Sociology Test 3

First,

Japanese companies hired new workers in groups, giving everyone the same salary and responsibilities.

Demographic transition theory

A thesis that links population patterns to a societies level of technological development. Demographic transition theory claims that technological advances slow population increase.

Bureaucracy

An organizational model rationally designed to perform tasks efficiently.

Low infant morality greatly raises LIFE EXPECTANCY (Life expectancy in North America is twenty years greater than is typical of low-income countries in Africa)

The average life span of a countries population. US males born in 2011 can expect to live 76.3 years, and females can look forward to 81.1 years.

Crude Death Rate (the rate is about average between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate worldwide)

To measure mortality, demographers use the crude death rate, the number of deaths in a given year for every 1,000 people in a population. Take the number of deaths in a year, divide by the total population, and multiply the results by 1,000. In 2011 there were 2.5 million deaths in the U.S. population of 311.6 million, yielding a crude death rate of 8.1.

Culture Growth and Limits

Whether we recognize environmental dangers and decide to do something about them is a cultural matter. Thus along with technology, culture has powerful environmental consequences.

Water Pollution... acid rain

In large cities from Mexico City to Cairo to Shanghai, many people have no choice but to drink contaminated water. Infectious diseases such as typhoid, cholera, and dysentery, all caused by waterborne microorganisms, spread rapidly through these populations. Besides ensuring ample supplies of water, then, we must also protect the quality of water. Water quality in the United States is generally good by global standards. However, even here the problem of water pollution is steadily growing. Across the United States, rivers, streams, and underground aquifers absorb hundreds of millions of pounds of pesticides, nitrogen fertilizers, and toxic waste each year. This pollution results not only from intentional dumping but also from the application of agricultural fertilizers and lawn chemicals. Not all water pollution results from chemicals that people apply to the ground. A special problem, is acid rain-falling precipitation made acidic by air pollution-which destroys plant and animal life. Acid rain begins with power plants burning fossil fuels (oil and coal_ to generate electricity; this burning releases sulfuric and nitrous oxides into the air. As the wind sweeps these gases into the atmosphere, they react with the air to form sulfuric and nitric acids, which turns atmospheric moisture acidic. This is a clear case of one type of pollution causing another: air pollution (from smokestacks) ends up containing water (in lakes and streams that collect acid rain). Acid rain is truly a global phenomenon because the regions that suffer the harmful effects may be thousands of miles from the source of the original pollution. For instance, British power plants have caused acid rain that has devastated forests and fish in Norway and Sweden, up to 1,000 miles to the northeast. In the United States, we see a similar pattern as smokestacks in the Midwest have harmed the natural environment of upstate New York and New England.

15.7 Overview

Our planets population has reached record levels due to high fertility in low-income nations, coupled with declining mortality almost everywhere. As population increase, humanity faces environmental challenges that involve both greater consumption of resources and higher levels of pollution.

Out-Group

A social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition.

Urbanization in Poor Nations

As noted earlier, twice in its history, the world has experienced a revolutionary expansion of cities. The first urban revolution began about 8000 BCE with the first urban settlements and continued until permanent settlements were in place on several continents. About 1750, the second urban revolution took off; it lated for two centuries as the Industrial Revolution spurred rapid growth of cities in Europe and North America. A third urban revolution is now underway. Today, approximately 78% of people in industrial societies are already city dwellers. But extreme urban growth is occurring in low-income nations. In 1950, about 25% of the people in poor countries lived in cities. In 2008, for the first time in history, the world as a whole became mostly urban, with more than half of humanity living in cities. As the population of our planet continues to club, the share of humanity living in urban places is also increasing. As noted earlier, global population is projected to reach 9.3 billion by 2050. Almost all of this increase will take place in cities, as the urban share of the worlds population climbs to about 68 percent.

2nd Urban Revolution Industrial European Cities continued...

As the middle ages came to a close, steadily increasing commerce enriched a new urban middle class, or bourgeoisie (french meaning: townspeople) with more and more money, the bourgeoisie soon rivaled the hereditary aristocracy. By about 1750, the Industrial Revolution triggered a second urban revolution, first in Europe and then in North America. Factories unleaded productive power, causing cities to grow bigger than ever before. London, the largest European city, reached 550,000 people by 1700 and exploded to 6.5 million by 1900.

Environmental Racism

Conflict theory has given rise to the concept of environmental racism patterns of development that expose poor people, especially minorities to environmental hazards. Historically factories that spew pollution have stood near neighborhoods of the poor and people of color. Why? In part, the poor themselves were drawn to factories in search of work, and their low incomes often meant that they could afford housing only in undesirable neighborhoods. Sometimes the only housing that fit their budgets stood in the very shadow of the plants and mills where they worked. Nobody wants a factory or dump nearby, but the poor have little power to resist. Through the years, the most serious environmental hazards have been located near Newark, New Jersey (not in upscale Bergen County), in south side Chicago (not wealthy Lake Forest), or on Native America reservations in the West (not in affluent suburbs of Denver or Phoenix).

Sustainable living depends on three strategies: Second:

A second strategy is to conserve finite resources. This means meeting our needs with a responsible eye toward the future by using resources efficiently, seeking alternative sources of energy, and in some cases, learning got live with less.

Problems of bureaucracy include: Bureaucratic dehumanization:

Max Weber held up bureaucracy as a model of productivity. However, Weber was keenly aware of bureaucracy's ability to dehumanize the people it is supposed to serve. The same impersonality that fosters efficiency also keeps officials and clients from responding to one anthers unique personal needs. Typically, officials at large government and corporate agencies must treat each client impersonally as a standard "case". In 2008, for example, the U.S. army accidentally sent letters to family members of soldiers killed in Iraq and Afghanistan, addressing the recipients as "John Doe" ("army apologies")

Fecundity

Maximum possibly childbearing, is sharply reduced by cultural norms, finances, and personal choice.

Milgram's Research: Group conformity; groups influence the behavior of their members by promoting conformity "fitting in" provides a secure feeling of belonging, but at the extreme, group pressure can be unpleasant and even dangerous. As experiments by Solomon Asch and STANLEY MILGRAM showed even strangers can encourage conformity.

Milgrams Research: Stanley Milgram, a former student of Solomon Asch, conducted conformity experiments of his own. In Milgram's controversial study, a researcher explained to male recruits that they would be taking part in a study of how punishment affects learning. One by one, he assigned the subjects the role of teacher and placed another person actually an accomplice of Milgram's-in a connecting room to pose as a learner. The teacher watched as the learner was seated in what looked like an electric chair. The research applied electrode paste to one of the learners wrists, explaining that this would prevent blisters and burns. The researcher then attached an electrode to the wrist and secured the leather straps, explaining that these would prevent excessive movement while the learner was being shocked. The researcher assured the teacher that although the shocks would be painful, they would cause no permanent tissue damage. The researcher then led the teacher back to the next room, explaining that the electric chair was connected to a shock generator, actually a phony but realistic-looking piece of equipment with a label that read "shock generator, type ZLB, Dyson instrument company, waltham, mass." On the front was a dial that appeared to regulate electric shock from 15 volts to 300 volts to 450 volts. Seated in front of the shock generator the teacher was told to read aloud pairs of words. Then the teacher was to repeat the first word of each pair and wait for the learner to recall the second word. Whenever the learner failed to answer correctly, the teacher was told to apply an electric shock. The researcher directed the teacher to being at the lowest level (15 volts) and to increase the shock by another 15 volts every time the learner made a mistake. And so the teacher did. At 75,90, and 105 volts, the heard moans from the learner; at 120 volts, shouts of pain; at 270 volts , screams; at 315 volts, pounding on the wall; after that dead silence. None of the forty subjects assigned to the role of teacher during the initial research even questioned the procedure before reaching 300 volts, and twenty-six of the subjects- almost two-thirds- went all the way to 450 volts. Even Milgram was surprised at how readily people obeyed authority figures. Milgram then modified his research to see if groups of ordinary people- not authority figures-cold pressure people to administer electrical shocks, as Asch's groups had pressured individuals to match lines incorrectly. This time, Milgram formed a group of three teachers, two of whom were his accomplices. Each of the three teachers was to suggest a shock level when the leaner made an error; the rule was that the group would then administer the lowest of the three suggested levels. This arrangement gave the person not in on the experiment the power to decide a lesser shock regardless of what the others said. The accomplices suggested increasing the shock level with each error, putting pressure on the third member to do the same. The subjects in these groups applied voltages three to four times higher than the levels applied by subjects acting alone. In this way, Milgram showed that people are likely to follow the lead of not only legitimate authority figures but also groups of ordinary individuals, even when it means harming another person.

Declining Biodiversity 4

Finally, unlike pollution, the extinction of any species is irreversible and final. An important ethical question, then, is whether we who live today have the right to impoverish the world for those who live tomorrow.

Tradition

According to Max Weber, Behavior, values, and beliefs passed from generation to generation; old societies, no changes. Tradition makes a society conservative, Weber explained, because it limits an organizations productive efficiency and ability to change.

CURRENT EVENTS: All formal organizations operate in an organizational environment, which is influenced by technology political and economic trends CURRENT EVENTS population patterns ; the available workforce other organizations

Current events can have significant effects on organizations that are far removed from the location of the events themselves. Events such as the sweeping political revolutions in the Middle East in 2011 and the reelection of President Obama in the 2012 presidential election affect the operation of both government agencies and business organizations.

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TRENDS: All formal organizations operate in an organizational environment, which is influenced by technology POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TRENDS current events population patterns ; the available workforce other organizations

Economic and political trends affect organizations. All organizations are helped or hurt by periodic economic growth or recession. Most industries also face competition from abroad as well as changes in laws-such as new environmental standards-at home.

Problems of bureaucracy include: Bureaucratic alienation:

Formal organizations breed alienation, according to Weber, by reducing the human being to "a small cog in a ceaselessly moving mechanism" Although formal organizations are designed to benefit people, Weber feared that people might well end up serving formal organizations.

Scientific management; conventional bureaucracy

Fredrick Taylors term for the application of scientific principles to the operation of a business or other large organization. In the early 1900s, Fredrick Taylors scientific management applied scientific principles to increase productivity.

Technology: All formal organizations operate in an organizational environment, which is influenced by TECHNOLOGY political and economic trends current events population patterns ; the available workforce other organizations

Modern organizations are shaped by technology, including copiers, fax machines, telephones, and computers. This technology gives employees access to more information and more people than ever before. At the same time, modern technology allows managers to monitor worker activities much more closely than in the past.

Group Size The Triad definition; most likely the smallest group; more stable but can dissolve into a dyad by excluding one member.

Simmel also studied the triad, a social group with three members, which contains three relationships, each uniting two of the three people. A triad is more stable than a dyad because one member can act as a mediator should the relationship between the other two become strained. Such group dynamics help explain why members of a dyad (a married couple) often seek out a third person (counselor) to discuss tensions between them. Two of the three can pair up at times to press their views on the third, or two may intensify their relationship, leaving the other feeling left out. EX: when two of the three develop a romantic interest in each other, they will come to understand the meaning of the old saying "two's company, three's a crowd" As groups grow beyond three people, they become more stable and capable of withstanding the loss of one or more members. At the same time, increases in group size reduce the intense personal interaction possible only in the smalls groups. This is why larger groups are based less on personal attachment and more on formal rules and regulations.

Recently the rise of a postindustrial economy has created two very different types of work: highly skilled and creative work:

highly skilled and creative work (designers, consultants, programmers, and executives), low skilled service work associated with the "McDonalization" of society, based on efficiency, uniformity, and control (jobs in fast food restaurant and telemarketing) Frederick Taylor developed his concept of scientific management at a time when jobs involved tasks that, through often backbreaking, were routine and repetitive.

Third,

with the idea that employees would spend their entire careers there, many Japanese companies trained workers in all phases of their operations.

SECOND: According to George Ritzer, the McDonaldization of society rests on four organization principles: 2

2. Predictability. An efficient organization wants to make everything it does as predictable as possible. McDonald's prepares all food using set formulas. Company policies guide the performance of every job.

2nd Urban Revolution Industrial continued..

