Sociology Test 3

Whitney Wolfe

a cofounder and former executive at the dating app Tinder, filed a lawsuit against the company and its majority owner, the corporations IAC/InterActiveCorp. According to the lawsuit, she said that she was subjected to "a barrage of horrendously sexist, racist, and otherwise inappropriate comments, e-mails and text messages" sent by Tinder's chief executive and chief marketing officer.

Multiculturalism

a condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life

slavery

a form of social stratification in which some people are owned by others as their property.

Kelley Voelker

a former vice president with dEutsche Bank's securities lending desk, filed a sex-discrimination lawsuit against her employer in September 2011. She claimed that despite consistently high performance reviews, Deutsche Bank denied her a promotion and eventually demoted her, one of its few female vice presidents, solely because of her gender and her recent childbirth.

Kuznets curve

a formula showing that inequality increases during the early stages of capitalist development, then declines, and eventually stabilizes at a relatively low level; advanced by the economist Simon Kuznets

Innovators

accept socially approved values but use illegitimate or illegal means to follow them. We might consider members of the Mafia to be these

Primary deviation

according to Edwin Lemert, the actions that cause others to label one as a deviant

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin

agreed with Cohen that most delinquent youths emerge from the lower working class. But they argued that such gangs arise in subcultural communities where the chances of achieving success legitimately are slim, as among deprived ethnic minorities. Their world emphasized connections between conformity and deviance: Individuals follow rules when they have the opportunity to do so and break rules when they do not. As a result, they develop subcultures with deviant values in response to a lack of legitimate opportunities for success as defined by the wider society. This lack of opportunity is the differentiating factor between those who engage in criminal behavior and those who do not.

Feminization of poverty

an increase in the proportion of the poor who are female.

upward mobility

an increase—or upward shift—in social class

Intersex

an individual possessing both male and female genitalia

Classic model of migration

applies to countries such as Canada, the United States, and Australia, which developed as nations of immigrants. These countries have encouraged immigration and promised citizenship to newcomers, although restrictions and quotas limit the annual intake

micro-level factors

are concerned with the resources, knowledge, and understandings that the migrant populations possess

illegal models of migration

are increasingly common because of tightening immigration laws in many industrialized countries. Immigrants who gain entry into a country either secretly or under a nonimmigrant pretense often live illegally, outside the realm of official society

middle-income countries

are primarily found in East and Southeast Asia and also include the oil-rich countries of the Middle East and North Africa, a few countries in the Americas, and the once-Communist republics that formerly made up the Soviet Union and its East European allies. Having begun to industrialize relatively late, most are neither as developed nor as wealthy as the high-income countries

susan brownmiller

claims that the constant threat of rape contributes to a "rape culture" in which male domination fosters a state of continual fear in women. One aspect of a rape culture is male socialization to a sense of sexual entitlement, which may encourage sexual conquest and promote sensitivity to the difference between consensual and non consensual sex.

Karl Marx

class, to him, refers to people who have a common relationship to the means of production. The two main classes are the bourgeoisie and proletariat. Believed that the maturing of industrial capitalism would create an increasing gap between the wealth of the minority and the poverty of the mass of the population. In his view, the wages of the working class could never rise far above subsistence level, while wealth would pile up in the hands of those owning capital

Christine Williams

coined the term "glass escalator" to reflect men's rapid ascent up the hierarchy when they work in female-dominated professions. She found that employers singled out male workers in traditionally female jobs and promoted them to top administrative jobs in disproportionately high numbers. These men often "face invisible pressures to move up in their professions. Like benign on a moving escalator, they have to work to stay in place." She updated her theory and now argues that the glass escalator is most beneficial and relevant to white men who hold stable middle-class jobs, noting the "gay men and racial/ethnic minority men, in particular, seemed to be excluded from the benefits of the glass escalator

Semiperiphery

countries that supply sources of labor and raw materials to the core industrial countries and the world economy but are not themselves fully industrialized societies

Push factors

dynamics within a country of origin that force people to emigrate, such as war, famine, political oppression, and population pressures

Devah Pager

focuses on the difficulties former inmates face when attempting to find jobs upon release in Marked. Given that the ex-inmate population is approximately six times that of the inmate population, Pager argues that it is of critical importance to understand the types of policies governing prisoner reentry into society.

Real income

income excluding increases due to inflation, which provides a fixed standard of comparison from year to year.

scapegoats

individuals or groups blamed for wrongs that were not of their doing

guest workers model of migration

is when immigrants are admitted on a temporary basis, often to fulfill demands within the labor market, but they do not receive citizenship rights, even after long periods of settlement.

Wealth

money and material possessions held by an individual or group.

Income

money received from paid wages and salaries or earned from investments.

Social mobility

movement of individuals or groups between different social positions.

Intergenerational mobility

movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another.

Intragenerational mobility

movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career.

Working poor

people who work but whose earnings are not enough to lift them above the poverty line.

