyses used in sociology?

macro and micro??

What is the difference between mechanical and organic solidarity?

mechanical solidarity, a type of social order maintained by the collective conscience of a culture. Societies with mechanical solidarity act in a mechanical fashion; things are done mostly because they have always been done that way. This type of thinking was common in preindustrial societies where strong bonds of kinship and a low division of labor created shared morals and values among people, such as hunter-gatherer groups. When people tend to do the same type of work, Durkheim argued, they tend to think and act alike. organic solidarity, which is social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences. In capitalist societies, Durkheim wrote, division of labor becomes so specialized that everyone is doing different things. Instead of punishing members of a society for failure to assimilate to common values, organic solidarity allows people with differing values to coexist. Laws exist as formalized morals and are based on restitution rather than revenge.

What is ethnography?

observing a complete social setting and all that it entails

Bracero Program

offered protection to Mexican guest workers.

Apartheid

one of the most extreme cases of institutionalized and legal racism, created a social inequality that earned it the world's condemnation.

What is the Scientific Method?

or an interpretative framework, to increase understanding of societies and social interactions, but research begins with the search for an answer to a question.

Cultural Universal

patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies

Sociology Study Guide

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