Cities not only grew but changed shape as well, older winding streets gave way to broad, straight boulevards to handle the increase in traffic, steam and electric trolleys, land was now commodity and is divided cities into regular-sized lots. With a new focus on business, cities became more crowded and impersonal. Crime rates rose, especially at the outset, a few industrialists lived in grand stele, but most men, women and children barely survived by working in factories. Organized efforts by workers to improve their lives eventually brought changes to the workplace, better housing, and the right to vote. Public services such as water, sewer, and electricity improved urban living further. Today, some urbanites still live in poverty, but a rising standard of living has party fulfilled the cites historical promise of a better life.

Demographic Divide in SUM

In sum, a demographic divide now separates rich countries with low birth rates and aging populations from poor countries with high birth rates and very young populations. Just as humanity has devised ways to reduce deaths around the world, it must now bring down population growth, especially in poor countries where projections suggest a future imagined by Thomas Malthus. China has reduced population by 250 million due to one-child policy.

Declining Biodiversity

Our planet is home to as many as 30 million species of animals, plants, and microorganism. As rain forests are cleared and humans extend their control over nature, several dozen unique species of plants and animals cease to exist each day, reducing the planets biodiversity. But given the vast number of living species, why should we be concerned by the loss of a few? Environmentalists give four reasons.

Normative Organizations: Types of Formal Organizations: Amitari Etzioni identified three types of formal organizations, distinguished by the reasons people participate in them: utilitarian organizations, NORMATIVE ORGANIZATIONS, and coercive organizations.

People join normative organizations not for income but to pursue some goal they think is morally worthwhile. Sometimes called voluntary associations, these include community service groups (voluntary associations such as; the League of Women Voters, Red Cross, PTA, and the Lions Club), as well as political parties and religious organizations. In global perspective, people living in the United States and other high-income nations with relatively democratic political systems are likely to join voluntary associations. A recent study found that 74 percent of first-year college students in the United States claimed to have participated in some volunteer activity within the past year. Ethical/value, church, political

Demographic transition theory Stage 1 equal roughly

Pre-Industrial, agrarian societies have high birth rates because of the economic value of children and the absence of birth control. Death rates are also high because of low living standards and limited medical technology. Disease from outbreaks of disease cancel out births, so population rises and falls only slightly over time. This was the case for thousands of years in Europe before the Industrial Revolution.

Declining Biodiversity 2

Second, Earths biodiversity is a vital genetic resource used by medical and pharmaceutical researchers to produce hundreds of new compounds each year that cure disease and improve or lives. For example, children in the United States now have a good chance of surviving Leukemia, a disease that was almost a sure killer two generations ago, because of a compound derived from a tropical flower called the rosy periwinkle. The oral birth control pill, used by tens of millions of women in this country, is another product of plant research involving the Mexican forest yam. Because biodiversity declines, the transmission of disease will increase.

The Chicago School: Robert Park and Louis Wirth

Sociologists in the United States soon joined the study of rapidly growing cities. Robert Park, a leader of the first US sociology program at the University of Chicago, sought to add a street-level perspective by getting out on the streets and studying real cities. As he said of himself, "I suspect that I have actually covered more ground, tramping about in cities in different parts of the world, than any other living man." Walking the streets, Park found the city to be an organized mosaic of distinctive ethnic communities, commercial centers, and industrial districts. Over time, he observed, these "natural areas" develop and change in relation to one another. To Park, the city was a living organism- a human kaleidoscope. Another major figure in the Chicago school of urban sociology was Louis Wirth. Wirth is best known for blending the ideas of Tonnies, Durkheim, Simmel, and Park into a comprehensive theory of urban life. Wirth began by defining the city as a setting with a large, dense, and socially diverse population. These traits result in an impersonal, superficial, and transit way of life. Living among millions of dollars, urbanities come into contact with many more people than residents of dual areas. So when city people notice others at all, they usually know them not in terms of who they are but what they do-as for instance, the bus driver, the florist, or the grocery store clerk. These specialized urban relationships are pleasant for all concerned, but we should remember that self-interest rather than friendship is usually the main reason behind the interaction. The impersonal nature of urban relationships, together with the great social diversity found in cities today, makes city dwellers more tolerant than rural villagers. Rural communities often jealously enforce their narrow traditions, but the heterogeneous population of a city rarely shares any single code of moral conduct.

The Metropolitan Era 1860-1950 METROPOLIS definition

The civil war (1861-65) gave an enormous boost to urbanization as factories strained to produce weapons. Waves of people deserted the countryside for cities in hopes of finding better jobs. Joining them were tens of millions of immigrants, mostly from Europe, forming a culturally diverse urban mix. In 1900, New Yorks population soared past the 4 million mark, and Chicago a city of only 100,000 people in 1860, was closing in on 2 million. Such growth marked the era of the metropolis (from the greek, meaning "mother city"), a large city that socially and economically dominates an urban area. Metropolises became the economic centers of the United States. BY 1920, urban areas were home to a majority of the U.S. population. Industrial technology pushed the urban skyline ever higher. In the 1880s, steel girders and mechanical elevators allowed buildings to ride more than ten stories high. In 1930, New York's empire State Building was hailed as an urban wonder, reaching 102 stories into the clouds.

Environment and Society Ecology definition

The human species has prospered, rapidly expanding over the entire planet. An increasing share of the global population now lives in cities, complex settlements that offer the promise of a better life than that found in rural villages. But these advantages have come at a high price. Never before in history have human beings placed such demands on the planet. This disturbing development brings us to the final section of this chapter: the interplay between the natural environment and society. Like demography, ecology is another cousin of sociology, formally defined as the study of the interaction of living organisms and the natural environment. Ecology rests on the research of natural scientists as well as social scientists. This text focuses on the aspects of ecology that involve familiar sociological concepts and issues.

15.6 Overview

The state of the environment is a social issue because it reflects how human begins organize social life. -Societies increase the environmental deficit by focusing on short-term benefits and ignoring the long-term consequences brought on by their way of life. -The more complex a societies technology, the greater is capacity to alter the natural environment. -The logic-of-growth thesis supports economic development, claiming that people can solve environmental problems as they arise. -The limits-to-growth thesis states that societies must curb development to prevent eventual environmental collapse. -54% of the solid waste we throw away ends up in landfills, which are filling up and can pollute groundwater. -The supply of clean water is already low in some part of the world. Industrial technology has caused a decline in air quality. -Rain forests help remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and are home to a large share of this planets living species. Under pressure from development, the worlds rain forests are now half their original size and are shrinking by about 1% annually. -Conflict theory has drawn attention to environmental racism

In the late 1700s, Malthusian Theory He concluded: people reproducing beyond what the planet could feed, leading to starvation worldwide and war over what resources were left. Famine and war stalked humanity in Malthus's mind, and he was known as "the dismal parson"

Thomas Robert Malthus warned that population growth would outpace food production, resulting in social calamity. An english economist and clergyman, warned that population increase would soon lead to social chaos. Malthus calculated that population would increase in what mathematicians call a geometric progression, illustrated by the series of numbers 2,4,8,16, 32 and so on. At such a rate, Malthus concluded, world population would soon soar out of control. Food production would also increase, Malthus explained, but only in arithmetic progression (2,3,4,5,6, and so on) because even with the new agricultural technology, farmland is limited.

Demographic transition theory Stage 4 dual income

Corresponds to a postindustrial economy in which the demographic transition is complete. The birth rates keep falling, partly because dual-income couples gradually become the norm and partly because the cost of raising children continues to increase. This trend, linked to steady death rates, means that population grows only very slowly or even decreases. This is the case today in Japan, Europe and the United States.

Crude Birth Rate (On a global scale the crude birth rate of North America is low); Take nothing into account except the number of live births in a given year for every 1,000 people in a population.

To calculate a crude birth rate, divide the number of live births in a year by the society's total population, and multiply the result by 1,000. In the U.S. there were 3.95 million live births in a population of 311.6 million, yielding a crude birth rate of 12.7.

15.1 Overview

-Demography analyzes the size and composition of a population and how and why people move form place to place. -Fertility is the incidence of childbearing in a countries population. Demographers describe fertility using the crude birth rate. -Mortality is the incidence of death in a countries population. Demographers measure mortality using both the crude death rate and the infant mortality rate. -The net migration rate is the difference between the in-migration rate and the out-migration rate. -In general, rich nations grow almost as much from immigration as from natural increase; poorer nations grow almost entirely from natural increase. -Demographers use age-sex pyramids to show the composition of a population graphically and to project population trends.

15.2 Overview

-Historically, world population grew slowly, as high birth rates were offset by high death rates. -About 1750, world population rose sharply, mostly due to falling death rates. -In the late 1700s, Thomas Robert Malthus warned that population growth would outpace food production, resulting in social calamity. -Demographic transition theory claims that technological advances slow population increase. -Currently, the world is gaining 84 million people each year, with 98% of this increase taking place in poor countries. World population is expected to reach 9.3 billion by 2050.

15.3 Overview

-The first urban revolution began with the appearance of cities about 10,000 years ago. By about 2,000 years ago, cities emerged in most regions of the world expect North America. Preindustrial cities have low-rise buildings: narrow winding streets and personal social ties. -A second urban revolution began about 1750 as the Industrial Revolution propelled rapid urban growth in Europe. Cities physical form changes as planners created wide, regular streets to facilitate commerce. The emphasis on business, and the increasing size of cities, made urban life more impersonal. -A third urban revolution is now occurring in poor counties. -In the United States, urbanization has been going on for more than 400 years. *Urbanization came to North America with European colonists. *By 1850, hundreds of new cities has been founded from coast to coast. * By 1920, a majority of the US population lived in urban areas. *Since 1950, the decentralization of cities has result din the growth of suburbs and edge cities. *Rural areas represent 75% of the nations land area: although rural places that are near large cities, as well as those that are especially science, are attracting migrants, rural areas currently lose net population through migration to cities. Sunbelt cities-but not the older Snowbelt cities-are increasing in size and population.

FIRST: The third challenge: The changing nature of work; many of todays information age jobs are very different: the work of designers, artists, writers, composers, programmers, business owners, and others now demands individual creativity and imagination. Here are several ways in which todays organizations differ from those a of a century ago: 1

1. Creative freedom. As one Hewlett-Packard executive put it, "From their first day of work here, people are given important responsibilities and are encouraged to grow." Today's organizations now treat employees with information age skills as a vital resource. Executives can set production goals but cannot dictate how a worker is to accomplish tasks that require imagination and discovery. This gives highly skilled workers creative freedom, which means less day to day supervision as long as they generate good results in the long run.

FIRST: Recently the rise of a postindustrial economy has created two very different types of work: low skilled service work associated wight the The McDonaldization of Society based on efficiency, uniformity, and control (examples include jobs in fast food restaurants and telemarketing); what do all these development have in common? According to George Ritzer, the McDonaldization of society rests on four organization principles: 1

1. Efficiency. Ray Kroc, the marketing genius behind the expansion of McDonald's back in the 1950s, set out to serve a hamburger, french fries, and a milkshake to a customer in exactly fifty seconds. Today, one of the companies most popular menu items is the egg mcmuffin, an entire breakfast in a single sandwich. In the restaurant, customers dispose of their track and stack their own trays as they walk out the door or, better still, drive away from the pickup window taking whatever mess they make with them. Such efficiency is now central to our way of life. We tend to think that anything done quickly is, for that reason alone, good.

Social Diversity: Race, class, and gender: each play a part in group dynamics, large groups turn inward Peter Blau points out three ways in which social diversity influences intergroup contact.

1. Large group turns inward. Blau explains that the larger a group is, the more likely its members are to have relationships just among themselves. Say a college is trying to enhance social diversity by increasing the number of international students. These students may add a dimension of difference, but as the number of students from a particular nation increases, they become more likely to form their own social group. Thus efforts to promote social diversity may have unintended effect of promoting separatism.

Specialization What specific traits promote organizational efficiency? Max Weber identified six key elements of the ideal bureaucratic organization: which Max Weber saw as the dominant type of organization in modern societies, 1:

1. Specialization. Our ancestors spend most of their time performing the general task of looking for food and shelter. Bureaucracy, by contrast, assigns people highly specialized jobs.

SECOND: The third challenge: The changing nature of work; many of todays information age jobs are very different: the work of designers, artists, writers, composers, programmers, business owners, and others now demands individual creativity and imagination. Here are several ways in which todays organizations differ from those a of a century ago: 2

2. Competitive work teams. Organizations typically give several groups of employees the freedom to work on a problem, offering the greatest rewards to those who come up with the best solution. Competitive work teams, a strategy first used by Japanese organizations, draw out the creative contributions of everyone and at the same time reduce the alienation often found in conventional organizations.