Chester M. Pierce

proposed the idea of a microaggression

Assimilation

the acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture

Conflict Theory

the argument that deviance is deliberately chosen and often political in nature

human capital theory

the argument that individuals make investments in their own "human capital" in order to increase their productivity and earnings

Racism

the attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population sharing certain physically inherited characteristics

sex segregation

the concentration of men and women in different occupations

ethnic cleansing

the creation of ethnically homogeneous territories through the mass expulsion of other ethnic populations

Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton

were Black Power activists that developed the idea of institutional racism

Communism

A social system based on everyone owning the means of production and sharing in the wealth it produces

Europe to North America, Europe to Central and South America, Europe to Africa and Australasia, and Africa to Americas

4 major shifts in population

Transnational feminism

A branch of feminist theory that highlights the way that global processes—including colonialism, racism, and imperialism—shape gender relations and hierarchies

underclass

A class of individuals situated at the bottom of the class system, normally composed of people from ethnic minority backgrounds

Anomie

A concept first brought into wide usage by Emile Durkheim to refer to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior.

bacha posh

A cultural practice in parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan, in which some families without sons will pick a daughter to live and behave as a boy

Minority

A group of people in a given society who, because of their distinct physical or cultural characteristics, find themselves in situations of inequality compared with the dominant group in that society

Sanction

A mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially expected forms of behavior. Can be positive (rewards for conformity) or negative (punishment for non-conformity) Can be formal (applied by a specific group or agency) or informal (less organized)

Pluralism

A model for ethnic relations in which all ethnic groups in the United States retain their independent and separate identities yet share equally in the rights of power and citizenship

glass ceiling

A promotion barrier that prevents a woman's upward mobility within an organization

Working class

A social class broadly composed of people working in blue-collar, or manual, occupations. Income of $20,000-$40,000

Upper class

A social class broadly composed of the more affluent members of society, especially those who have inherited wealth, own businesses, or hold large numbers of stocks. Households that earn more than $200,000

Middle Class

A social class composed broadly of those working in white-collar and lower managerial occupations. Households that earn between $40,000 and $200,000 The upper middle class own comfortable homes, drive expensive late model cars, have some savings and investments, and are often active in local politics and civic organizations. However, they tend not to enjoy the same high-end luxuries, social connections, or extravagances as members of the upper class. Income $100,000 - $200,000

Lower class

A social class comprised of those who work part-time or not at all and whose household income is typically lower than $20,000 a year

race

A socially constructed category rooted in the belief that there are fundamental differences among humans, associated with phenotype and ancestry

Feminist theory

A sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience of women. There are many strands of the feminist theory, but they all share the desire to explain gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome them

Black feminism

A strand of feminist theory that highlights the multiple disadvantages of gender, class, and race that shape the experience of nonwhite women. reject the idea of a single, unified gender oppression that is experienced evenly by all women, and argue that early feminist analysis reflected the specific concerns of white, middle-class women

Deviant subculture

A subculture whose members hold values that differ substantially from those of the majority.

Class system

A system of social hierarchy that allows individuals to move among classes. The four chief bases of class are ownership of wealth, occupation, income, and education

Dependency culture

A term popularized by Charles Murray to describe individuals who rely on state welfare provision rather than entering the labor market. The dependency culture is seen as the outcome of the "paternalistic" welfare state that undermines individual ambition and people's capacity for self-help

Bernie Madoff Scandal

A trusted investment adviser, Madoff turned his wealth-management business into the largest Ponzi scheme in history, defrauding his clients- many of them senior citizens and charitable organizations- and robbing them of more than $18 billion

secondary deviation

According to Edwin Lemert, occurs when an individual accepts the label of deviant and acts accordingly

Max Weber

According to him, class division derives not only from control or lack of control of the means of production but also from the economic differences that have nothing to do with property. He also recognized that social classes also differ with respect to their power, or ability to enact change, common resources, or make decisions.

six types of corporate crime

Administrative - paperwork or noncompliance Environmental - pollution, permit violations Financial - tax violations, illegal payments Labor - working conditions, hiring practices Manufacturing - product safety, labeling Unfair trade practices - anticompetitive, false advertising

Labeling Theory

An approach to the study of deviance that suggests that people become "deviant" because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others.

differential association

An interpretation of the development of criminal behavior proposed by Edwin H. Sutherland, according to whom criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime.

Poverty line

An official government measure to define those living in poverty in the United States

Discrimination

Behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others.

Cybercrime

Criminal activities by means of electronic networks or involving the use of information technologies.

Ethnicity

Cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others

Relative Deprivation

Deprivation a person feels by comparing her or himself with a group.

Periphery

Describes countries that have a marginal role in the world economy and are thus dependent on the core producing societies for their trading relationships

Emerging economies

Developing countries, such as India and Singapore, that over the past two or three decades have begun to develop a strong industrial base

Reasons why deviance is a good thing

First, new ideas and behaviors can create change in society (adaptive functions). Second, deviance can strengthen group solidarity and clarify norms when people collectively react negatively to the deviance (boundary maintenance functions).

Surplus Value

In Marxist theory, the value of a worker's labor power left over when an employer has repaid the cost of hiring the worker

Dependency theories

Marxist theories of economic development that argue that the poverty of low-income countries stems directly from their exploitation by wealthy countries and by the transnational (or multinational) corporations that are based in wealthy countries. emphasize how wealthy nations have exploited poor ones. These theories help us understand the poor economic status of many Latin American and African countries, but they fail to explain why some formerly dependent countries have experienced economic success such as Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, and the rapidly expanding economies of China and East Asia.

Acceleration

Migration across borders is occurring in greater numbers than ever before

globalization

Migration has become more global, involving a greater number of countries as both senders and recipients

structural mobility

Mobility resulting from changes in the number and kinds of jobs available in a society

Deviance

Modes of action that do not conform to the norms or values held by most members of a group or society.

