SOCW 610 Ch 14,15,16

Normative needs

A gap or discrepancy between a need considered to be a norm and the resources that exist to respond to that need. For example, green space for children to play is considered a developmental normative need and is available in most communities. However, in other communities, the resource of green space does not exist.

community capacity development

A reframing of locality development, in which community cohesion, the creation of community, and community capability are seen as integral to the community's becoming empowered to act on own behalf. The flexibility in organizational structure and decentralized administration enabled the local communities to develop programs that responded to their unique needs.

Social action

Advocacy by communities to induce institutions and decision makers to address unfairness in resource distribution, remedy the imbalance of power through neighborhood associations or concerned citizens, and solve problems or conditions identified by the community.

Minimize Changes

Although such changes or events can be upsetting to a group at any stage of development, they are particularly difficult to manage in Stage 2. At this point, members have not yet become invested in the group to an appreciable extent and thus may become easily distracted or disenchanted. Adding new members or changing the group's leader is particularly stressful, causing members to raise their defenses because there are risks involved in revealing themselves when either the leader or a member is an unknown entity. The loss of a leader can also prove inordinately traumatic to members who have difficulty investing in relationships, affirming their stance that trusting others just brings disappointment. In addition, making a significant change in the group structure without group involvement may cause members to conclude that the leader or agency disregards the impact of such decisions on the group and that the members' input is not important. Although changes are sometimes unavoidable, it behooves leaders to keep them to a minimum, to prepare members in advance whenever possible, and to aid them to "work through" their feelings when change is necessary.

Interventions throughout the Life of the Group

Although the leader's role ebbs and flows over the life span of the group, he or she must be prepared to employ interventions to deal with overarching issues whenever they occur. These include: Fostering cohesion Addressing group norms Intervening with members' roles Attending to subgroup structure Using the leadership role purposefully Attending to group and individual processes

What Are the Social Justice Concerns Related to the Problem or Condition?

An assessment of social justice includes an examination of the nexus between the problems that people have, the conditions in which they live, and the extent to which social policies remedy or have an adverse impact on individuals, groups, and communities. Using social justice as a framework to assess social problems and conditions contributes to an understanding of the debilitating effects of inequality and oppression that influence people's ability to reach their potential. Social justice also leads to an inquiry about public policy and societal responses to social problems and conditions, especially the power endowed in social welfare organizations as agents of change.

Social planning

An expert-driven strategy involving reliance on consultants and technical assistance for solving problems.

Culture and Environment of Organizations

An organization's environment—in particular, the culture of an organization—is influenced by its leadership, staff, resource environment, and public policy. The resource environment (e.g., the state of the economy and clients) and public policy can require changes or modifications to decisions with respect to how the organization functions, its leadership, the allocation of resources, and the strategies that are implemented to achieve the organization's goals or mission

Promoting Dignity and Worth

Areas to consider and assess include the extent to which routine service delivery, organizational policies and practices, and professional behavior retain clients' dignity. For example, is client dignity compromised by the image of those who are in need as presented by public policy, the media, funding resources, and the residual nature of assistance? Additional factors are organizational practices and the behavior of individual professionals. In some cases, organizations and staff may unintentionally strip service recipients of their dignity by requiring them to go to unreasonable lengths, for example, to establish eligibility for concrete aid or services.

Techniques and Steps of Advocacy and Social Action

As a general rule, you should rely on the techniques that have the greatest promise of achieving a given objective. Deciding which technique to use depends on the nature and analysis of the problem, the wishes of the group or community, the nature of the action, and the political climate. Effective social action and advocacy require a rational, planned approach incorporating the following steps: Assess and document the problem or condition. Systematically gather information and conduct an analysis of the people, structure, system, or policy to be changed. Assess both the driving forces that may promote change and the forces that may conceivably inhibit change. Identify specific goals, eliciting a broad range of viewpoints from within the client group. Carefully match techniques or strategies to the desired outcome. Make a feasible schedule for implementing the plan of action. Incorporate in the plan a feedback process for evaluating the changes that the action stimulates. In addition to the steps and skill competencies, other factors that are vital to effective social action and advocacy include a genuine concern for the cause, the ability to keep the cause in focus, tenacity, and stamina. Successful advocates have a thorough understanding of how the government and systems are organized and changed. Blind emotion may work a few times, but maintaining successful, sustained advocacy and action requires know-how.