Social Diversity: Race, Class, and gender: each play a part in group dynamics, socially diverse groups turn outward Peter Blau points out three ways in which social diversity influences intergroup contact.

2. Heterogeneous groups turn outward. The more internally diverse a group is, the more likely its members are to interact with outsiders. Members of campus groups that recruit people of both sexes and various social backgrounds typically have more intergroup contact than those with members of one social category. Socially diverse turn outward

Hierarchy of Positions What specific traits promote organizational efficiency? Max Weber identified six key elements of the ideal bureaucratic organization which Max Weber saw as the dominant type of organization in modern societies: 2:

2. Hierarchy of Positions. Bureaucracies arrange workers in a vertical ranking; organize. Each person is supervised by someone "higher up" in the organization while in turn supervising others in lower positions. Usually, with few people at the top and many at the bottom, bureaucratic organizations take the form of a pyramid.

THIRD: The third challenge: The changing nature of work; many of todays information age jobs are very different: the work of designers, artists, writers, composers, programmers, business owners, and others now demands individual creativity and imagination. Here are several ways in which todays organizations differ from those a of a century ago: 3

3. A flatter organization. By spreading responsibility for creative problem solving throughout the workforce, organizations take on the flatter shape. That is, the pyramid shape of conventional bureaucracy is replaced by an organizational form with fewer levels in the chain of command. Review fig. 5-4

Social Diversity: Race, class, and Gender: each play a part in group dynamics, physically segregated groups turn inward Peter Blau points out three ways in which social diversity influences intergroup contact.

3. Physical boundaries create social boundaries. To the extent that a social group is physically segregated from others (by having its own dorm or dining area, for example), its members are less likely to interact with other people. Physically segregated groups turn in ward.

Rules and Regulations What specific traits promote organizational efficiency? Max Weber identified six key elements of the ideal bureaucratic organization which Max Weber saw as the dominant type of organization in modern societies: 3:

3. Rules and regulations. Cultural tradition counts for little in a bureaucracy. Instead, rationally enacted rules and regulations guide a bureaucracy's operation. Ideally, a bureaucracy operates in a completely predictable way; rational.

THIRD: According to George Ritzer, the McDonaldization of society rests on four organization principles: 3

3. Uniformity. The first McDonalds operation manual set the weight of a regular raw hamburger at 1.6 ounces, its size at 3.875 inches across, and its fat content at 19 percent. A slice of cheese weighs exactly half an ounce. Fries are cut precisely 9/32 of an inch thick. Think about how many objects around your home, the workplace, and the campus are designed and mass-produced according to a standard plan. Not just our environment but also our life experiences-from traveling the nations interstates to sitting at home viewing television-are more standardized than ever before. Almost anywhere in the world, a person can walk into a McDonalds restaurant and purchase the same sandwiches, drinks, and desserts prepared in precisely the same way. Uniformity results from a highly rational system that specifies every action and leaves nothing to change.

FOURTH: According to George Ritzer, the McDonaldization of society rests on four organization principles: 4

4. Control. The most unreliable elements in the McDonalds system is the human beings who work these. After all, people have good and bad days, sometimes let their minds wander or simply decide to try something a different way. To minimize the unpredictable human element, McDonalds has automated its equipment to cook food at a fixed temperature for a set length of time. Even the cash register at McDonalds is keyed to pictures of the items so that ringing up a customers order is as simple as possible. Similarly, automatic teller machines are replacing bank tellers, highly automated bakeries now produce bread while people stand back and watch, and chickens and eggs (or is it eggs and chickens?) emerge from automated hatcheries. In supermarkets, laser scanners at self-checkouts are phasing out human checkers. We do most of our shopping in malls, where everything from temperature and humidity to the kinds of stores and products sold are subject to continuous control and supervision.

FOURTH: The third challenge: The changing nature of work; many of todays information age jobs are very different: the work of designers, artists, writers, composers, programmers, business owners, and others now demands individual creativity and imagination. Here are several ways in which todays organizations differ from those a of a century ago: 4

4. Greater flexibility. The typical industrial age organization was a rigid structure guided from the top. Such organizations may accomplish a large amount of work, but they are not especially creative or able to respond quickly to changes in the larger environment. The ideal model in the information age is a more open, flexible organization that both generates new ideas and adapts quickly to the rapidly changing global marketplace.

Technical competence What specific traits promote organizational efficiency? Max Weber identified six key elements of the ideal bureaucratic organization which Max Weber saw as the dominant type of organization in modern societies: 4:

4. Technical competence. Bureaucratic officials have the technical competence to carry out their duties. Bureaucracies typically hire new members according yo set standards and then monitor their performance. Such impersonal evaluation contrasts with the ancient custom of favoring relatives whatever their talents, over strangers.

Impersonality What specific traits promote organizational efficiency? Max Weber identified six key elements of the ideal bureaucratic organization which Max Weber saw as the dominant type of organization in modern societies: 5:

5. Impersonality. Bureaucracy puts rules ahead of personal whim so that both clients and workers are treated in the same way. From this impersonal approach comes the image of the "faceless bureaucrat"

Formal, written communications What specific traits promote organizational efficiency? Max Weber identified six key elements of the ideal bureaucratic organization which Max Weber saw as the dominant type of organization in modern societies: 6:

6. Formal, written communications. It is said that the heart of bureaucracy is not people but paperwork. Instead of the casual, face-to-face talk that characterizes interaction within small groups, bureaucracy relies on formal, written memos and reports, which accumulate in vast files.

Problems of bureaucracy include: Bureaucratic Ritualism:

A focus on rules and regulations to the point of undermining an organization's goals. Rules and regulations should be a means to an end, not an end in themselves that takes the focus away from the organizations stead goals. (focus on rule rather then what ur trying to get done)

Secondary Group; goal orientation

A large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity. (A college class or a corporation) Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. Many secondary groups exist for only a short time, beginning and ending without particular significant. People in secondary groups look to one another for what they are, that is, what they can do for each other. Tend to keep score aware of what we give others and what we receive in return. This goal orientation means that secondary group members usually remain polite and formal. We ask "how are you" in a secondary relationship and don't expect a truthful response. EX: Students enrolled in the same course at a large university-who may or may not see one another again after the semester ends. Dozens or even hundreds of people may work together in the same company, yet most of them pay only passing attention to one another. In some cases, time may transform a group from secondary to primary, as with co-workers who share an office for many years and develop closer relationships. But generally, members of a secondary group do not think of themselves as "we". Secondary ties need not be hostile or cold, of course. Interactions among students, co-workers, and business associates are often quite pleasant even if they are impersonal.

Formal Organizations

A large secondary group organized to achieve its goals efficiently. Such as business corporations, and government agencies, differ from families and neighborhoods in their impersonality and their formally planned atmosphere. Organizing more than 300 million people in this country into a single society is truly remarkable, whether it involves paving roads, collecting taxes, schooling children, or delivering the mail. To carry to most of these tasks, we rely on different types of large formal organizations.

Demographic transition theory Stage 3 birth rates drop assets to liabilities

A mature industrial economy, the birth rate drops, curbing population growth once agin. Fertility falls because most children survive to adulthood and because high living standards make raising children expensive. In short, affluence transforms children from economic assets into economic liabilities. Smaller families, made possibly by effective birth control, are also favored by women working outside the home. As birth rates follow death rates downward, population growth slows further.

In-Group

A social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty.

Sustainable living depends on three strategies: Third:

A third strategy is to reduce waste. Whenever possible, simply using less is the best solution. Learning to live with less is not likely to come easily, but keep in mind the research that suggests that as our society has consumed more and more, people have not become any happier. Recycling programs, too, are part of the answer, and recycling can make everyone part of the solution to our environmental problems.

Primary Group; personal orientation

According to Charles Horton Cooley; A small social group whose members share a personal and lasting relationship. Is small, personal, and lasting (family and close friends) Joined by primary relationships, people spend a great deal of time together engage in a wide range of actives, and feel that they know one another pretty well. In short, they show real concern for one another. The family is every societies most important primary group. Define each other according to who they are in terms of family ties or personal qualities. Cooley called personal and tightly integrated groups "primary" because they are among the first groups we experience in life. In addition, family and friends have primary importance in the socialization process, shaping our attitudes, behavior, and social identity. We prefer to think that family and friendship link people who belong together. Members of a primary group also tend to view each other as unique and irreplaceable. Especially in the family, we are bound to others by emotion and loyalty, brothers and sisters may not always get along but they always remain family.

Solid Waste: The Disposable Society

Across the United States, people generate a massive amount of solid waste-about 1.4 billion pounds every day. As a rich nation of people who value convince, the United States has become a disposable society. We consume more products than virtually any other nation, and many of these products have throwaway packaging. For example, fast food is served with cardboard, plastic, and styrofoam containers that we throw away within minutes. Countless other products from film to fishhooks, are elaborately packaged to make the products more attractive to the customer and to discourage tampering and theft. Manufacturers marker soft drinks, beer, and fruit juices in aluminum cans, glass jars, and plastic containers, which not only consume finite resources but also generate mountains of solid waste. Then there are countless items internationally designed to be disposable: pens, razors, flashlights, batteries, even cameras. Other products, from light bulbs to automobiles are designed to have a limited useful life and then become unwanted junk.

Global Warming continued...

Already, the polar ice caps are melting, and over the last century, the average temperatures could melt so much ice that the sea level would rise enough to cover low-lying land all around the world: water would cover all of the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean, most of Bangladesh, and much of the coastal United States, including Washington, D.C., right up the steps of the White House. Such a change would create perhaps 100 millions "climate change refugees." On the other hand, this same process of rising temperatures will affect other regions of the world very differently. The US Midwest, currently one of the most productive agricultural regions in the world, would likely become more arid. No wonder that, for more than a decade, government agencies in the United States and elsewhere in the World have been of extreme weather. Some scientists point out that we cannot be sure of the consequences of global warming. Others point to the fact that global temperature changes have been taking place throughout history, apparently having little or nothing to do with rain forests or human activity. A few are optimistic, suggesting that higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere might speed up plant growth (since plants thrive on this gas), and this increase would correct the imbalance and push Earths temperature downward once again. But the consensus among scientists is now clear: Global warming is a serious problem that threatens the future of all of us.

The Logic of Growth continued...

An optimistic view of the world, the logic of growth holds that powerful technology has improved our lives and new discoveries will continue to do so in the future. Throughout the history of the United States and other high-income nations, the logic of growth has been the driving force behind settling the wilderness,s building towns and roads, and pursuit material affluence. However, "progress" can lead to unexpected problems, including strain on the environment. The logic of growth responds by arguing that people (especially scientists and oner technology experts) will find a way out of any problem that growth places in our path. For example, before the world runs short of oil, scientists will come up with new hybrid and electric cars, and eventually hydrogen, solar, or nuclear engines (or some yet unknown technology) will develop to meet the worlds energy needs. Environmentalists counter that the logic of growth is flawed because it assumes that natural resources such as clean air, fresh water, oil, and topsoil will always be plentiful. We can and will exhaust these finite resources if we continue to pursue growth at any cost. Echoing Malthus, environmentalists warn that if we call on Earth to support increasing numbers of people, we will surely deplete finite resources, destroying the environment-and ourselves-in the process.

Megalopolis: The Regional City Megalopolis definition

Another result of urban decentralization is urban regions or regional cities. The U.S. Census Bureau (2010) recognizes 366 metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) Each includes at least one city with 50,000 or more people. The bureau also recognizes 576 micropolitan statistical areas, urban areas with at least one city of 10,000 to 50,000 people. Core based statistical areas (CBSAs) include both metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas. The biggest CBSAs contain millions of people and cover large areas that extend into several states. In 2011, the largest CBSA was New York and its adjacent urban areas in Long Island, western Connecticut, northern New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania, with a total population of more than 22 million. Next in size is the CBSA in southern California that includes Los Angeles, Riverside and Long Beach, with a population of more than 18 million. As regional cities grow, they begin to overlap. In the early 1960s, the french geographer Jean Gottmann coined the term Megalopolis to designate a vast urban region containing a number of cities and their surrounding suburbs. Along the East Coast, a 400-mile megapolis stretches all the way from New England to Virginia. Other supercities cover the eastern coast of Florida and stretch from Cleveland west to Chicago.