Diversification

Most countries now receive immigrants of many different types- in contrast with earlier times, when particular form of immigration, such as labro immigration or refugees, were predominant

Nadleehi

Navajo term that literally means "one who constantly transforms" and refers to male-bodied person with a feminine nature, a special gift according to Navajo culture

Cultural capital

Noneconomic or cultural resources that parents pass down to their children, such as language or knowledge. These resources contribute to the process of social reproduction, according to Bourdieu

absolute poverty

Not meeting the minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence

Takeoff to economic growth

Occurs when poor countries begin to jettison their traditional values and institutions and start to save and invest money for the future. Wealthy countries, such as the United States, can facilitate this growth by financing birth-control programs or providing low-cost loans for electrification, road and airport construction, and new industries

Homeless

People who have no place to sleep and either stay in free shelters or sleep in public places not meant for habitation

World-systems theory

Pioneered by Immanuel Wallerstein, this theory emphasizes the interconnections among countries based on the expansion of a capitalist world economy. This economy is made up of core, semi periphery, and periphery countries. analyzes the world economy as a whole, looking at the complex global web of political and economic relationships that influence development and inequality in poor and rich nations alike. However, it emphasizes economic and political forces at the expense of cultural ones and places too much emphasis on the role of nation-states in a world economy increasingly shaped by transnational corporations.

Laws

Rules of behavior established by a political authority and backed by state power.

Norms

Rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations.

gender

Social expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex

structured inequalities

Social inequalities that result from patterns in the social structure

Hegemonic masculinity

Social norms dictating that men should be strong, self-reliant, and unemotional

sex

The biological and anatomical differences distinguishing females from males

Globalization

The development of social and economic relationships stretching worldwide

Neoliberalism

The economic belief that free-market forces, achieved by minimizing government restrictions on business, provide the only route to economic growth

postmodern feminism

The feminist perspective that challenges the idea of a unitary basis of identity and experience shared by all women

Liberal feminism

The form of feminist theory that posits that gender inequality is produced by unequal access to civil rights and certain social resources, such as education and employment, based on sex

Radical feminism

The form of feminist theory that posits that gender inequality is the result of male domination in all aspects of social and economic life

Prejudice

The holding of preconceived ideas about an individual or group, ideas that are resistant to change even in the face of new information. Prejudice may be either positive or negative

Gender inequality

The inequality between men and women in terms of wealth, income, and status

gender role socialization

The learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, the media, and family

Social construction of gender

The learning of gender roles through socialization and interaction with others

Immigration

The movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement

Emigration

The movement of people out of one country to settle in another

Segregation

The practice of keeping racial and ethnic groups physically separate, thereby maintaining the superior position of the dominant group

Global inequality

The systematic differences in wealth and power among countries

Control Theory

The theory that views crime as the outcome of an imbalance between impulses toward criminal activity and controls that deter it. Control theorists hold that criminals are rational being who will act to maximize their own reward unless they are rendered unable to do so through either social or physical controls

Culture of poverty

The thesis, popularized by Oscar Lewis, that poverty is not a result of individual inadequacies but is instead the outcome of a larger social and cultural atmosphere into which successive generations of children are socialized. The culture of poverty refers to the values, beliefs, lifestles, habits, and traditions that are common among people living under conditions of material deprivation

white privilege

The unacknowledged and unearned assets that benefit whites in their everyday lives

Scientific racism

The use of scientific research or data to justify or reify beliefs about the superiority of inferiority of particular racial groups

Biological essentialism

The view that differences between en and women are natural and inevitable consequences of the intrinsic biological natures of men and women

Market-oriented theories

Theories about economic development that assume that the best possible economic consequences will result if individuals are free to make their own economic decisions, uninhibited by government constraint. recommend that countries adopt modern capitalist institutions if they want to develop economically. Fail to acknowledge the exploitive nature of the relationship between rich and poor countries. They also blame poor countries for their poverty rather than acknowledge outside factors.

stereotyping

Thinking in terms of fixed and inflexible categories

Traditional stage

This stage is characterized by low rates of savings, the supposed lack of a work ethic, and a fatalistic value system. The Airplane is not yet off the ground

income, wealth, education, occupation, and lifestyle

What a class system is stratified by

Drive to technological maturity

With the help of money and advice from high-income countries, the airplane of economic growth would taxi down the runway, pick up speed, and become airborne. The country would then approach technological maturity and climb to cruising altitude, improving its technology, reinvesting its recently acquired wealth in new industries, and adopting the institutions and values of the high-income countries

Gender typing

Women holding occupations of lower status and pay, such as secretarial and retail prepositions, and men holding jobs of higher status and pay, such as managerial and professional positions

feminization

a growing number of migrants are women, making contemporary migration much less male-dominated than previously. The increase reflects changes in the global market, including the growing demand for domestic workers, the expansion of sex tourism, "trafficking" in women, and the "mail-order brides" phenomenon

downward mobility

a lowering of one's social class

Gross National Income (GNI)

a measure of a country's yearly output of goods and services per person

Transgender

a person who identifies as or expresses a gender identity that differs from his or her sex at birth

Life Chances

a person's opportunities for achieving economic prosperity. Introduced by Max Weber

Heaven's gate

a religious group whose beliefs and practices were different from those of the majority of Americans. The cult was established in the early 1970's when Marshall Herff Applewhite made his way around the WEst and Midwest of the U.S. preaching his beliefs, ultimately advertising on the Internet his belief that civilization was doomed and the only way people could be saved was to kill themselves so their souls could be rescued by a UFO. On March 29, 1997, 39 members of the cult followed his advice in a mass suiced at a wealthy estate in Rancho Santa Fe, California

Community Policing

a renewed emphasis on crime prevention rather than law enforcement to reintegrate policing within the community

caste

a social system in which one's social status is held for life.