Stage 1. Preaffiliation: Approach and Avoidance Behavior

As anyone who has ever experienced the first day of a new class can attest, the initial stage of group development is characterized by members' exhibiting approach/avoidance behavior. Apprehensions about becoming involved in the group are reflected in members' reluctance to volunteer answers to questions, to interact with others, and to support program activities and events. At this forming stage (Tuckman, 1963), participant behavior is wary, sometimes even provocative, as members assess possible social threats and attempt to discern the kinds of behaviors the group wants and expects. Members also tend to identify one another in terms of each individual's status and roles and to engage in social rituals, stereotyped introductions, and detailed intellectual discussions rather than in-depth or highly revealing conversation At times during the preaffiliation stage members may employ testing behaviors to "size up" other members, to press the group's limits, to find out how competent the leader is, and to determine to what extent the leader will safeguard the rights of members and protect them from feared hurt and humiliation. Members may also move tentatively toward the group as they seek to find common ground with other members, search for viable roles, and seek approval, acceptance, and respect.

Encourage Balanced Feedback

As they observe that group members are tentatively moving into their first authentic encounters, leaders should intervene in negative interactions to draw the group's attention to the need to provide balanced feedback, reminding members to focus on positives as well as negatives. Group members' first experiences in giving feedback to one another are crucial in setting the tone for all that follows in the group. By guiding members' first cautious efforts to drop their facades and to engage at an intimate level, the leader enables the group to experience success and incorporate attention to positives as a part of its character. In addition to encouraging positive feedback for individuals, leaders can reinforce behaviors observed during a session that have helped the group accomplish its tasks. Such behaviors may include being willing to participate in discussions, to answer questions, and to risk revealing oneself; showing support to others; speaking in turn; giving full attention to the task at hand; accepting differing values, beliefs, and opinions; and recognizing significant individual and group breakthroughs.

Who or What Is Responsible for the Problem or Condition?

Assessing who or what is responsible for the problem is perhaps the most difficult to document because the answer often involves multiple factors, including values and public policy. Nonetheless, asking these questions, assessing established fact, and reaching a conclusion based on the information gathered helps you to understand the issues involved and to use this information to inform the intervention (Kirst-Ashman, 2014). The way you identify and frame the problem, who is affected, and how provides context and documentation that have the potential to make a difference in how people respond, despite their values. Systems-level thinking allows you to examine the interrelated aspects of poverty and to frame the issue as a social problem rather than an individual problem; specifically, poor people do not make themselves poor, nor do they choose to be or remain poor.

Participation

Based on understanding of the purpose of the intervention In many contexts, social workers will be forced to accept limited family member engagement. When this happens, it may be important for social workers to inform family members who are present about the limitations of this approach, in the spirit of informed consent. Additionally, the limitation itself can become the topic of problem solving as part of the engagement process. Moreover, in rare occasions, social workers can take an assertive stance, utilizing the power of "no," and simply refuse to serve families when key members are unwilling to participate. This may be the ethical course of action when, in the social worker's judgment, a family cannot make progress without the active involvement of all key family members. Social workers can also attempt persuasion strategies, enlisting involved family members to try to convince reluctant family members to participate, even if only to try meeting with the social worker on one occasion. Whether social workers adopt the position that all family members should participate or that only strategically selected family members should participate, they should strive to avoid the appearance of blaming family members who decline to participate.

Risks, Benefits, and Opposition

Before initiating a change effort within your organization, it is important to describe and document the issue, including its context, a systems-level goal that is consistent with the organization's mission, a proposal to remedy the problem or condition, and the perceived benefits to the organization. Frey (1990) has developed a useful framework with which you can gauge the potential benefit of a change proposal to the organization and minimize potential risk or opposition. The process involves three key groups: (1)administrators, who must approve and allocate resources for the proposal (2)supervisors and staff, who are responsible for implementing the work involved (3)clients, the affected group Client input is considered essential in determining the extent to which the proposed change offers direct benefits and will effectively alter and enhance the services they receive.

Ethical Principles for Social Action and Advocacy

Both advocacy and social action assume a wide range of social work roles and skills, each of which observes the values and ethics of the profession, such as dignity and worth, self-determination, and giving a voice to the powerless, as guiding principles (Schneider & Lester, 2001). Advocacy and social action may, at times, constitute a delicate balance between self-determination and beneficence. To deal with this resistance, advocates should "calculate" their ability and that of their client group to maintain a sustained focus, as well as be able to defend themselves against counterattacks (p. 10). You have a responsibility to discuss potential barriers and the possible adversarial or negative consequences of advocacy and social action efforts with the client group. Implementing advocacy and social action typically creates a certain amount of strain and tension; moreover, a positive outcome cannot always be assured. Discussing possible consequences or barriers not only allows for the planning of alternative strategies but also ensures that those with whom you work are informed about the pros and cons of an intended action, leaving the final decision in their hands.