Solid Waste: The Disposable Society continued..

As Paul Connett points out, even the words we use to describe what we throw away- waste, litter, trash, refuse, garbage, rubbish- show how little we value what we can not immediately use. But this was not the case in the past. Living in a rich society, the average person in the United States consumes about 50 times more energy, plastics, lumber, waster, and other resources than someone living in a low-income country such as Bangladesh or Tanzania and nearly twice as much as people in some other high-income countries such as Sweden and Japan. This high level of consumption means not only that we in the United States use a disproportionate share of the planets natural resources but also that we generate most of the worlds refuse.

Postindustrial Sunbelt Cities

As older Snow belt cities fell into decline, Sun belt cities in the South and the West began to grow rapidly. The soaring populations of cities such as Los Angeles and Houston reflect a population shift to the Sunbelt, where 61% of the US people now live. In addition, most of todays immigrants enter the country, in the Sunbelt region. In 1951, nine of the ten biggest US cities were in the Snow belt; today, seven of the top ten are in the Sunbelt. Unlike their colder counterparts, Sunbelt cities came of age after urban decentralization began. So although cities like Chicago have long been enclosed by a ring of politically independent suburbs, cities like Houston have pushed their boundaries outward to include suburban communities. Chicago covers 227 square miles; Houston is more than twice that size, and the greater Houston urban area covers almost 9,000 square miles-an area the size of the state of New Hampshire. The great sprawl of Sunbelt cities has drawbacks. Many people in cities such as Atlanta, Dallas, Phoenix, and Los Angeles complain that unplanned growth results in traffic clogged roads, poorly planned housing developments, and schools that cannot keep up with the inflow of children. Not surprisingly, voters in many communities across the United States have passed ballot initiatives seeking to limit urban sprawl.

Asch's Research: Group conformity; groups influence the behavior of their members by promoting conformity "fitting in" provides a secure feeling of belonging, but at the extreme, group pressure can be unpleasant and even dangerous. As experiments by SOLOMON ASCH and Stanley Milgram showed even strangers can encourage conformity.

Aschs Research: Soloman Asch recruited students for what he told them was a study of visual perception. Before the experiment began, he explained to all but one member in a small group that their real purpose was to put pressure on the remaining person. Arranging six to eight students around a table, Asch showed them a standard line, as drawn on card 1 in figure 5-1, and asked them to match it to one of three lines on card 2. Anyone with normal vision could easily see that the line marked "A" on card 2 is the correct choice. At the beginning of the experiment, everyone made the matches correctly. But the Asch's secret accomplices began answering incorrectly, leaving the uniformed student (Seated at the table so as to answer next to last) bewildered and uncomfortable. Asch found that one-third of all subjects chose to conform by answering incorrectly. Apparently, many of us are willing to compromise our own judgement to avoid the discomfort of being seen as different, even by people we do not know.

Group Size

At a party, until about six people enter the room, every person who arrives shares a single conversation. As more people arrive, the group divides into two clusters, and it divides again and again as the party grows. Size plays an important role in how group members interact. Two people form a single relationship; adding a third person results in three relationships; adding a fourth person yields six. Increasing the number of people one at a time, then expands the number of relationships much more raptly since every new individuals can interact with everyone already there. Thus by the time seven people join one conversation, twenty-one channels connect them. With so many open channels at this point the group usually divides into smaller conversation groups. A. Two people (one relationship) B. Three people (three relationships) C. Four people (six relationships) D. Five people (ten relationships) E. Six people (fifteen relationships) F. Seven people (twenty-one relationships)

Group Leadership: Three Leadership Styles; sociologists also describe leadership in terms of decision-making style.

Authoritarian leadership: focuses on instrumental concerns, takes personal charge of decision making, and demands that group members obey orders. Although this leadership may win little affection from the groups, a fast-acting authoritarian leader is appreciated in a crisis. (a person in charge of a group, quickly, ppl want; demands obedience) Democratic leadership: is more expensive and makes a point of including everyone in the decision-making process. Although less successful in a crisis situation, democratic leaders generally draw on the ideas of all members to develop creative solutions to problems. EX: fraternity or sorority, more perspective. Laissez-faire leadership: allows the group to function more or less on its own ("leave it alone"). This style is typically the least effective in promoting group goals. EX: mardi-gras organizations; lets the group function mostly on its own.

Air Pollution

Because we are surrounded by air, most people in the United States are more aware of air pollution than contaminated water. One of the unexpected consequences of industrial technology, especially the mid-twentieth century, factory smokestacks, automobile, and coal fires used to heat homes all added up to probably the worst urban air quality the world has ever known. The fog that some British jokingly called "pea soup" was in reality a delay mis of pollutant: in 1952 an especially thick haze that hung over London for five days killed 4,000 people. Air quality improved in the final decades of the twentieth century. Rich nations passed laws that banned high-pollution heating, including the coal fires that chocked London. In addition, scientists devised ways to make factories and motor vehicles operate much more cleanly. In fact, todays, vehicles produce only a fraction of the pollution that spewed from models of the 1950s and 1960s. And cleaner air has improved human health: experts estimate that improvement in US air quality over the past several decades has added almost half a year to the average life span. If high-income countries can breath a bit more easily than they once did, the problem of air pollution in poor societies is becoming more serious. One reason is that people in low-income countries still rely on wood, coat, peat, and other "dirty" fuels to cook their food and heat their homes. In addition, nations eager to encourage short-term industrial development may pay little attention to the longer-term dangers of air pollution. As a exult, many cities in Latin America, Eastern Europe, and Asia are plagued by air pollution as bad as London's "pea soup" back in the 1950s.

The Second Urban Revolution; the development of industrial cities after 1750,

Began about 1750 as the Industrial Revolution propelled rapid urban growth in Europe. Cities physical form changed as planners created wide, regular streets to facilitate commerce. The emphasis on business, and the increasing size of cities, made urban life more impersonal.

Changes to rural areas continued..

Between 2000 and 2010, however, the rural rebound pattern faded, so that once again, most rural counties lost more people to migration than they gained. But the pattern was uneven. Rural counties that were highly scenic continued to increase in population due to migration, as did rural areas within commenting distance to large cities. By contrast, remote rural areas and those where the economy was largely based on farming saw little or no population gains or experienced declines. If rural areas lose more people to migration than they attract, the only way they can maintain their populations is through natural increase-that is, if births outnumber deaths. But while natural increase did not occur in some rural counties between 2000 and 2010, it did not occur in most. With typically older populations, most rural counties recorded more deaths than births, which meant that-unless migration made up the difference-peopulations declined. Finally, rual places in the United States are becoming more socially diverse. The common view of rural areas as lacking racial and ethnic diversity has some basis in fact, as just 21 percent of this countries rural people fall in to minority categories. Even so, keep in mind that some regions of the country have always had large minority populations, including African Americans in the South, Hispanic Americans in the Southwest, and Native seen in the fact that minorities (that is, people other than non-hispanic whitrrs) accounted for 83 percent of the rural population increase between 2000 and 2010.

Urban Ecology continued... concentric zones, wedge-shaped sectors, multi centered model, social area analysis

Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman added yet another insights: As cities decentralize, they lose their single-center form in favor of a multi centered model. As cities grow, residential areas, industrial parks, and shopping districts typically push away from one another. Few people wish to live close to industrial areas, for example, so the city becomes a mosaic of distinct districts. Social area analysis investigates what people in particular neighborhoods have in common. Three factors seem to explain most of the variation: family patterns, social class, and race and ethnicity. Families with children look for areas with single-family homes or large apartments and good schools. The rich seek high-presitige neighborhoods, often in the central city near cultural attractions. People with a common race or ethnic heritage tend to cluster in distinctive communities. Brian Berry and Philip Rees tied together many of these insights. They explained that distinct family types tend to settle in the concentric zones described by Burgess. Specifically, households with many children tend to live in the outer areas of a city, while "young singles" cluster toward the cites center. Social class differences are primarily responsible for the sector-shaped districts described by Hoyt-for instance, the rich occupy one "Side of the tracks" and the poor the other. And racial and ethnic neighborhoods are found at various points throughout the city, consistent with Harris and Ullman's multi centered model.

Female Advantage

Concrete; Some organizational researchers argue that women bring special management skills that strengthen an organization. According to Deborah Tannen, women have a greater information focus and more readily ask questions in order to understand an issue. Abstract; Men, by contrast, have an image focus that makes them wonder how asking questions in a particular situation will affect their reputation.

Urban Expansion 1800-1860

Early in the nineteenth century, as cities along the East Coast great bigger, towns sprang along the transportation routes that opened the American West. By 1860, Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, and Chicago were chaining the face of the Midwest and about one-fifth of the US population lived in cities. Urban expansion was greatest in the northern states; New York city, for example, had ten times the population of Charleston, South Carolina. The division of the United States into the industrial-ubran North and the agrarian-rural South was one major cause of the Civil War.

Urbanism as a way of life overview..

Early sociologists in Europe and the United States focused their attention on the rise of cities and how urban life differed from rural life. We briefly examine their accounts of urbanism as a way of life.

Preindustrial European Cities

European cities date back 5,000 years to the Greeks and later the Romans, both of whom created great empires and founded cities across Europe, including Vienna, Paris and London. With the fall of the Roman Empire, the so called Dark Ages began as people withdrew into defensive walled settlements and warlords battled for territory. Only in the 11th century did Europe become more peaceful, trade flourished once again allowing cities to grow. Medieval cities were quite different fem those familiar to us today. Preindustrial cities have low-rise buildings; narrow, winding streets; and personal social ties. Beneath towering cathedrals, the narrow and winding streets of London, Brussels, and Florence teemed with merchants, artisans, priests, peddlers, jugglers, nobles, and servants. Occupational groups such as bakers, carpenters, and metalworkers clustered together in distinct sections or "quarters" Ethnicity also defined communities as residents tried to keep out people who different from themselves. The term "ghetto" (from the Italian borghetto, meaning "outside the city walls") was first used to describe the neighborhood in which the Jews of Venice were segregated.

Technology and the Environmental deficit continued.... The concept of environmental deficit is important for three reasons.

First, it reminds us that environmental concerns are sociological, reflecting societies priorities about how people should live. Second, it suggests that much environmental damage-to the air, land and water-is unintended, at least in the sense that most people do not realize all the consequences of cutting down forests, strip mining, or using throwaway packaging. Again, sociological analysis is helpful in making such consequences clearer. Third, in some respects, the environmental deficit is reversible. Inasmuch as societies have created environmental problems, societies can also undone many of them.

Declining Biodiversity 1

First, our planets biodiversity provides a varied source of human food. Using agricultural high technology, scientists can "splice" familiar crops with more exotic plant life, making food more bountiful as well as more resistant to insects and disease. Certain species of life are even considered vital to the production of human food. Bees, for example, perform the work of pollination, a necessary to the production of human food. Bees, for example, perform the work of pollution, a necessary stage in the growth of plants. The fact that the bee population has declined by one-third in the United States and by two-thirds in the Middle East is cause for serious concern. Thus sustaining biodiversity helps feed our planets rapidly increasing population.

Demographic Divide

High and low-income nations display very different population dynamics, a gap that is sometimes called the demographic divide. Italy, a high income nation with very low growth (1.4 children), annual births is less than number of deaths, Italy is losing population. Looking ahead to 2050, assuming gains from immigration, Italy will be about the same population as it is today. But the share of elderly people in Italy-21%-will increase as time goes on. In a low-income nation such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Women have six to seven children, high mortality rate, this nations population will be more than double by 2050. The share of elderly people is extremely low-3%-almost half that countries people are below the age of sixteen. With such a high growth rate, poverty is bad and getting worse, about three-fourths of the people are undernourished.

Technology and the Environmental deficit continued... Such machinery affects the environment in two ways..

Humans ability to control the natural environment increased dramatically with the Industrial Revolution. Muscle power gave way to engines that burn fossil fuels: ciao at first and then oil. Such machinery affects the environment in two ways: we consume more natural resources, and we release more pollutants into the atmosphere. Even more important, armed with industrial technology, we are able to bend nature to our will, tunneling through mountains, damming rivers, irrigating deserts, and drilling for oil in the arctic wilderness and on the ocean floor. This explains why people in rich nations, who represent just about 23 percent of humanity, account for nearly half f the worlds energy use.