Intersectionality

a sociological perspective that holds that our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from single group memberships.

Modernization theory

a version of the market-oriented development theory, which argues that low-income societies develop economically only if they give up their traditional ways and adopt modern economic institutions, technologies, and cultural values that emphasize savings and productive investment

Shaming

a way of punishing criminal and deviant behavior based on rituals of public disapproval rather than incarceration

Philip Zimbardo

abandoned cars without license plates and with their hoods up in two social settings: the wealthy community of Palo Alto, California, and a poor neighborhood in the Bronx, New York. In both places the cars were vandalized once passersby, regardless of class or race, sensed that the vehicles had been abandoned.

Conformists

accept genderally held values and the conventional means of realizing them, regardless of whether they meet with success. Most of the population falls into this category.

Douglass Massey and Nancy Denton

argue in American Apartheid taht the history of racial segregation and its urban form, the back ghetto, are responsible for the perpetuation of black poverty and the continued polarization of black and white. They conclude that the black ghetto was consturcted through a series of well-defined institutional practeces of racial discrimination- private behavior and public policies by which whites sought to contain growing urban black populations

Functionalist theories

argue that crime occurs when the aspirations of individuals and groups do not coincide with available opportunities. The disparity between desire and fulfillment will lead to deviant behavior

Melvin Oliver and Thomas Shapiro

argue that it is easier for whites to obtain assets, even when they have fewer resources than backs, because discrimination affects the racial gap in home ownership. Blacks are rejected for mortgages 60 percent more often than whites, even when they have the same qualifications and creditworthiness.

Wilson and Kelling

argued that any sign of social disorder in a community, even the appearance of a broken window, encourages more serious crime.

Shulamith Firestone

argued that because men control women's roles in reproduction and child-rearing, women become dependent materially on men for protection and livelihood. She argued that women can be emancipated only through the abolition of the family and the power relations that characterize it

Emile Durkheim

argued that deviant behavior is the result of the structure of modern societies.

Howard Becker

argued that people become "deviant" because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others. also argued that people who represent law and order or those who have the power to impose definitions of morality do most of the labeling.

George Borjas

argued that since the 1980s, the United States has attracted "lower-quality" immigrants with less education and few marketable job skills. Moreover, they are less skilled than both natives and earlier migrants; thus, they are more reliant on government assistance. He estimates that recent immigrants will likely earn 20% less than native-born Americans for most of their working lives. He also argues that large-scale migration of less-skilled workers harms the economic opportunities of less-skilled natives

Fernando Henrique Cardoso

argued that some degree of dependent development was nonetheless possible. Once he was elected as Brazil's president, however, he changed his thinking, calling for greater integration of Brazil into the global economy- although on terms more favorable to Brazil

John Bowlby

argued that the mother is crucial to the primary socialization of children. If the mother is absent or if a child is separated from the mother at a young age, the child may be inadequately socialized. This can lead to serious social and psychological difficulties later in life, including antisocial and psychopathic tendencies. He argued that a child's well-being and mental health require a close, personal, and continuous relationship with the mother or a female mother substitute.

Socialist feminism

argues that capitalist society is oppressive toward ethnic minorities, and the working class, and the poor. Like radical feminism, it also recognizes the fundamental oppression of women in patriarchal societies. Bringing these two themes together, it focuses on the ways that gender and social class intersect.

Bell hooks

argues that explanatory frameworks favored by white feminists- for example, the view of the family as a mainstay of patriarchy- may not apply in black communities, where the family often is headed by a woman and provides a safe, supportive haven against racism

Travis Hirschi

argues that humans are fundamentally selfish beings who make calculated decisions about whether to engage in criminal activity by weighing the benefits and risks.

Michelle Alexander

argues that mass incarceration creates a kind of caste system in the United States. According to her, understanding mass incarceration means understanding not only the criminal justice system, but also the entire structure of policies and practices that stigmatize and marginalize those who are considered criminals

Harvey Molotch

argues that security personnel and technology in public spaces have made us less safe and more fearful.

Melvin Tumin

argues that the functional importance of a particular role is difficult to measure and that the social rewards bestowed on these in "important" roles do not reflect these people's actual importance.

David Rosen

argues that the systematic rape of women by armed militias in Darfur is intended to destroy their communities and ultimately serve as a means of ethnic cleansing

Arapesh society

both males and females generally exhibited characteristics and behaviors that would typically be associated with the Western female role.

Mundugumor society

both the males and females were characteristically aggressive, suspicious, and, from a Western observer's perspective, excessively cruel.

Nicholas Kristof

called rape being used a s a weapon of war in the Congo, where groups of armed rebels rape women and children too humiliate them and their families "the world capital of rape, torture, and mutilation."