Social Work's Commitment

Brueggemann (2006) and Schneider and Lester (2001) link macro practice to the historical commitment of the social work profession to the ideal of improving the human condition through social reform, social justice, and equality. However, social work—unlike any other profession—accepted as its mandate a focus on the person-in-the-environment, social justice, oppression, and equality as organizing principles and values. In addition, the principles of social work dictate intolerance for systems that create and maintain social conditions that result in personal problems.

three strategic development levels of community intervention

Burghardt (2011), however, proposes three strategic development levels of community intervention that can facilitate decisions about which model would be most useful. Entry, the first strategic level, emphasizes capacity building and empowerment among community members, building their sense of their power, responsibilities, and skills. During this process, issues and long-term goals are identified. Burghardt refers to the second strategic level as coalition strategy formation. In this process, the organizer seeks to understand and make use of the various actors that may contribute to or distract from the problem to be addressed. The third level, transformational strategy formation, makes use of strategies from various models. At this level, building coalitions or individual and community capacity can be implemented to bring about a planned change. Some advantages of the three strategic levels are that they provide a means to understand the position of a community relative to an issue, where development may be needed, and the fact that they build upon each other.

Macro Practice

By definition, macro practice involves professionally guided interventions in which the targets are social problems and conditions. As summarized by Brueggemann (2006), macro social work is the "practice of helping people solve social problems and make social change at the community, organizational, societal and global levels" (p. 7). A distinctive feature of macro-level interventions is the belief that seeing the whole picture and intervening can ultimately change and improve the lives of people

Second-Order Change Strategies Modifying Misconceptions and Distorted Cognitions

Cognitions are often the basis for erroneous beliefs that produce dissatisfaction in couple and family relationships. Left unresolved, resentment toward others can become fertile ground for repetitive dysfunctional interaction. Unrealistic expectations of others and myths are two other forms of misconceptions that contribute to relationship problems. To diminish misconceptions and dispel myths, bring them out in the open, using empathy to help family members recognize their distorted cognitions. Misconceptions and myths generally protect people from having to face the reality of their cognitions and perceptions. Therefore, attempts to change them can be perceived as threatening. Labeling is like wearing a blinder because it places people in a certain frame, thereby limiting their attributes and behaviors to fit the framed image. In effect, the frame effectively obscures other qualities, so that in dealing with an individual, a person simply has to rely on his or her preexisting cognitions or perceptions without having to think. Myths that distort individual or family perceptions can extend beyond those that influence internal family dynamics.

Second-Order Change Strategies Modifying Communication Patterns

Communication approaches to families consist of teaching family members the rules of clear communication. The aim is to regulate and modify family communication patterns and alter communication styles to promote positive interactions and family relationships Giving and Receiving Feedback Positive feedback from significant others (expressions of caring, approval, encouragement, affection, appreciation, and other forms of positive attention) nourish morale, emotional security, confidence, and the feeling of being valued by others. Thus, increasing positive feedback fosters the well-being of individuals and harmonious family relationships. To enable family members to increase positive feedback, social workers must have skills in the following areas: Engaging families in assessing the extent to which they give and receive positive feedback Educating families about positive feedback' Assessing Positive and Negative Feedback You can help families and individual members to directly explore dimensions of communication by assessing how often and in what manner they convey positive feedback to significant others. Questions you might ask in couple or family sessions to achieve this end include the following: How do you send messages that let family members [or your partner] know that you care about them? How frequently do you send such messages? How often do you give feedback to others concerning their positive actions? Besides exploring how couples or family members convey positive feedback, you can explore their desires to receive increased feedback from one another. Discussing how family members send positive messages, or to what extent they desire increased positive feedback, can open up channels for positive communication and improve relationships that have been stuck in a cycle of repetitive arguments, criticisms, blaming, and put-down messages. Teaching Positive Feedback To assist families in conveying positive feedback, you can teach them to personalize their messages and guide them in giving positive feedback to others. Timely use of role-play as an educational intervention helps family members to form positive messages and to develop the skills needed to share their experiences in an authentic manner. You can intervene in these situations by using the technique of on-the-spot interventions. When using this technique, you coach family members to formulate clear messages that express their feelings and needs Because individuals may not always express their needs openly and clearly, family members may need to go beyond just listening. That is, they may need to become attuned to needs expressed in the form of complaints, questions, and the attitudes of others. Tuning in also involves alerting others to pay attention to nonverbal messages and what those messages communicate about feelings. Because it is difficult for family members to be attuned to the needs inherent in the messages of others, you should take advantage of "teachable moments" to help them learn this skill, After teaching the use of "I" statements during sessions with families, family members may be ready to work on the ultimate goal—increasing their rates of positive feedback. You can assist them by negotiating tasks that specify providing positive feedback at higher frequencies. Families, of course, must consent to tasks and determine the rate of positive feedback they seek to achieve. Family members can review their baseline information (gathered earlier through monitoring) and can be encouraged to set a daily rate that "stretches" them beyond their usual level.