The limits to growth

If we cannot invent our way out of the problems created by the logic of growth, perhaps we need another way of thinking about the world. Environmentalists therefore counter that growth must have limits. Stated simply, the limits-to-growth thesis is that humanity must put in place policies to control the growth of population, production, and use of recourses in order to avoid environmental collapse. In the limits to growth, a controversial book that was influential in launching the environmental movement, Donella Meadows and her colleagues used a computer model to calculate the planets available resources, rates of population growth, amount of land available for cultivation, levels of industrial and food production, and amount of pollutants released into the atmosphere. The authors concede that any long-range predictions are speculative, and some critics think they are plain wrong. But right or wrong, the conclusions of the study call for serious consideration. First, the authors claim that we are quickly consuming Earths finite resources. Supplies of oil, natural gas, and other energy sources are declining and will continue to drop, a little faster or slower depending on the conservation policies of rich nations and the speed with which other nations such as India and China continue to industrialize. Within the next 100 years, resources will run out, crippling industrial output and causing a decline in food production. This limits-to-growht throw shares Malthus pessimism about the future. People who accept it doubt that current patterns of life are sustainable for even another country. Perhaps we all can learn to live with less. This may not be as hard as you might think: research shows, for example, that an increase in material consumption in recent decades has not brought an increase in levels of personal happiness. In the end, environmentalists warn, either we make fundamental changes in how we live, placing less strain on the natural environment, or widespread hunger and conflict will force change on us.

Colonial Settlement 1565-1800 (5.1% in 1790- by 2050 88.9%)

In 1565, the Spanish built a settlement at Saint Augustin, Florida, and in 1608, the English founded Jamestown, Virginia. The first lasting settlement came in 1624, when the Dutch established New Amsterdam, later renamed New York. New York and Boston (founded by the English in 1603) started out at tiny villages in a vast wilderness. They resembled medieval towns in Europe, with narrow, winding streets that still curve through lower Manhattan and downtown Boston. When the first census was completed in 1790, just 5% of the nations people lived in cities.

Suburbs and Urban Decline

In 1999, most of the US population lived in the suburbs and shopped at nearby malls rather than in the older and more distant downtown shopping districts. As many older cities of the Snow belt- the Northeast and Midwest-lost higher income taxpayers to the suburbs, they struggled to pay for expensive social programs for the poor who remained. Many cities fell into financial crisis, and urban decay became severe. Soon the inner city came to be synonymous with slums, crime, drugs, unemployment, poverty and minorities. The urban critic Paul Goldberger points out that the decline of central cities has also led to a decline in the importance of public space. Historically, the heart of city life was played out on the streets. The French word for a sophisticated person is boulevardier, which literally means "street person"- a term that has a negative meaning in the United States today.

Underpopulation

In high-income nations, population increase is not the press ion problem that is in poor countries, many governments in high-income countries, including Italy and Japan, are concerned about a future problem of underpopulation because declining population size may be difficult to reverse and because the swelling ranks of the elderly can look to fewer young for support.

Urban Political Economy

In the late 1960s, many large US cities were rocked by riots. in the wake of this unrest, some analysts turned away from the ecological approach to a social-conflict understanding of city life. The urban political economy model applied Karl Marx's analysis of conflict in the workplace to conflict in the city. Political economists reject the ecological approaches view of the city as a natural organism with particular districts and neighborhoods developing according to as internal logic. They claim that city life is defined by larger institutional structures, especially the economy. Capitalism is the key to understanding urban life because this economic system transforms the city into real estate traded for profit and concentrates wealth and power in the hands of the few. From this point of view, for example, the decline in industrial Snowbelt cities after 1950 was the result of deliberate decisions by the corporate elite to move their production facilities to the Sunbelt (where labor is cheaper and less likely to be unionized) or to move production out of the country entirely to low-income nations.

Ferdinand Tonnies: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

In the late nineteenth century, the German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies studied how life in the new industrial metropolis differed from life in rural villages. From this contrast, he developed two concepts that have become a lasting part of sociology's terminology. Tonnies used the german word Gemeinschaft ("Community") to refer to a type of social organization in which people are closely tired by kinship and tradition. The Gemeinschaft of the rural village joins people in what amounts to a single primary group. BY and large, argued Tonnies, Geminschaft is absent in the modern city. On the contrary, urbanization creates Gesellschaft ("association"), a type of social organization in which people come together only on the basis of individual self-interest. IN the Gessellschaft way of life, individuals are motivated by their own needs rather than by a desire to help improve the well-being of everyone. By and large, city dwellers have little sense of community or common identity and look to others mainly when they need something. Tonnies saw in urbanization a weakening of close, long-lasting social relations in favor of the brief and impersonal ties or secondary relationships typical of business.

The second challenge: the Japanese work organization; In the 1980s, global competition drew attention to the Japanese work organizations collective orientation. Formal organizations have also faced important challenges, involving race and gender, rising competition from abroad, and the changing nature of work. We now take a look at each of those challenges:

Japanese organizations reflect that nation's strong collective spirit. In contrast to the U.S. emphasis on rugged individualism, the Japanese value cooperation. In effect, formal organizations in Japan are more like large primary groups. A generation ago, William Ouchi highlighted five differences between formal organizations in Japan and those in the United States.

Water Supply

Less than one-tenth of 1 percent of Earths water is suitable for drinking. It is not surprising, then, that for thousands of years, water rights have figured prominently in laws around the world. Today, some regions of the world, especially the tropics, enjoy plentiful fresh water, using a small share of the available supply. However, high demand, coupled with modest reserves, makes water supply a matter of concern in much of North America and Asia, where people look to rivers rather than rainfall for their water. In China, aquifers are dropping rapidly. In the Middle East, water supply is reaching a critical level. Iran is rationing water in its capital city. In Egypt, the Nile River provides just one-sixth as much water per person as it did in 1900. Across northern Africa and the Middle East, as many as 1 billion people may lack the water they need for irrigation and drinking by 2030. From another angle, by this time the world will be abele to provide 40% less water than the planet requires. Rising population and the development of more complex technology have greatly increased the worlds appetite for water. The global consumption of freshwater has doubled since 1950 and is rising steadily. As a result, even in part of the world that receive plenty of rainfall, people are using groundwater faster than it can be replenished naturally. In the Tamil Nadu region of southern India, for example, so much groundwater is being used that the water table has called 100 feet over the last several decades. Mexico City-which has

Malthus... continued

Malthus's prediction was flawed; first by 1850 europeans birth rates dropped because children became an economic liability rather than an asset and party because people began using birth control. Second, Malthus underestimated human ingenuity: modern drip-irrigation techniques, advanced fertilizers, and pesticides increased farm production and saved vital resources far more than he could have imagined. Some people criticized Malthus for ignoring the role of social inequality in world abundance and famine; saying poverty is caused by high birth rates in low-income countries amounts to blaming the victims, global inequality. He offers an important lesson: habitable land, clean water and fresh air are limited resources and greater economic productivity has taken a heavy toll on the natural environment. In addition, medical advances have lowered death rates, pushing up world population. No level of population growth can go on forever, people everywhere must become aware of the dangers of population increase.

Coercive Organization: Types of Formal Organizations: Amitari Etzioni identified three types of formal organizations, distinguished by the reasons people participate in them: utilitarian organizations, normative organizations, and COERCIVE ORGANIZATIONS.

Membership in coercive organizations in involuntary. People are forced to join these organizations as a form of punishment (prisons) or treatment (some psychiatric hospitals; mental hospital). Coercive organizations have special physical features, such as locked doors and barred windows, and are supervised by security personnel. They isolate people, whom they label "inmates" or "patients" for a period of time in order to radically change their attitudes and behavior. (The power of a total institution to change a person's sense of self). It is possible for a single organization to fall into all three categories from the point of view of different individuals. For example, a mental hospital serves as a coercive organization for a patient, a utilitarian organization for a psychiatrist, and a normative organization for a hospital volunteer. prison involuntarily, all three; draft, doing duty, involuntarily and paid.

Changes to Rural Areas

Most of the United States- 75 % of the land area-is rural. At the same time, most of the nations people are urban: The 2010 ensues showed that 83.7 percent of the countries 309 million people were living in urban places. The trend becoming an urban society has been under way over the course of US history. Immigration has played a part in the process of urbanization. because most newcomers settle in cities. In addition, there has been net migration from rural areas to urban places, typically by people seeking greater social, educational, and economic opportunity. During the 1990s, however, there developed a new trend, which analysts called the rural rebound. What this meant was that, instead of losing population to the urban areas, two thirds of rural counties actually gained population. There gains were due mostly to migration as more people moved to rural places than left them for cities. The biggest gains in the process were seen in rural counties with special beauty such as lakes or ski areas. People were drawn to such rural communities not only by the natural beauty and clean air but also by their slower pace of life with less traffic and less crime.

Urbanization in poor nations continued...

Not only are more of the worlds people living in cities, but also more of these cities are passing the 10 million mark. In 1975, only three cities in the world, Tokoyo, New York, and Mexico City had populations exceeding 10 million, and all these cities were in high income nations. In 2011, twenty three cities had passed this mark, and only 5 of them were in high-cinome nations. By 2025, fourteen more "megacities" will be added to the list and only two of these fourteen will be in a high-income nation. This third urban revolution is taking place in the developing world because many poor nations have entered the high-growth stage 2 of the demographic transition. Falling death rates have fueled population increase in Latin America, Asia, and especially Africa. For urban areas, the rate of increase is twice as high because in addition to natural increase, and conveniences such as running grater and electricity. Cities do not offer more opportunities than rural areas, but they provide no quick for the massive problems of escalating population and grinding poverty. Many cities in less economically developed nations-including Mexico City, Egypt's Cairo, India's Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), and Manila in the Phillippines-are simply unable to meet the basic needs of much of their populations. All these cities are surrounded by wretched shantytowns-settlements of makeshift homes built from discarded materials. Even city dumps are home to thousands of poor people, who pick through the piles of waste hoping to find enough to eat or sell to make it through another day.

Technology and the Environmental Deficit continued... Environmental deficit definition

Not only do high-income societies use more energy, but also they produce 100 times more goods than people in agrarian societies do. Higher living standards in turn increase the problem of solid waste (because people ultimately throw away most of what they produce) and pollution (industrial production generates smoke and other toxic substances) From the start, people recognized the material benefits of industrial technology. But only a century later did they begin to see the long-term effects on the natural environment. Today, we realize that the technological power to make our lives better can also put the lives of future generations at risk. Evidence is mounting that we are running up an environmental deficit, profound long-term harm to the natural environment caused by humanities focus on short-term material affluence.

Water and Air

Oceans, lakes, and streams are the lifeblood of the global ecosystem. Humans depend on water for drinking, bathing, cooking, cleaning, recreation, and a host of other activities. According to what scientists call the hydrologic cycle, Earth naturally recycles water and refreshes the land. The process begins as heat from the sun causes Earth's water, 97 percent of which is in the oceans, to evaporate and form clouds. Because water evaporates at lower temperatures than most pollutants, the water vapor that rises from the seas is relatively pure, leaving containment's behind. Water then falls to the Earth as rain, which drains into streams and rivers and finally returns to the sea. Two major concerns about water, then, are supply and pollution.

The First Urban Revolution; the emergence of cities 10,000 years ago, The First Cities

Only about 12,000 years ago did our ancestors begin living in permanent settlements; which set the stage for the first urban revolution. Began with the appearance of cities about 10,000 years ago. The emergence of cities led to both higher living standards and job specialization. By about 2,000 years ago, cities emerged in most regions of the world except North America; only a few Native American societies formed settlements; widespread urbanization had to await the arrival of European settles in the seventeenth century. The first city that we know of was Jericho, lies to the north of the Dead Sea in what is now the West Bank; first settled 10,000 years ago, home to only 600 people. But as centuries passed, cities grew to thousands and became the centers of vast empress.

OTHER ORGANIZATIONS: All formal organizations operate in an organizational environment, which is influenced by technology political and economic trends current events population patterns ; the available workforce OTHER organizations

Other organizations also contribute to the organizational environment. To be competitive, a hospital must be responsive to the instance industry and to organizations representing doctors, nurses, and other health care workers. It must also be aware of the equipment and procedures available at nearby facilities, as well as their prices.