Mitchell Stevens

conducted an ethnography in which he spent a year and a half working in the admissions office of an elite New England college. The college was proud of its high academic standard, social conscience, and commitment to diversity. In practice, however, the admissions process often reproduced pre existing inequalities. Although admissions officers did strive for diversity in each entering class, they typically targeted black and Latino students from economically advantaged backgrounds, rather than those from disadvantaged communities in the inner city or rural areas. Working-class whites and ethnic minorities, even those with quite stellar records, often were left out in the cold

William Sewell and Robert Hauser

confirmed Blau and Duncan's conclusions. They added to the argument by claiming that the connection between family background and educational attainment occurs because parents, teachers, and friends influence the child's educational and career aspirations, and claiming that these aspirations then become an important influence on the schooling and careers obtained throughout the child's life

Ritualist

conform to socially accepted standards, though they have lost sight of their underlying values. They compulsively follow rules for their own sake. One of these might dedicate herself to a boring job, even though it has no career prospects and provides few rewards

Uniform crime reports

contain official data on crime that is reported to law enforcement agencies across the country that then provide the data to the FBI. UCR focus on "index crimes," which include serious crimes such as murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, robbery, forcible rape, aggravated assault, burglary, larcenty/theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Critics of UCR note that the reports do not accurately reflect crime rates because they include only those crimes reported to law enforcement agencies; they don't for example, include crimes reported to other agencies, such as the IRS

Charles Murray

controversially placed individuals who are poor through "no fault of their own"- such as widows or widowers, orphans, or the disabled- into a different category from those who are part of the dependency culture

Franklin D. Roosevelt

created a "New Deal," which created Social Security, welfare, housing, and many public works, resulted in the redistribution of income form the wealthiest Americans to middle- and working-class Americans

White-collar crime

criminal activities carried out by those in white-collar, or professional, jobs. This category of criminal activity includes tax fraud, antitrust violations, illegal sales practices, securities and land fraud, embezzlement, the manufacture or sale of dangerous products, and illegal environmental pollution, as well as straightforward theft

Eduardo Bonilla-Silva

defines color blindness as a means of maintaining racial inequality without appearing racist.

Victor Rios

describes the lived experience of young black and Hispanic American men in Oakland, California. While Rios discusses much broader themes related to the policing of young men of color, temporary detainment policies such as stop and frisk contribute significantly to the "mass and ubiquitous criminalization of marginalized young people"

Erik Olin Wright

developed a theoretical position that owes much to Marx but also incorporates ideas from Weber. According to him, the are three dimensions of control over economic resources in modern capitalist production, and these allow us to identify the major classes: Control over investments or money capital Control over the physical means of production (land or factories and offices) Control over labor power

Gary Becker

developed the human capital theory. This auges that individuals make investments in their own "human capital" to increase their productivity and earnings

Maria do Mar Periera

discovered in her 2014 qualitative study of 14-year-old boys and girls, "young people try to adapt their behavior according to these pressures to fit into society. One of the pressures is that young men must be more dominant- cleverer, stronger, taller, funnier- than young women, and that being in a relationship with a woman who is more intelligent will undermine their masculinity"

David Garland

discusses the political institutions and historical processes that explain the continuing use of the death penalty in the United States. While use of capital punishment declined from the 1940's to mid-1970s, the United States followed the example of many other Western nations, permitting capital punishment but steadily reducing its usage argues that the three features of the American political system at the federal and state level- "this state's relative autonomy from the national state, the local control of the power to punish, and the political dominance of small groups"- explain the historical development of capital punishment in America.

W. W. Rostow

economic adviser to former U.S. president John F. Kennedy, whose ideas helped shape U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America during the 1960's. Termed modernization theory. According to him, the traditional cultural values and social institutions of low-income countries impede their economic effectiveness

Rebels

eject both the existing values and the means of achieving them but work to substitute new ones and reconstruct the social system. The members of radical political and religious groups, such as the Heaven's Gate cult, fall into this category

Bill Clinton

enacted sweeping welfare reform designed to get people off the welfare rolls. In a sense, this law provided a test case of the "welfare dependency" thesis.

Michelle Budig

explored the ways that attitudes toward working mothers and public policies such as parental leave or public child care affected the earnings of women workers in 22 countries. They found that the "motherhood penalty" varied across countries ranging from just 4.5 percent to a whopping 33 percent. The gaps were smallest in nations where the cultural attitudes supported maternal employment and the government provided job-protected parental leave and publicly funded child care

pull factors

features of destination countries that attract immigrants, such as prosperous labor markets, better living conditions, and lower population density

Betty Dukes

filed a gender discrimination lawsuit against Walmart. When she started her job at Walmart, she had more than 20 years' experience in retail and was eager to advance her career When she approached her store manager about her desire to work her way up the ladder, she was brusquely dismissed. She repeatedly asked her manager for a promotion, and she requested opportunities to learn more about the store and take on more challenging assignments. She continued to be denied promotions and was not informed of postings for available positions or management training programs at the retailer. She was demoted from cashier to greeter while she watched her male associates get promoted.

Edward Morris

found in his study of elementary school classrooms that black girls' manners were occasionally criticized by teachers, who would refer to outspoken girls as "loudies"" rather than "ladies."

Jane Jacobs

found that "the public peace... of cities is not kept primarily by the police... It is kept primarily by an intricate, almost unconscious, network of voluntary controls and standards among the poel themselves, and enforced by the people themselves."

Hicks and Devaraj

found that even though the demand for goods manufactured in the United States has increased in recent years, the number of workers required to produce those goods has plummeted, the result of technological changes that have greatly increased worker productivity. By analyzing employment, trade, and productivity in all U.S. manufacturing jobs over the first decade of the twenty-first century, the study concluded that 88 percent of 6.5 million lost manufacturing jobs resulted from productivity increases rather than globalization.