Engaging in Community Organization

Communities may be defined as (1)geographic, within a given boundary (for example, a shared physical space) (2)nongeographic, including virtual communities in which people share a common bond, interests, beliefs, or values and communities in which people share certain attributes or physical characteristic Similar to advocacy and social action, community organizing is action oriented on a larger scale and intended to effect social change in which "neighborhood organizations, associations and faith communities join together to address social problems in their community" (Brueggemann, 2006, p. 204). Furthermore, it is an arena in which participants use the power of a coalition to assess and advance their needs, develop and own solutions, and build capacity in partnership with private or governmental organizations Irrespective of how a community is defined, you should be aware that communities are social systems that have distinct characteristics, such as the way in which they are organized. As a system, communities have a collective sense of connectivity, identity and power, and the issues about which they have concerns. In some instances, these factors may be more or less pertinent to a specific geographic location or community. Organizing communities requires that you have an understanding of what matters to the people involved, their needs and strengths, and the context of the person [community] in environment relationship. In addition to answering these questions, social workers provide a summary assessment of community issues, including questions related to the challenges faced by community residents and subgroups—for example, social problems such as poverty, community violence, the adequacy of housing, public transportation, jobs, educational opportunities, police and fire protection, and gaps in services.

Engaging in Advocacy and Social Action

Competence and skills for social action Policy analysis Group facilitation Oral and written communication skills Negotiation and mediation Analysis of multidimensional and systematic information Assuming that an assessment of the situation indicates that advocacy or social action is necessary, a decision would be made as to how the group wishes to proceed. To gather support for a defined action, you would gather information that documents the problem, the population affected, and in what ways that population is affected. Then you would present this information to others who are interested in the problem. In essence, you are building a coalition of interested parties to support and mobilize a plan of action. In building a coalition, group facilitation, negotiation, consensus building, and interpersonal skills are critical.

Interventions with Task Groups Power and Control

Conflict is to be expected as a sign of the members' investment in the group. Chairs must be prepared for this and respond nondefensively, putting complaints on the table for group discussion and decisions. In this, the process of debate is more important that the content of the issue being debated. Establishing norms in which differing options are sought and evaluated on their own merits will aid the group in accomplishing its objectives. Leaders should attempt to stimulate idea-related conflict while managing and controlling personality-related conflict. Failure to achieve this balance may result in the marginalization of potential contributors and a less complete product. Without such healthy conflict, there is always the danger of groupthink, a condition in which members reach premature and superficial agreement and alternative views or options are not expressed or taken seriously. Leaders (and members) can assist others to express the rationale behind particular opinions, clarifying what information needs to be developed to answer questions raised in the course of the conflict.

Conflict theory

Conflict theory is compatible with systems theory, in particular because tensions between subsystems and larger systems may revolve around issues of power, either the lack thereof or attempts by marginalized subsystems to gain power.

Cultural Competence at the Organizational Level

Cultural competence at the organizational level focuses on interaction between the social worker and racial minority clients Cultural competence is a three-pronged effort revolving around the competence of staff, committed leadership, and an analysis of public policy insofar as it acknowledges and respects diversity and the equality of service delivery. Nybell and Gray (2004) propose the following measures for assessing an organization's cultural competence: Reviewing organizational policies and practice Assessing the organization's standing in communities of color Evaluating the equity in resource allocation, in particular the programs or services that consist of a disproportionate number of poor clients and clients of color Assessing staffing patterns, with a specific focus on who is hired, what positions are held by whom, and who is promoted or terminated Examining the distribution of power, focusing on who benefits and who is excluded Examining the narrative structures that inform agency practices, public relations, fundraisers, and board members Analyzing the decision-making process—specifically, who is involved (including clients) in such matters as agency location and allocation of resources, and who has access to this process Given that laws and public policy influence service provisions, particularly who is served and how, a stronger focus on an analysis of public policy is crucial to the cultural competence of organizational practices and social worker-client interaction. This analysis should examine the effects of public policy as well as the extent to which public policies and laws are culturally relevant or incompetent, leading to different treatment of different groups or to discrimination. As a policy advocate, you would encourage the organization to proactively examine the influence public policy has on constituent groups to ensure that the organization is not, in fact, acting as a party to social injustice. Finally, procedural justice demands that leaders of organizations position themselves with and/or on behalf of their constituents so that the needs of diverse groups are articulated to policy makers, thereby ensuring that public policy is indeed nondiscriminatory and is culturally relevant.