High-growth South

Population is a critical problem in poor nations of the Southern hemisphere. No nation lacks industrial technology; demographic transition theory stage 1 applies today to remote rural areas of low-income nations. But much of Latin America, Africa and Asia is at Stage 2, with a mix of agrarian and industrial economies. Advanced medical technology, supplied by rich countries, has sharply reduced death rates, but birth rates remain high. This is why lower-income countries account for about 82% of Earths people and 98% of annual global population increase. In some of the worlds poorest countries, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo in Africa, women still have, on average more than 6 kids. But in most poor countries, birth rates have fallen from about six children per woman (typical of 1950) to about three. But this level of fertility is still high enough to make global poverty much worse. This is why leaders in the battle against global poverty point to the importance of reducing fertility rates in low-income nations. A Key element to controlling world population growth is improving the status of women: give women more life choices and they have fewer children, women who are free decide when and where to marry, bear children as a matter of choice, and have access to education and good jobs will limit their own fertility

POPULATION PATTERNS: All formal organizations operate in an organizational environment, which is influenced by technology political and economic trends current events POPULATION PATTERNS; the available workforce other organizations

Population patterns also affect organizations. The average age, typical level of education, social diversity, and size of a local community determine the available workforce and sometimes the market for an organizations products or services.

Summing up.. Primary groups and Secondary groups

Primary Group: Quality of relationships: personal orientation Duration of relationships: usually long-term Breadth of relationships: broad; usually involving many activities Perception of relationships: ends in themselves Examples: families, circles of friends Secondary Group: Quality of relationships: Goal orientation Duration of relationships: variable; often short term Breadth of relationships: narrow, usually involving few actives Perception of relationships: means to an end Examples: co-workers, political organizations

The Rain Forests rainforest's definition

Rain Forests are regions of dense forestation, most of which circle the globe to the equator. The largest tropical rain forests are in South America (notably Brazil), west-central Africa, and Southeast Asia. In all, the worlds rain forests cover some 1.5 billion acres, or about 5% of Earths total land surface. Like other, global resources, rain forests are falling victim to the needs and appetites of the surging world population. As noted earlier, to meet the demand for beef, ranchers in Latin America burn forested areas to increase their supply of grazing land. We are also losing rain forests to the hardwood trade. People in rich nations pay high prices for mahogany and other woods because, as the environmentalist Norman Myers puts it, they have "a penchant for parquet floors, fine furniture, fancy paneling, weekend yachts, and high-grade coffins." Under such economic pressure, the worlds rain forests are now just half their original size, and they continued to shrink by about 1% annually; which amounts to about 30 acres a minute. Unless we stop this loss, the rain forests will vanish before the end of this century and with them will go protection for Earths biodiversity and climate.

15.4 Overview

Rapid urbanization during the nineteenth century led early sociologists to study the differences between rural and urban life. -Ferdinand Tonnies built his analysis on the concepts of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Gemeinschaft, typical of the rural village, joins people in what amounts to a primary group. Gesellschaft typical of the modern city, describes individuals motivated by their own needs rather than by a desire to help improve the well-being of the community. -Emile Durkheim agreed with much of Tonnies thinking but claimed that urbanites do not lack social bonds, the basis of social solidarity simply differs in the two settings described: mechanical solidarity-social bonds based on common sentiments and shared moral values. This type of social solidarity is typical of traditional, rural life. Organic solidarity- social bonds based on specializations and interdependence. This type of social solidarity is typical of modern, urban life. -Georg Simmel claimed that the overstimulation of city life produced a blasé attitude in urbanites. -Robert Park at the University of Chicago claimed that cities permit greater social freedom. -Louis Wirth saw large, dense, heterogenous populations creating an impersonal and self-interested, though tolerant, way of life. -Karl Marxs analysis of conflict in the city is echoed in the urban political economy model.

Problems of bureaucracy include: oligarchy

Robert Michels pointed out the link between bureaucracy and political oligarchy, the rule of the many by the few. According to what Michels called the "iron law of oligarchy," the pyramid shape of bureaucracy places a few leaders in charge of the resources of the entire organization. Weber believed that a strict hierarchy of responsibility resulted in high organizational efficiency. But Michels countered that this hierarchal structure also concentrates power and thus threatens democracy because officials can and often do use their access to information, resources, and the media to promote their own personal interests. Furthermore, bureaucracy helps distance officials from the public, as in the case of the corporate president or public official who is "unavailable or comment" to the local press or the US president who withholds documents from Congress claiming "executive privilege". Oligarchy, then, thrives in the hierarchal structure of bureaucracy and reduces leaders accountability to the people. Political competition, term limits, and a legal system that includes various checks and balances prevent the US government from becoming an out-and out oligarchy. Even so, incumbents, who generally have more visibility, power, and money than their challengers, enjoy a significant advantage in US politics. In recent congressional elections, 90 percent of congressional officeholders on the ballot were able to win reelection.

Patterns of privilege and exclusion; In the 1960s, Rosabeth Kanter proposed that opening up organizations for all employees, especially women and other minorities, increased organizational efficiency.

Rosabeth Kanter claims that excluding women and minorities from the workplace ignores the talents of half the population. Furthermore, underrepresented people in an organization often feel like socially isolated out-groups uncomfortably visible, taken less seriously, and given fewer changes for promotion. Some times what passes for merit or good work in an organization is simply being of the right social category. Opening up an organization so that change and advancement happen more often, Kanter claims, improves everyones on the job performance by motivating employees to become fast trackers who work harder an more committed to the company. By contrast, an organization with many dead-end jobs turns workers into less productive zombies who are never asked for their opinion on anything. An open organization encourages leaders to seek out the input of all employs, which usually improves decision making.

Reference Groups: Stouffer's Research

Samuel Stouffer and his colleagues conducted a classic study of reference group dynamics during World War 2. Researchers asked soldiers to rate their own or any competent soldiers chances of promotion in their army unit. You might guess that soldiers serving in outfits with a high promotion rate would be optimistic about advancement. Yet Stouffer's research pointed to the opposite conclusion: Soldiers in army units with low promotion rates were actually more positive about their chances to move ahead. The key to understanding Stouffer's results lies in the groups against which soldiers measured themselves. Those assigned to units with lower promotion rates looked around them and saw people making no more headway than they were. That is, although they had not been promoted, neither had many others, so they did not feel slighted. However, soldiers in units with a higher promotion rate could easily think of people who had been promoted were likely to feel shortchanged. The point is that we do not make judgments about ourselves in isolation, nor do we compare ourselves with just anyone. Regardless of our situation in absolute terms, we form a subjective sense of our well-being by looking at ourselves relative to specific reference groups.

Scientific management involves three steps: 2

Second, managers analyze their data, trying to discover ways for workers to perform each job more efficiently. For example, managers might decide to give the worker different tools or to reposition various work operations within the factory.

Urban Ecology definition, concentric zones, wedge-shaped sectors, multi centered model, social area analysis

Sociologists developed urban ecology, the study of the link between the physical and social dimensions of cities. One issue of interest to urban ecologists is why cities are located where they are. Broadly speaking, the first cities emerged in fertile regions where the ecology favored raising crops. Preindustrial people, concerned with defense, built their cities on mountains (ancient Athens was perched on an outcropping of rock) or surrounded by water (Paris and Mexico City were founded on Islands). With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, economic considerations gained importance, which explains why all the major US cities were situated near rivers or natural harbors that facilitated trade. Urban ecologist also study the physical design of cities. In 1925, Ernest W. Burgess, a study and colleague of Robert Park, described land use in Chicago in terms of concentric zones. City centers, Burgess observed, are business districts bordered by a ring of factories, followed by residential rings of housing that becomes more expensive the father it is from the noise and pollution of the cites center. Homer Hoyt refined Burgess observations, noting that distinctive districts sometimes form wedge-shaped sectors. For example, one fashionable area may develop next to another, or an industrial district may extend outward from a cites center along a train or trolley line.

Technology and the Environmental Deficit

Sociologists point to a simple formula: I=PAT, where environmental impact (I) reflects a societies population (P), its level of affluence (A), and its level of technology (T). Members of societies with simple technology-the hunters and gathered described in CH 2- hardly affect the environment because they are few in number, are poor, and have only simple technology. On the contrary, nature affects their lives as they follow the migration of game, watch the rhythm of the seasons, and suffer from natural catastrophes such as fires, floods, droughts, and storms. Societies at intermediate stages of technological development, being both larger and richer, have a somewhat greater capacity to affect the environment. But the environmental impact of horticulture (small-scale farming), pastoralism (the herding of animals), and even agriculture (the use of animal-drawn plows) is limited because people still rely on muscle power for producing food and other goods.

Emile Durkheim: Mechanical and Organic Solidarity

The French sociologist Emile Durkheim agreed with most of Tonnies thinking about cities. However, Durkheim countered that urbanities do not lack social bonds; they simply organize social life differently than rural people. Durkheim described traditional, rural life as mechanical solidarity, social bonds based on common sentiments and shared moral values. With its emphasis on tradition, Durkheims concept of mechanical solidarity bears a striking similarity to Tonnies Gemeinschaft. Urbanization erodes mechanical solidarity. Durkheim explained, but it also generates a new type of bonding, which he called organic solidarity, social bonds based on specialization and interdependence. This concept, which parallels Tonnies Gesellschaft, reveals an important difference between the two thinkers. Both taught the growth of industrial cities weakened tradition, but Durkheim optimistically pointed to a new king of solidarity. Where societies has been built on likeness (mechanical solidarity), Durkheim now saw social life based on difference (organic solidarity). For Durkheim, urban society offered more individual choice, moral tolerance, and personal privacy than people find in rural villages. In sum, Durkheim fought that something is lost in the process of urbanization, but much is gained.

Georg Simmel: The blase Urbanite

The German sociologist Georg Simmel offered a microanalysis of cities, styduing how urban life shapes individual experience. According to Simmel individuals perceive the city as a crush of people, objects, and events. To prevent being overwhelmed by all this stimulation, urbanites develop a blasé attitude, tuning out much of what goes on around them. Such detachment does not mean that city dwellers lack compassion for others; they simply keep their distance as a survival strategy so that they can focus their time and energy on the people and things that really matter to them.

Urbanization

The concentration of population into cities. Urbanization redistributes population within a society and transforms many patterns of social life. We will trace these changes in terms of three urban revolutions: the emergence of cities 10,000 years ago, the development of industrial cities after 1750, and the explosive growth of cities in poor countries today.

Toward a Sustainable Society and World

The demographic analysis presented in this chapter reveals some disturbing trends. We see, first, that Earths population has reached record levels because birth rates remain high in poor nations and death rates have fallen just about everywhere. Reducing fertility will remain a pressing need throughout this century. Even with some recent decline in the rate of population increase, the nightmare Thomas Malthus described is still a real possibility. Further, population growth remains greatest in the poorest countries of the world, which cannot meet the needs of their present populations, much less future ones. Supporting 84 million additional people on our planet each year, 83 million of them in economically less developed counties, will require a global commitment to provide not just food but housing, schools, and employment as well. The well-being of the entire world may ultimately depend on resolving the economic and social problems of poor, overly populated counties and bridging the widening gulf between have and have not nations. Urbanization is continuing, especially in poor counties. For thousands of years, people have sought out cities in the hope of finding a better life. But the sheer numbers of people who live in todays megacities-including mexico city, sao paulo (brazil), lagos (nigeria), mumbai (india), and manila (phillippines)-have created urban problems on a massive scale. Around the world, humanity is facing a serious environmental challenge. Part of this problem is population increase, which is greatest in poor countries. But part of the problem is the high levels of consumption in rich nations such as our own. By increasing the planets environmental deficit, our present way of life is borrowing against the well-being of our children and their children. Globally, members of rich societies who currently consume so much of earths resources, are mortgaging the future security of the poor counties of the world. The answer, in principle, is to create an ecologically sustainable culture, a way of life that meets the needs of the present generation without threatening the environmental legacy of future generations. Sustainable living depends on three strategies.