Peter Blau and Otis Dudley Duncan

found that long-range intergenerational mobility was rare. They concluded that the key factor behind occupational status was educational attainment. A child's education, however, is influenced by family social status; this, in turn, affects the child's social position later in life

Shelly Correll

found that mothers are 44 percent less likely to be hired than non-mothers who have the same work experience and qualifications; and mothers are offered significantly lower starting pay than equally qualified non-mothers for the same job

Burman

found that the brains of school-age girls were more highly "activated," or worked harder, than the brains of school-age boys when presented with spelling and writing tasks

Nikki Jones

found that young inner-city African American women would adjust their voice, stance, walk, and style of speaking in different situations thus giving off the impressions of being "aggressive," "good," or "pretty when they thought that a particular type of femininity would "pay off."

Tchambuli society

gender roles of the males and females were almost exactly reversed from the roles traditionally assigned to males and females in Western society.

Pariah groups

groups who suffer from negative status discrimination.

Francis Ianni

had grown up in a Mafia family,and he wrote his dissertation about the relatives whom he had known since childhood. Central to Ianni's work is the claim that Mafia members commit crimes to engage in a "quiet and determined push toward respectability". Found that as Italian Mafia members moved out of crime and into the American mainstream, organized crime persisted- with new ethnic groups arriving to take control of former Mafia enterprises.

Robin Cohen

has argued that diasporas occur in various forms, although the most commonly cited examples are those that result from persecution and violence. In Global Diasporas, they adopt a historical approach and identifies five categories of diasporas Victim - African, Jewish, and Armenian Imperial - British Labor - indian Trade - Chinese Cultural - Caribbean

Julian Simon

has argued that immigrants benefit the U.S.. economy by joining the labor foce and paying into the federal revenue system for their whole lives. By the time they retire and collect government benefits such as Social Security and Medicare, their children will be covering these costs by working and paying into the tax system. He also holds that immigrants are a cultural asset to the United States. He argues that because human beings have the intelligence to adapt to their surroundings, the more immigrants that come the the US, the larger the pool of potential innovators and problem solvers our nation will have

Susan Brownmiller

has argued that rape is part of a system of male intimidation that keeps all women in fear. Those who are not raped are affected by the anxieties thus provoked and by the need to be more cautious in everyday aspects of life than men have to be

Kevin Mitnick

has been described as the "world's most celebrated computer hacker." He was captured by the FBI in 1995. AS a condition of his release from prison in January 2000, he was barred from using any communications technology other than a landline telephone. He successfully fought this legal decision and gained access to the Internet. He now is a consultant and best-selling author who teaches others about computer security.

John Braithwaite

has suggested that shaming practices can take two forms: "reintegrative shaming" and "stigmatizing shaming." Stigmatizing shaming is related to labeling theory, by which a criminal is labeled as a threat to society and is treated as an outcast. Reintegrating shaming has people central to the criminal's immediate community brought into court to state their condemnation of the offender's behavior. At the same time, these people must accept responsibility for reintegrating the offender back into the community. The goal is to rebuild the individual's social bonds to the community as a means of deterring future criminal conduct

Retreatists

have abandoned the competitive outlook, rejecting both the dominant values and the approved means of achieving them. An example would be members of a self-supporting commune

Sexual harassment

he making of unwanted sexual advances by one individual toward another, with which the first person persists even though it is clear that the other party is resistant

Amy Chua

her starting point is that in many developing countries, a small ehtnic minority enjoys disproportionate economic power. She argues that the massacre of Tutsi by Hutu in Rwanda in 1994 and the hatred felt by Serbs toward Croats in the former Yugoslavia were partly related to the economic advantage enjoyed by the Tusi and the Croats in their respective countries. She argues that introducing democracy to countries with what she calls "market dominant minorities," is not likely to bring peace, but instead, a blcklash from the country's ehtnic majority Her account illustrates that although democracy and the market economy are in principle beneficent forces, they must be grounded in an effective system of law and civil society.

Thomas Piketty

his book Capital in the Twenty-First Century examines changes in the sources and concentration of wealth in capitalist economies since the Industrial Revolution some two and a half centuries ago. His conclusions were: Unless an economy is growing rapidly- for example, because of technological breakthroughs or rapid population growth- increases in wealth will exceed economic growth. This situation, he shows, will inevitably result in a concentration of wealth- especially inherited wealth- and therefor growing inequality

Stephen Castles and Mark Miller

identified four tendencies that they claim will characterize migration patterns in the coming years

Cisgender

individuals whose gender identity matches his or her biological sex

Beliefs

involve holding morals and values that are consistent with conventional tenets of society.

Peggy McIntosh

likens white privilege to "an invisible weightless knapsack of special provision, assurances, tools, maps, guides, codebooks, passports, visas, clothes, compass, emergency gear, and blank checks". She then goes on to unpack this invisible knapsack by detailing more than 40 "special circumstances and provisions" she experiences as a white person that her African American counter parts cannot similarly expect in theri day-to-day lives: Make arrangements to hang out with people of one's own race most of the time Rent or purchase housing in an area one can afford and where one wants to live Assume that the people living next door will treat one with respect Go shopping alone without being followed around the store or harassed Turn on the TV and expect to see other people of one's race most of the time

Lower middle class

may own a modest house, although many live in rental units. Their automobiles may be late models, but not the more expensive ones. Almost all have a highschool education, and some have college degrees. They want their children to attend college, although this goal usually requires work-study programs and student loans. Income is $40,000-$100,000

!Kung

men hunt and women gather, but women are very involved in the hunt by providing key information for hunters. Both men and women participate in child rearing, and neither men nor women tolerate violent conflict or physical punishment.