Hierarchical Considerations

Depending on the age-sex hierarchies in some cultures, you are advised to address the father, then the mother, then other adults, and finally the older and younger children. Grandparents or other elders in the family may actually be held in greater esteem than parents and figure prominently in the family's hierarchical arrangement. Caution is particularly advised in working with immigrant families in which a child who has greater proficiency in the English language is used as an interpreter in interviews with parents. Beyond being sensitive, being empathetic and exploring the parents' feelings are means by which you reinforce your understanding of their role. In addition, when families come from cultures in which chronological age and familial hierarchy play a significant role (e.g., Asian Indian and African American families), open dialogue between parents and children may be viewed as insolent or disrespectful

Joined Families

Developing cohesiveness, unity, and more effective alignments is a challenge that often confronts two families who have joined together—for example, in the development of a relationship between a new stepfather and stepson. In situations where two families have joined together, you can assist parents to analyze whether differences or lack of agreement about their parenting styles are factors in parent-child alignments. Strategies for strengthening parental coalitions may include negotiating "united front" agreements in parent-child transactions requiring decision making and/or disciplinary actions (unless, of course, the other partner is truly hurtful or abusive to the child). Finally, assisting families to realign themselves and forge new alliances is particularly important in instances in which there has been a disruption in the family system.

Errors in Group Interventions

Doing one-on-one work in the context of the group. This practice inhibits the mutual aid that is the hallmark of group work. Having such a rigid agenda or adherence to a curriculum that members cannot pursue emerging themes or otherwise own the group process. Scapegoating or attacking individual members. This behavior inhibits others' involvement by sending a message that the group is not a safe place. Overemphasizing content and failing to universalize themes so that all members can benefit from and relate to the experience of other members. Ridiculing members or discounting some members' need to be heard. Lecturing the group. This practice disempowers members and inhibits group investment and momentum. Failing to address offensive comments or colluding with members around inappropriate, antiauthoritarian, racist, or sexist statements.

Stage 5. Separation: Breaking Away

During the adjourning phase of group development, members begin to separate, loosening the intense bonds often established with other members and with the leader and searching for new resources and ties to satisfy their needs. Members may again feel anxiety, this time in relation to moving apart and breaking bonds that have been formed. There may be outbursts of anger against the leader and other members at the thought of the group's ending, the reappearance of quarrels that were previously settled, and increased dependence on the leader. Denial of the positive meaning of the group experience is not uncommon. These separation reactions may appear in flashes or clusters as members attempt to reconcile their positive feelings about the group with feelings of abandonment, rejection, or apprehension over termination. It is a time of finishing unfinished business, getting and giving focused feedback, and savoring the good times and the close relationships gained in the group.Footnote Members who have begun to pull back their group investments and to put more energy into outside interests speak of their fears, hopes, and concerns about the future and about one another. There is often discussion of how to apply what has been learned in the group to other situations and talk of reunions or follow-up meetings

Second-Order Change Strategies Modifying Family Rules

Dysfunctional family rules can ruin the functioning of family members As family rules are covert, changes can occur only by bringing them into the open It can be useful to have family members make a list of apparent and unspoken rules so that you and they can understand how the family operates. You can first ask family members to list some apparent rules, coaching them as needed, by asking questions such as "What are your rules about schoolwork (or watching television, household chores, friends)"? Once family members have identified some of their common and readily apparent rules, you can then lead them into a discussion of implicit rules.

Ethical Issues in Community Organizing

Ethical behavior requires that: Community organizers observe self-determination A community is informed of and consents to the tactics to be used and understands the risks and benefits Hardina (2004) points out that community organizing and its methods address issues that are not directly covered in the social work Code of Ethics. For example, the Code does not address dual relationships (situations in which two or more distinct relationships involve the same person) between the organizer and community residents. Nor does the Code address the choice of tactics that an organizer might use. To the first point, specifically in regard to dual relationships, suppose you are a member of the community as well as an organizer at entry level 1 of the Rivera and Erlich (1998) schema. Because you are a part of the community, there may have been numerous occasions on which you have interacted with other residents socially and politically. An ethical decision-making framework by Reisch and Lowe (2002), as discussed by Hardina (2004, p. 600), also provides a series of steps that are useful for community organizers: Identify the ethical principles that apply to the situation at hand. Collect additional information necessary to examine the ethical dilemma in question. Identify the relevant ethical values and/or rules that apply to the ethical problem. Identify any potential conflicts of interest and the people who are likely to benefit from such conflict. Identify ethical rules and rank them in terms of importance. Determine the consequences of applying different ethical rules or ranking these rules differently. Although the Code may be limited with respect to specific macro-level strategies, in most instances the Code, along with the principal beliefs of the profession, guide ethical practice.