A more complex measure is the AGE SEX PYRAMID (the pyramid for Mexico, and other lower-income nations, is wide at the bottom (high birth rates) and narrows quickly by middle age (due to high mortality; Mexico is a younger society, with a median age of twenty-eight compared to thirty-seven in the United States) (with a larger share of females still in their childbearing years, Mexico's (19) CBR is higher (12.7) and annual rate of population growth (1.1%) is more than twice the US (0.5%))

The graphic representation of the age and sex of a population. Demographers use age-sex pyramids to show the composition of a population graphically and to protect population trends. In the US pyramid, the bulge in the middle reflects high birth rates during the baby boom from the mid-1940s to the mid-1960s. The contraction for people in their twenties and thirties reflects the subsequent baby bust. The birth rate of 12.7 in 2011 is half what it was (25.3) at the height of the baby boom in 1957.

Mortality

The incidence of death in a country's population. Demographers measure mortality using both the crude death rate and the infant mortality rate.

Urban Decentralization 1950-present SUBURBS definiton

The industrial metropolis reached its peak about 1950. Since then, something out of a turn around-termed urban decentralization-had occurred as people have left downtown areas for outlying suburbs, urban areas beyond the political boundaries of a city. The old industrial cities of the Northeast and Midwest stopped growing, and some lost considerable population in the decades after 1950. At the same time, suburban populations increased rapidly. The urban landscape of densely packed central cities evolved into sprawling suborn regions.

Population size is also affected by MIGRATION

The movement of people into and out of a specified territory. Movement into a territory, or immigration, is measured as an in-migration rate, calculated as the number of people entering an area for every 1,000 people in the population. Movement out of a territory, or emigration, is measured in terms of an out-migration rate, the number leaving for every 1,000 people.

Environment and Society continued... natural environment definition

The natural environment is Earth's surface and atmosphere, including living organisms, air, water, soil, and other resources necessary to sustain life. Like every other species, humans depend on the natural environment to survive. Yet with our capacity for culture, humans stand apart from other species; we alone take deliberate action to remake the world according to our own interests and desires, for better and for worse. Why is the environment of interest to sociologists? Environmental problems, from pollution to acid rain to global warming, do not arise from the natural world operating on its own. Such problems result from the specific actions of human beings, which means they are social problems.

A third useful demographic measure is the INFANT MORTALITY RATE (North America infant mortality rate is very low)

The number of deaths among infants under one year of age for each 1,000 live births in a given year. To compute infant mortality rate, divide the number of deaths of children under one year of age by the number of live births during the same year, and multiply the result by 1,000. In 2011 there were 23,910 infant deaths and 3.95 million live births in the United States. Dividing the first number by the second and multiplying the result by 1,000 yields an infant mortality rate of 6.05. Differences among exist among various categories of people, African Americans have nearly 3 times the burden of poverty as whites, and they have an infant mortality rate of 11.4-more than twice the white rate of 5.1

Demographers also study the makeup of a societies population at a given point in time, one variable is the SEX RATIO

The number of males for every 100 females in a nations population. In 2011, the sex ratio in the United States was 97 (96.8 for every 100 females) Sex ratios are usually below 100 because on average women outlive men. In Kansas, an aging population, the sex ratio is only 89, or 89 males for every 100 females. In India, however, the sex ratio is 108 because not only is the population much younger, but also many parents value sons more than daughters and may either abort a female fetus or, after birth, give more care to their male children, raising odds that a female child will die.

Demographic transition theory Stage 2 greater food supplies, death rates fall

The onset of Industrialization, brings a demographic transition as death rates fall due to greater food supplies and scientific medicine. But birth rates remain high, resulting in rapid population growth. It was during Europe's Stage 2 that Malthus formulated his ideas, which accounts for his pessimistic view of the future. The worlds poorest countries today are in this high-growth stage.

A century ago in the United States, Webers ideas took hold in an organizational model called scientific management.

The problems of bureaucracy-especially the alienation it produces and its tendency toward oligarchy-stem from two organizational traits: hierarchy and rigidity. To Weber, bureaucracy was a top-down system: Rules and regulations made at the top guide every facet of peoples lives down the chain on command. A century ago in the United States, Webers ideas took hold in an organizational model called scientific management. We take a look at this model and hen examine three challenges over the course of the twentieth century that gradually led to a new model: the flexible organization.

Rationalization of society

The rise of the modern world rests on what Weber called the rationalization of society; the historical change from tradition to rationality as the main type of human thought; can be used or misused. Modern society, he claimed, becomes "disenchanted" as sentimental ties give way to a rational focus on science, complex technology, and the organizational structure called "bureaucracy."

Fertility

The study of human population begins with how many people are born. Fertility is the incidence of childbearing in a country's population. During her childbearing years, fro the onset of menstruation (typically in early teens) Demographers describe fertility using the crude birth rate.

Demography; Greek "description of people"

The study of human population. Demography analyzes the size and composition of a population and how and why people move from place to place. Demographers collect statistics but also raise important questions about the effects of population growth and suggest how it might be controlled. The following present basic demographic concepts.

The Global Dimension ecosystem definition

The study of the natural environment requires a global perspective. The reason is simple: regardless of political divisions among nations, the planet is a single ecosystem, a system composed of the interaction of all living organisms and their natural environment. The greek meaning of eco is house, reminding us that this planet is our home and that all living things and their natural environment are interrelated. A change in any part of the natural environment ripples throughout the entire global ecosystem. Consider, from an ecological loin tot view, our natural love of hamburgers. People in North America (and, increasingly, around the world) have created a huge demand for beef, which has greatly expanded the ranching industry in Brazil, Costa Rica, and other Latin American nations. To produce the lean meat sought by fast-food corporations, cattle's get the land for grazing by clearing thousands of square miles of forests each year. These tropical forests are vital to maintaining Earths atmosphere. Deforestation ends up threatening everyone, including people in the United States enjoying their hamburgers.

Problems of bureaucracy include: Bureaucratic Inertia:

The tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate themselves. Formal organizations tend to take on a life of their own beyond their formal objective. For example, the U.S. department of agriculture has offices in nearly every county in all fifty states, even though only one county in seven has any working farms. Usually, an organization stays in business by redefining its goals. For example, the Agriculture Department now performs a broad range of work not directly related to farming including nutritional and environmental research.

Janis's "Groupthink" Group think definition Group Conformity The Asch, Milgram, and Janis research shows that group members often seek agreement and may pressure one another toward conformity.

The tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue. Experts also gave in to group pressure, says Irving L. Janis. Janis argues that a number of U.S. foreign policy errors, including the failure to foresee Japan's arrack on Pearl Harbor during World War II and our ill-fated involvement in the Vietnam War, resulted from group conformity among our highest-ranking political leaders. Common sense tells us that group discussion improves decision making. Janis counters that group members often seek agreement that closes off other points of view. Janis called this process groupthink, the tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue. A classic example of groupthink led to the failed invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs in 1961. Looking back, Arthur Schlesinger Jr., an adviser to President John F. Kennedy confessed to feeling guilty for "having kept so quiet during those crucial discussions in the cabinet room" adding that the group discouraged anyone from challenging what, in hindsight, Schlesinger considered nonsense. Groupthink may have also been a factor in the U.S. invasion of Ira in 2003 when U.S. leaders were led to believe-that Iraq had stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction. Closer to home, one professor suggest that college faculties are subject to groupthink because they share political attitudes that are overwhelmingly liberal.

15.5 Overview

The third urban revolution is taking place now in low-income nations. Almost all global population increase is taking place in cities. Of the twenty-three cities with population greater than 10 million, 18 are in poor nations.

Scientific management involves three steps: 3

Third, management provides guidance and incentives for workers to do their jobs more quickly. If a factory worker moves 20 tons of pig iron in one day, for example, management shows the worker how to do he job more efficiently and then provides higher wages as the workers productivity rises. Taylor concluded that if scientific principles were applied in this way, companies would become more profitable, workers would earn higher wages, and consumers would benefit by paying lower prices.

Declining Biodiversity 3

Third, with the loss of any species of life-whether it is the magnificent California condor, the famed Chinese panda, the spotted owl, or even a single species of ant-the beauty and complexity of our natural environment are diminished. There are clear warning signs of such loss: three-fourths of the worlds 10,000 species of birds are declining in number.

Social Group

Two or more people who identify with and interact with one another. Couples, families, circles of friends, churches, clubs, businesses, neighborhoods, and large organizations. Whatever the form, a group made up of people with shared experiences, loyalties, and interests. In short, while keeping their individuality, members of social groups also think of themselves as a special "we"

Edge Cities

Urban decentralization has also created edge cities, business centers some distance from the old downtowns. Edge cities-a mix of corporate office buildings, shopping malls, hotels, and entertainment complexes-differ from suburbs, which contain mostly homes. The population of suburbs peak at night, but the population of edge cities peak during the workday. As part of expanding urban regions, most edge cities have no clear physical boundaries. Some do not have names, including Las Colinas (near Dallas-Fort Worth airport), Tyson's Corner (in Virginia, near Washington D.C.) and King of Prussia (northwest of Philadelphia). Other edge cities are known only by the major highways that flow through them, including route 1 in Princeton, New Jersey, and route 128 near Boston.

Brief Overview: In the United States,

Urbanization has been going on for more than 400 years. Urbanization came to North America with European colonists. By 1850, hundreds of new cities had been founded from coast to coast By 1920, a majority of the U.S. population lived in urban areas. Since 1950, the decentralization of cities has resulted in the growth of suburbs and edge cities. Rural areas represent 75% of the nations land area; although rural places that are near large cities, as well as those that are especially scenic, are attracting migrants, rural areas currently lose net population through migration to cities. Sunbelt cities

Utilitarian Organizations: Types of Formal Organizations: Amitari Etzioni identified three types of formal organizations, distinguished by the reasons people participate in them: UTILITARIAN ORGANIZATIONS, normative organizations, and coercive organizations.

Utilitarian Organizations: Just about everyone who works for income belongs to a utilitarian organization, one that (pays people for their efforts EX: business or government agency.) Large businesses, for example, generate profits for their owners and income for their employees. Becoming part of a utilitarian organization such as a business or government agency is usually a matter of individual choice, although most people join one or another such organization to make a living.

Solid Waste: The Disposable Society continued...

We like to say that we throw things "away." But most of the 136 million tons of solid waste our society produced in 2010 never went away. Rather it ended up in landfills, which are literally filling up. Material in landfills can pollute underground water supplies. Although in most places, laws now regulate what can be discarded in a landfill, the US environmental Protection Agency has identified 1,315 dump sites across the United States containing hazardous materials that are polluting water both above and below the ground. In addition, what goes into landfills are too often stays there, sometimes for centuries. Tens of millions of tires, diapers, and other items we bury in landfills each year do not decompose but will remain as an unwelcome legacy for future generations. Environmentalists argue that we should address the problem of solid waste by doing what many of our grandparents did: use less and turn "waste" into a resource. Part of the solution is recycling, reusing resources we would otherwise discard. Recycling is an accepted practice in Japan and many other nations, and it is becoming more common in the United States, where we now reuse about one-third of waste materials. The share is increasing as laws require the recovery and reuse of certain materials such as glass bottles and aluminum cans and the business of recycling becomes more profitable.

Zero population growth

When the Industrial Revolution began in the Northern Hemisphere, the population increase in Western Europe and North America was a high 3 percent annually. But in the centuries since, the growth rate has steadily declined, and in 1970, it fell below 1%. As or postindustrial society settles into Stage 4, the U.S. birth rate is below the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman, a point demographers term zero population growth, the rate of reproduction that maintains population at a steady level. In 2012, eighty-one nations, almost all of them high-income countries, were at or below the point of zero population. Among the factors that serve to hold down population in these postindustrial societies are a high proportion of men and women in the labor force, rising costs of raising children, trends toward later marriage and single hood, and widespread use of contraceptives.

The Logic of Growth

When you turn on the television news, you might hear a story like this: "The government reported bad economic news today, with the economy growing by only a half a percent during the first quarter of the year." If yo unstop to think about it, our culture defines an economy that isn't growing as "stagnant" (which is bad) and an economy that is getting smaller as a "recession" or a "depression" ( which is very bad). What is "good" is growth-lots of it-which makes the economy get bigger and bigger. More cars, bigger homes, more income, more spending-the idea of more is at the heart of our cultural definition of living well. One of the reasons we define growth in positive terms is that we value material comfort, believing that money and the things it buys improve our lives. We also believe in the idea of progress, thinking the future will be better than the present. In addition, we look to science to make our lives easier and more rewarding. In simple terms, "having things is good", "life gets better", and "people are clever." Taken together, such cultural values form the logic of growth.