High-income countries

nations with highly industrialized economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and relatively high levels of national and personal income

Alexis de Tocqueville

noted "The prejudice of race appears to be stronger in the states that have abolished slavery than in those where it still exists; and nowhere is it so intolerant as in those states where servitude has never been known."

Sandra Lipsitz Bem

notes that this kind of biological essentialism rationalizes and legitimizes gender differences as the natural and inevitable consequences of the intrinsic biological natures of women and men

High mass consumption

now people can enjoy the fruits of their labor by achieving a high standard of living. The airplane (country) cruises on autopilot, having entered the ranks of high-income countries

Margaret Mead

observed wide variability among gender role prescriptions- and such marked differences from those in the United States- that any claims to the universality of gender roles had to be rejected. She studied three separate tribes in New Guinea: In arapesh society, both males and females generally exhibited characteristics and begabiros that would typically be associated with the Western female role. IN contrast, she found that in another New Guinea group, the Mundugumor, both the males and females were characteristically aggressive, suspicious, and, from a Western observer's perspective, excessively cruel. A third group, the Tchambuli tribe, gender roles of the males and females were almost exactly reversed from the roles traditionally assigned to males and females in Western Society

Corporate Crime

offenses committed by large corporations in society. Example of corporate crime include pollution, false advertising, and violations of health and safety regulations

Broken Windows Theory

one unrepaired broken window is a sign that no one cares, so breaking more windows- that is committing more serious crimes- is a rational response by criminals to this situation of social disorder. Thus, minor acts of deviance lead to a spiral of crime and social decay

Bourgeoisie

people who own companies, land, or stocks (shares) and use these to generate economic returns

Proletariat

people who sell their labor for wages, according to Marx

Contradictory class locations

positions in the class structure, particularly routine white-collar and lower managerial jobs, that share characteristics with the class positions both above and below them

Relative poverty

poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in any given society

Low-income countries

primarily agrarian nations with little industrialization and low levels of national and personal income. include much of eastern, western, and sub-Saharan AFrica; North Korea in East Asia; Nepal in South ASia; and Haiti in the Caribbean. They have mostly agricultural economies and are just beginning to industrialize

Simon Kuznets

proposed a hypothesis that came to be widely accepted: the Kuznets curve, a formula showing that inequality increases during the early stages of capitalist development, then declines, and eventually stabilizes at a relatively low level

Oscar Lewis

proposed one of the most influential theories, which argues that poverty results from a larger social and cultural atmosphere into which poor children are socialized.

Roberto Patricio Korzeniewicz and Timothy Patrick Moran

provide a new and imaginative approach to answer an old question: What are the underlying causes of persistent inequality in the world today? Drawing on a world-systems approach, they analyze inequality between and within countries. They show that many countries are trapped for decades in a vicious cycle of persistently high levels of inequality, while others enjoy a virtuous cycle resulting in long-term low levels of inequality. They argue a main reason for the persistence of inequality between countries is that the high-income countries in the world economy have been very effective in developing institutions that assure they remain on top.

Kristof and WuDunn

provide insights into ways that these problems might be attacked, slowly and gradually. They describe the eradication of gendered inequalities as "the paramount moral challenge" of this century, and they believe that the education and financial empowerment of women is the first essential step

Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore

provided a functionalist explanation of stratification, arguing that it has beneficial consequences for society. They claimed that certain positions in society, such as brain surgeons, are functionally more important that others, and these positions require special skills. They determined that because the benefits of different positions in any society must be unequal, all societies must be stratified. They concluded that social stratification and social inequality are functional because they ensure that the most qualified people, attracted by the rewards society bestows,fill the roles that are most important to a smoothly functioning society.

Richard Alba

published an article that challenged conventional wisdom on census classifications of white and nonwhite. He pointed out that the Census Bureau's way of classifying individuals by ethnicity and race yields the lowest possible estimate of the non-Hispanic white population. This is because children with one parent who is Asian, Hispanic, or black are always counted as a minority.

colonial model of migration

pursued by counties such as France and the United Kingdom, grants preferences to immigrants from former colonies

Macro-level factors

refer to overarching issues such as the political situation in an area, laws and regulations controlling immigration and emigration, and changes in the international economy

Attachment

refers to emotional and social ties to persons who accept conventional norms, such as a peer group of students who value good grades and hard work.

Involvement

refers to one's participation in conventional activities, such as paid employment, school, or community activities. The time spent in conventional activities means time not spent in deviant activities.

Commitment

refers to rewards obtained by participating in conventional activities and pursuits.

Ban Ki-Moon

said "UN Women is recognition of a simple truth: Equality for women and girls is not only a basic human right, it is a social and economic imperative. Where women are educated and empowered, economies are more productive and strong. Where women are fully represented, societies are more peaceful and stable.

George Murdock

saw it as practical and convenient that women should concentrate on domestic and family responsibilities while men worked outside the home. He concluded that the sexual division of labor is present in all cultures and that, although not the result of biological programming, it is the most logical and efficient basis for the organization of society.