Organizational Policies or Practices and Staff Behavior that Fail to Promote Client Dignity and Worth

Evaluate the impact of organizational policies, procedures, and practices on service delivery to clients To a large extent, staff behavior is governed by a mix of factors that are internal and external to the organization. Internal factors include things like organizational philosophy, goals, and mission. Professional orientations, ethical codes and standards, union contracts, funding sources, the media, public policy, and licensing or regulatory boards are external factors. When an organization has staff who are dedicated, caring, and responsive to clients' needs, as well as congenial with one another, the climate in the organization's environment in effect is a culture of caring (Kirst-Ashman, 2014, p. 497) and is conducive to the growth and well-being of all concerned. hey have identified the following core characteristics as being instrumental in advancing toward an organizational environment in which staff is productive: Task identity Task significance Skill variety Job feedback Autonomy Task identity, task significance, and skill variety add to the feeling that work is meaningful. Feedback with regard to one's job performance provides information about the results achieved, thereby acting as both a developmental and a motivating factor. Autonomy inspires a sense of responsibility for one's own work, the outcomes of this work, and the work of the team. Empowerment, which is implicit in autonomy, works in much the same way as self-determination does for clients.

Interventions with Task Groups Termination Phase

Evaluation and "commencement" are often overlooked in task groups, as members experience relief at the reduction of the demands on their time and their group-related responsibilities, and perhaps satisfaction in successfully achieving their goal. Nevertheless, it is important to evaluate what worked and what did not work well in the group process, to acknowledge the contributions of time and effort made by group members, and to share gratitude about the roles that facilitated group success.

Macro Practice Evaluation

Evaluation helps in assessing the success of the change efforts and the strategies employed Implemented by collecting quantitative and qualitative data Pre-and post intervention rating scale Measures the change to be applied in situations involving social action and advocacy Evaluation, irrespective of the method, requires clearly specified goals and clearly articulated objectives in measurable terms. In general, evaluation is an ongoing process for which it is important to establish indicators at the beginning of the intervention. The process involves continuous, systematic monitoring of the intervention's impact, and this requires development and implementation of techniques of data management. Systematic analysis of data allows you to determine, for example, if the program activity or intervention is being implemented as planned and whether it is accomplishing the stated program goals

Interventions in the Preaffiliation Stage

Explain basics of group process to members Address initial concern of members Elicit suggestions of members In initial sessions, the leader can prepare members for the experiences to come by explaining the basics of group process—for example, the stages of development through which the group will pass, ways to create a therapeutic working environment, behaviors and attitudes characteristic of an effective group, the importance of establishing and adhering to guidelines that lend structure and purpose to the group, and the importance of committing to "win-win" decisions regarding group matters. Leaders must also intervene to address the initial concerns of members. In early sessions, members will probably be tentative about expressing what they hope to get from the group. In focusing on members' fears, leaders need to draw out all members' feelings and reactions, validate the importance of fully disclosing feelings, and emphasize the need for the group to be a safe place in which such issues can be expressed openly. Finally, leaders should elicit suggestions for a group structure that will address member fears, out of which may flow the formulation of relevant group guidelines. Although this information should be familiar to members, reiteration is necessary because initial anxiety may affect participants' ability to really digest the details. Assuring that all members are "on the same page" helps to prevent these issues from erupting later in the life of the group. In preliminary interviews, members contract with the leader for general goals they would like to achieve. In the initial group sessions, the leader must then blend these individual goals with the group's collective goals.

Intervention Approaches with Families

Families are engaged as a routine part of interventions Family are targets of change Families are support systems for individual clients Whether working with families in familywide change processes or enlisting the support of family members on behalf of an individual client, social workers should implement interventions that are informed by a careful assessment of family system structure and that are adapted to the cultural milieu of families. Further, it is equally important to understand family interventions within the frameworks of human rights as well as the ethical standards of the profession that urge social workers to advance social justice.