Global Warming

Why are rain forests so important? One reason is that they cleanse the atmosphere of carbon dioxide (CO2). Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the amount tot carbon dioxide produced by humans, mostly from factories and automobiles, has risen sharply. Much of this carbon dioxide is absorbed by the oceans. But plants also take in canon dioxide and expel oxygen. This is why rain forests are vital to maintaining the chemical balance of the atmosphere. The problem is that production of carbon dioxide is rising while the amount of plant life on Earth is shrinking. To make matters worse, rain forests are being destroyed mostly by burning, which releases even more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Experts estimate that the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide is now 41% higher than it was 150 years ago and rising rapidly. High above Earth, carbon dioxide acts like the glass roof of a greenhouse, letting heat from the sun pass through to the surface while preventing much of it from radiating away from the planet. The result of this greenhouse effect, say ecologists, is global warming, a rise in Earths average temperature due to an increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Over the past century, the global temperature has risen about 1.3 degrees fahrenheit. Scientists continue to debate the numbers, but they warn that the planets temperature could rise by 3 degrees fahrenheit to as much as 5 degrees fahrenheit during this century.

Estimating a nation or regions growth is to

divide the number 70 by the population growth rate; this yields the doubling time in years. An annual growth rate of 2 percent (found in latin america nations of Bolivia, Honduras, and Belize) doubles a population in thirty-five years. The rapid population growth of the poorest countries is deeply troubling because these countries can barely support the population they have now.

A Third Urban Revolution; and the explosive growth of cities in poor countries today.

is now occurring in poor countries.

Water Supply continued...

sprawled to some 1,400 square miles has pumped so much water from its underground aquifer that the city has sunk 30 feet during the past century and continues to drop about 2 inches per year. Father north in the United States, which lies below seven states from South Dakota to Texas, is now being pumped so rapidly that so experts fear it could run dry in just a few decades. In light of such developments, we must face the reality that water is a valuable and finite resources. Greater conservation of water by individuals-the average person in the United States consumes about 100 gallons of water a day, which amounts to about 3 million gallons over a life time-is part of the answer. However, households, around the world account for july 11 percent of water use. It is even more crucial that we curb water consumption by industry, which uses 19% of the global total, and farming, which consumes 70% of the total for irrigation. Perhaps new irrigation technology will reduce the future demand for water. But here again, we see how population increase, as well as economic growth, strains our ecosystem.

Sustainable living depends on three strategies: First,

the world needs to bring population growth under control. The current population of 7.1 billion is already straining the natural environment. Clearly, the higher the worlds population climbs, the more difficult environmental problems will become. Even if the recent slowing of population growth continues, the world will have about 9.3 billion people by 2050. Few analysts think that the planet can support this many people; most argue that we must hold the line at about 7 billion, and some argue that we must decrease population in the coming decades.

....About 1750,

world population rose sharply, mostly due to falling death rates. A major demographic shift began about 1750 as the worlds population turned upward, reaching the 1 billion mark by 1800. In no previous century did the worlds population even double; in the twentieth century it quadrupled. The world is gaining 84 million people each year; 98 percent of this increase is in poor countries.

Rationality

A way of thinking that emphasizes deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient way to accomplish a particular task; law of unintended consequences (stealing identity) A rational worldview pays little attention to the past and encourages productive efficiency because it is open to any changes that might get the job done better or more quickly.

Network definition

A web of weak social ties. Think of a network as a fuzzy group containing people who come into occasional contact but who lack a sense of boundaries and belonging. "Social Web" expanding outward, often reaching great distances and including large numbers of people. Networks are relational webs that link people with little common identity and limited interaction. Being well-connected in networks is a valuable type of social capital. The largest network is the world wide web of the internet. Closer to home, some networks come close to being groups, as is the case with college classmates who stay in touch after graduation through class newsletters and annual reunions. More commonly, however, a network includes people we know of or who know of us but with whom we interact only rarely, if at all. Network ties may be weak, but they can be a powerful resource. For immigrants who are trying to become established in a new community, businesspeople seeking to expand their operations, or new college graduates looking for a job, who you know is often as important as what you know. Gender shapes networks. Women include more relatives and more women in their networks and men include more coworkers and men. As gender equality increases in the United States, the networks of women and men are becoming more alike.

Expressive Leadership: Group Leadership: how do groups operate? One important element of group dynamics is leadership. Though a small circle of friends may have no leader at all, most large secondary groups place leaders in a formal chain of command. Instrumental and EXPRESSIVE:

Expressive leadership- ex: priest, group leadership that focuses on the group's well-being. Expressive leaders take less interest in achieving goals than in raising group morale and minimizing tension and conflict among members. Expressive leaders build more personal primary ties. They offer sympathy to a member going through tough times, keep the group united, and lighten serious moments with humor. Receive more personal affection.

Scientific management involves three steps: 1

First, managers carefully observe the task performed by each worker, identifying all the operations involved and measuring the time needed for each.

In another study of women executives, Sally Helgesen found three other gender linked patterns 1:

First, women place greater value on communication skills than men and share information more than men do.

Formal Organization

Huge corporations and other bureaucracies.

Fertility, mortality, and migration all affect the size of a societies population.

In general, rich nations (such as the United States) grow as much from immigration as from natural increase; poorer nations (such as Pakistan) grow almost entirely from natural increase.

The future of organizations: opposing trends

In our postindustrial society, many organizations are evolving toward a flatter more flexible model that encourages worker creativity. At the same time, other organizations that provide services require more workers to perform McJobs which describes low wage routine work.

The first challenge: race and gender Formal organizations have also faced important challenges, involving race and gender, rising competition from abroad, and the changing nature of work. We now take a look at each of those challenges:

In the 1960s, critics charged that big businesses and other organizations engaged in unfair hiring practices. Rather than hiring on the basis of competence as Weber had proposed, organizations excluded women and other minorities, especially from positions of power. Hiring on the basis of competence is only partly a matter of fairness; it is also a matter of enlarging the talent pool to promote efficiency.

Instrumental Leadership: Group Leadership: how do groups operate? One important element of group dynamics is leadership. Though a small circle of friends may have no leader at all, most large secondary groups place leaders in a formal chain of command. INSTRUMENTAL and Expressive:

Instrumental leadership- group leadership that focuses on the completion of tasks. Members look to instrumental leaders to make plans, give orders and get things done. Because they concentrate on performance, instrumental leaders usually have formal secondary relationships with other members. Those leaders give orders and reward or punish members according to how much the members contribute to the group's efforts. Enjoy respect from members.

Fifth,

Japanese companies played a large role in the lives of workers, providing home mortgages, sponsoring recreational activities, and scheduling social events. Together, such policies encourage much more loyalty among members of Japanese organizations than is typically the case in their U.S. counterparts.

EX: Difference between primary and secondary

Most real groups contain elements of both. A women's group on a university campus may be quite large (and therefore secondary), but its members may identify strongly with one another and provide lots of mutual support (making it seem primary) Many people think that small towns and rural areas have mostly primary relationships and that large cities are characterized by more secondary ties. This generalization is partly true, but some urban neighborhoods-especially those populated by people of a single ethnic or religious category-are very tightly knit.

Social Media definition and Networking

Networks have become far larger along with the development of social media based on computed technology. Social media refers to technology that links people in social activity. Based on computer technology have involved people in more and more social networks that now extend around the world.

Category and Crowd

Not every collection of individuals forms a group. People all over the country with a status in common, such as women, homeowners, soldiers, millionaires, college graduates, and Roman Catholics, are not a group but a category. Though they know that others hold the same status, most are strangers to one another. Students sitting in a large stadium interact to a very limited extent. Such a loosely formed collection of people in one place is a crowd rather than a group. However, the right circumstances can quickly turn a crowd into a group. Unexpected events, from power failures to terrorist attacks, can make people bond quickly with strangers.

Reference Group definition; How do we assess our own attitudes and behavior? Individuals use reference groups- including both in groups and out groups to form attitudes and make evaluations.

Reference Group: a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions. A young man who imagines his family's response to a woman he is dating is using his family as a reference group. A supervisor who tries to predict her employees' reaction to a new vacation policy is using them in the same way. As these examples suggest, reference groups can be primary or secondary. In either case, our need to confer shows how others attitudes affect us. We also use groups that we do not belong to for reference. Being well prepared for a job interview means showing up dressed the way people in that company dress for work. Conforming to groups we do not belong to is a strategy to win acceptance by others and illustrates the process of anticipatory socialization.

In another study of women executives, Sally Helgesen found three other gender linked patterns 2:

Second, women are more flexible leaders who typically give their employees heater freedom.

Networks; Stanley Milgram Research

Stanley Milgram gave letters to subjects in Kansas and Nebraska intended for a few specific people in Boston who were unknown to the original subjects. No address were supplied, and the subjects in the study were told to send the letters to others, they knew personally who might know the target people. Milgram found that the target people received the letters with, on average, six subjects passing them on. Milgram concluded that just about everyone is connected to everyone else by "six degrees of separation." Later research has cast doubt on Milgrams conclusions. Judith Kleinfeld examined Milgram's letters and most of his letters never arrived at their destinations (240 out of 300). Those that did were typically given to people who were wealthy, a fact that led Kleinfield to conclude that rich people are far better connected across the country then ordinary men and women.

continued... In-groups and out-groups are based on the idea that "we" have valued traits that "they" lack.

Tensions between groups sharpen the groups' boundaries and give people a clearer social identity. However, members of in-groups generally hold overly positive views of themselves and unfairly negative views of various out-groups. Power also plays a part in intergoup relations. A powerful in-group can define others as a lower-status out-group. Historically, in countless U.S. towns and cities, many white people viewed people of color as an out-group and subordinated them socially, politically and economically. Minorities who internalize these negative attitudes often struggle to overcome negative self-images. In this way, in-groups and out-groups foster loyalty but also generate conflict.

Group Size The Dyad definition; dyad is intense but unstable;

The German sociologist Georg Simmel studied social dynamics in the smallest groups. Simmel used the term dyad (greek for "pair") to designate a social group with two members. Simmel explained that social interaction in a dyad is usually more intense than in larger groups because neither member shares the others attention with anyone else. In the United States, love affairs, marriages, and the closest friendships are typically dyadic. Unstable, both members of a dyad must work to keep the relationship going: if either withdraws, the group collapses. Because the stability of marriages is important to society, the marital dyad is supported y legal, economic, and often religious ties.

Both types of migration usually occur at the same time; the difference between them is the net migration rate.

The difference between the in-migration rate and the out-migration rate.

In another study of women executives, Sally Helgesen found three other gender linked patterns 3:

Third, compared to men, women tend to emphasize the interconnectedness of all organizational operations. These patterns, which Helgesen dubbed the female advantage, help make companies more flexible and democratic. In sum, one challenge to conventional bureaucracy is to become more open and flexible in order to take advantage of the experience, ideas, and creativity of everyone, regardless of race or gender. The result goes ight to the bottom line: greater profits.

Fourth,

although Japanese corporate leaders took final responsibility for their organizations performance, they involved workers in "quality circles" to discuss decisions that affected them.

organizational environment

factors outside an organization that affect its operation; car manufacture, small, cheap, fewer cars, economy tanks and gas prices rise.

Early organizations had tow limitations:

first, they lacked the technology to let people travel over large distances, to communicate quickly, and to gather and store information. Second, the preindustrial societies they were trying to rule had traditional cultures.

Second,

many Japanese companies hired workers for life, fostering a strong sense of loyalty.

Currently,

the world is gaining 84 million people each year, with 98% of this increase taking place in poor countries. By 2025 earths population will reach 8 billion and climb more slowly to about 9.3 billion by 2050.

Population growth (Earths low growth continents are high-income nations; while the highest growth region in the world is Africa)

to calculate a populations natural growth rate, demographers subtract the crude death rate from the crude death rate. The natural growth rate of the U.S. in 2011 was 4.6 per 1,000 (the crude birth rate 12.7 minus the crude death rate of 8.1), or about 0.5 percent annual growth.

Historically,

world population grew slowly, as high birth rates were offset by high death rates because of disease.