Pierre Bourdieu

saw social-class groups as identifiable according to their levels of "cultural and economic capital"

Albert Cohen

saw the contradictions within American society as the main cause of crime. Saw the responses occurring collectively through subcultures. In Delinquent Boys, he argues that frustrated boys in the lower working class often join delinquent subcultures, such as gangs. These subcultures reject middle-class values and replace them with norms that celebrate nonconformity and deviance, such as delinquency.

Sarah Thebaud

sheds light on why women-owned businesses may be under-resourced; unfounded negative perceptions of women business owners by potential funders. In three experiments, she tested what a group of 178 college students thought about a series of business plans, and indirectly, the gender of the business owners behind them. In general, she found that the students rated women as less competent than men, even when the business plan was exactly the same.

Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau

sometimes called the father of modern racism, proposed that three races exist: white, black, and yellow. The white race possessed superior intelligence, morality, and willpower, and these inherited qualities underlay the spread of Western influence across the world. Blacks were the least capable, marked by an animal nature, a lack of morality, and emotional instability

Immanuel Wallerstein

showed that capitalism has functioned as a global economic system ever since the extension of markets and trade in Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. According to this theory, the world system comprises four overlapping elements A world market for goods and labor; The division of the population into different economic classes, particularly capitalists and workers; An international system of formal and informal political relations among the most powerful countries, whose competition helps shape the world economy; and The division of the world into three unequal economic zones, with the wealthier zones exploiting the poorer ones

racial microaggressions

small slights, indignities, or acts of disrespect that are hurtful to people of color even though they are often perpetuated by well-meaning whites

class

socioeconomic variations among groups of individuals that create variations in their material prosperity and power.

Talcott Parsons

studied the role of the family in industrial societies. He was particularly interested in the socialization of children and believed that stable, supportive families were the key to successful socialization. He wsaw the family as operating most efficiently with a clear-cut sexual division of labor in which women carry out expressive roles, providing care and security to children and offering them emotional support, and men perform and instrumental role- namely, being the breadwinner

Otto Pollak

suggested that certain crimes perpetrated by women go unreported because women's domestic role enables them to commit crimes at home and in the private sphere. He also argued that female offenders are treated more leniently because male police officers adopt a "chivalrous" attitude toward them.

Jake Najman

surveyed the evidence linking health to racial and economic inequalities. He also considered strategies for improving the health of the poorer groups in society. After studying data for a number of countries, including the US, he concluded that for people in the poorest 20 percent, as measured in terms of income, the death rates were 1.5-2.5 times those of the highest 20 percent of income earners

genocide

systematic killing of a racial or cultural group

Diaspora

the dispersal of an ethnic population from an original homeland into foreign areas, often in a forced manner or under traumatic circumstances

Patriarchy

the dominance of men over women

Exchange mobility

the exchange of positions on the socioeconomic scale such that talented people move up the economic hierarchy while the less talented move down

social stratification

the existence of structured inequalities between groups in society in terms of their access to material and symbolic rewards.

Melting pot

the idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behavior drawing on diverse cultural sources

Institutional racism

the idea that racism occurs through the respected and established institutions of society rather than through hateful actions of some bad people

gender contract

the implicit contract between men and women whereby to be a woman is to be erratic and impulsive on the one hand and in need of protection on the other

Means of production

the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society including not just technology but also the social relations between producers.

Core

the most advanced industrial countries, which take the lion's share of profits in the world economic system

vertical mobility

the movement of an individual from one social position to another of a different rank

horizontal mobility

the movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank

Colonialism

the process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories

Crime

the result of any action that contravenes the laws established by a political authority

Bill Gates

the richest person in the world in 2016, had an estimated net worth in that year of $75 billion, derived largely from the value of Microsoft stock that he owns

Status

the social honor or prestige a particular group is accorded by other members of society.

Apartheid

the system of racial segregation established in South Africa

Dependent development

the theory that poor countries can still develop economically, but only in ways shaped by their reliance on the wealthier countries

projection

the unconscious attribution to others of one's own desires or characteristics

Amancio Ortega

took second place as the wealthiest person in the world due to his stock ownership in Inditex, who's principal company is Zara

Newman

tracked the experiences of upper middle-class suburban mothers who found themselves struggling to maintain their former lifestyles upon divorce. Women's standard of living drops by as much as 33 percent upon divorce

Robert Merton

used Durkheim's concept of anomie to understand the strain people experience when norms and values are in conflict with social reality. According to him, deviance is a by-product of economic inequalities.

Mosammat Rebecca Khatun

was a young woman who sewed clothing in the Rana Plaza industrial building in Bangladesh, often laboring 13 hours a day six days a week, for weekly earnings unlikely to exceed $11. She was in Rana Plaza when it collapsed, and she was one of the lucky ones to survive. She was buried alive for two days before rescuers reached her. She lost her right foot and entire left leg.

Brown v. Board of Education

was the court case where the U.S. The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."

Liz Murray

was the homeless daughter of drug-addicted parents who ultimately graduated from Harvard University

flexibility stigma

where men face a stigma if they take parental leave, cut back on their hours, or take family-friendly work in order to balance child care with paid employment

India and South Africa

where some caste systems are located

Global commodity chains

worldwide networks of labor and production processes yielding a finished product. focuses on global businesses and their activities rather than relationships between countries. A weakness of this approach is that its focus on business decisions keeps us from considering how workers and governments also shape economies.