Family Sculpting

Family sculpting is a technique used in experiential family practice models to assist family members in analyzing and observing their alliances and in making decisions concerning possible changes. This technique allows family members to communicate spatial family system relationships in a nonverbal tableau, to discern alignments, and to recognize the need to realign their relationships. A variation of this technique is to have family members portray historical and current family relationships using the genogram (see Chapter 10). In family sculpting, family members are instructed to physically arrange other family members in a way that portrays their perceptions of members as well as their own place in the family system. Another aspect of family sculpting involves members expressing themselves by using drawings to disclose their perceptions of each other The benefit of the expressive exercise is that family members can observe the nature of their alignments and the emotional closeness and distance in their relationships with others. After all family members have an opportunity to make their observations, you can ask them to explain their second drawings, which show how they would like family relationships to be. During this discussion, you can highlight the desired changes, assist individuals to formulate goals that reflect changes they would like to make, and identify "exceptional" times— Elements of family sculpting or structural mapping include exercises that can be used with parents to portray family relationships, strengthen parental coalitions, and mark generational boundaries.

First-Order Change Strategies Problem-Solving Approaches

For instance, the application of the task-centered model, including the task implementation sequence, can be extended to social work with families with little to no modification (Tolson, Reid, & Garvin, 2003). Similarly, solution-focused therapy has a long history of direct application to family interventions (Selekman, 2005). Both of these models utilize flexible procedures that, from a process standpoint, vary little whether the target system is an individual, a subset of family members, or all members of a family. First, the case illustrates the importance of engaging family members simultaneously in the intervention process. Thus, social workers using problem-solving approaches with families will seek to obtain the perspectives of multiple family members on matters such as the definition of the problem, goals, exceptions (when using a solution-focused model), and tasks (when using a task-centered model). Often, social workers will need to mediate differences of opinion, all while striving to maintain strong relationships with each individual family member as well as with the family as a whole. Second, although elements of the family system structure are usually not the target of an intervention when using a problem-solving approach as a first-order change strategy, this does not mean that social workers are inattentive to family system structure in their assessment. Third, while problem-solving efforts can appear to be egalitarian processes, this is in fact not the case in most families. Power and decision-making authority, both formal and informal, vary across and within subsystems of a family. Social workers need to recognize power hierarchies and make decisions about how to lead the problem-solving process in light of this information. Rarely should a social worker act to negate a formal hierarchy, for example. Instead, interventions with families should reinforce an adaptive utilization of power and authority that maximizes human rights and social justice

Stage 3. Intimacy: Developing a Familial Frame of Reference

Having clarified and resolved many of the issues related to personal autonomy, initiative, and power, the group moves from the "preintimate" power and control stage to that of intimacy. As the group enters this norming stage (Tuckman, 1963), conflicts fade, personal involvement between members intensifies, and members display a growing recognition of the significance of the group experience. Mutual trust increases as members begin to acknowledge one another's uniqueness, spontaneously disclose feelings and problems, and seek the opinion of the group. To achieve this desired intimacy, however, group participants may suppress negative feelings that could produce conflict between themselves and others. In contrast to earlier sessions, they express genuine concern for absent members and may reach out to invite them to return to the group. During this stage of development, a group "character" emerges as the group evolves its own culture, style, and values. Clear norms are established, based on personal interests, affection, and other positive forces. Roles also take shape as members find ways to contribute to the group and leadership patterns become firmly settled.

Using the Leadership Role Purposefully

Helping members to assume leadership behaviors is important for three reasons. First, members develop vital skills that they can transfer to other social groups, where leadership is usually highly valued. Second, the more that members exercise leadership, the more likely they are to become invested in the group. Third, performance of leadership activities enhances the perceived power or self-efficacy of members, who often experience powerlessness in a wide array of social situations (Rose, 1989). Leaders may expedite the distribution of power by taking four steps (Shulman, 1984): Encouraging member-to-member rather than member-to-leader communications Asking for members' input into the agenda for the meeting and the direction the group should take in future meetings Supporting indigenous leadership when members make their first tentative attempts at exerting their own influence on the group Encouraging attempts at mutual sharing and mutual aid among group members during the first meeting Challenges to leadership are, in fact, an inherent part of the group's struggle over control, division of responsibility, and decision making (Corey & Corey, 2006). It is important not to interpret these efforts as negative because they may actually help the group succeed by calling attention to issues or roles that are important to individual members Group facilitators must respond authentically and purposefully, modeling the capacity to accept feedback and deal with conflict. Facilitators can respond to such challenges by empathically exploring the statement, thanking the member for speaking up, eliciting feedback from other members regarding leadership style, and asking nondefensively for input

Human agency theory

Human agency theory refers to the capacity of groups and communities to be active participants in collective action to increase their power to address inequality and injustice. Perspectives include empowerment, strengths, and social justice, each of which is amplified in human agency theory.

Steps and Skills of Community Intervention

Identification of need, condition, or problem as framed by the community Definition and clarification of the need, condition, or problem Systematic process of obtaining information Analysis of the information Development and implementation of a plan of action Terminal actions and evaluation of outcome or effects For example, you should gauge your ability to establish rapport with and be sensitive to diversity, the extent to which you demonstrate genuineness and empathy, and the effectiveness of your communication skills. Because organizing involves groups or communities, skills in group facilitation, development of interpersonal relationships, and management of group dynamics are also critical. Homan (2008) adds to the skill base, emphasizing a balance between the objective and subjective, self-awareness, patience, focus, and timing. Other skills and competencies include those embodied in policy analysis, research methods, and the management of data. Organizing and Planning with Diverse Groups They conclude that there are additional factors to be considered in working with communities of color: Racial, ethnic, and cultural aspects of the community Implications of this uniqueness in particular communities The empowerment process and the development of a critical consciousness

What Is the Nature of the Condition or Problem for Change?

Identifying, assessing, and documenting long-term trends, the nature and extent of the problem or condition, and the ways in which a group or community is affected is an essential first step. Although you may have observed the prevalence of a problem or condition among your clients, it is important to gather information that clarifies who is affected, in what way, the resulting consequences, and whether and how the issues have been addressed. Gathering information from clients—in particular, their view of the problem or condition—is included in the assessment process.

Organizational Learning and Learning Organizations

In a learning organization, members of the organization periodically review performance and make adjustments to improve its services or achieve organizational goals. The learning organization develops capacities that empower members to question and challenge operating norms and assumptions, thereby ensuring its stability and promoting its evolution through strategic responses and direction (Morgan, 1997). Further, a learning organization positions itself so that it can continuously review and revise its operations, purposes, and objectives so as to ensure the quality of the organizational experience for clients and staff.

Differences in Communication Styles

In general, you will find a range of communication styles in which some are more demonstrative in both verbal and nonverbal language; others, unaccustomed to seeking outside help, may appear to be passive because of a sense of shame or suspicion in their encounter with professional helpers Studies by Mackey and O'Brien (1998) and Choi (1997) that examined conflict resolution, emotional expression, and means of coping with stress revealed differences in communication styles based on gender and ethnicity. Emotions are complex experiences, expressing reactions to past, present, and future events. The person's worldview frames the emotional experience, as does his or her language. The range of words and language that many of us use daily to describe emotions may, in fact, be unfamiliar to or have a different connotation for diverse groups. Sue (2006) also draws attention to high-context communications and low-context communications. In low-context cultures, such as the United States, there is a greater emphasis on verbal messages as well an orientation toward the individual. In contrast, high-context cultures rely on nonverbal expressions, group identity, and a shared understanding between the communicators.

Structural Mapping

In intervening to modify alignments, structural mapping may be used to delineate family boundaries and to highlight and modify interactions and transactional patterns. Structural mapping identifies symptoms that may be exhibited by an individual family member as an expression of difficulties in the family system. The structure of the family is revealed by who talks to whom, and in what way—that is, in an unfavorable or favorable position—and how intense the family's transactions are. The goal of the structural approach is to change family structures by altering boundaries and by realigning subsystems to enhance family functioning. As can be surmised from these examples, structural problems may arise when the family structure is unable to adequately adjust to changing circumstances. Changing circumstances may be the result of external environmental forces, stressful transitions, or dynamics internal to the family system. Before you intervene to restructure the family system, it is important to understand the structural change as unique to the family's situation and make clear the nature of the structural dysfunction. Thus, the family should be involved in determining whether, and in what ways, such changes should take place. Your first task in this respect is to assist family members in identifying the nature of their alignments. As family members become aware of their alignments, you can assist them in considering whether they wish to become closer to others and identifying obstacles that could prevent this movement from happening.

Interventions with Task Groups Preaffiliation

In this and other phases of the group, the chair must be attentive both to group process and group content. Group process refers to how the group is operating. Is there sufficient input and consideration of topics? Are all voices being heard? Is time being used wisely? Group content refers to the issues being discussed as opposed to how they are being discussed. In attending to content, the chair must be sure that the committee is addressing relevant issues, that they have proper background information to guide their discussion, and that they are clear on what is being asked of them In the "forming" or preaffiliation stage, individuals enter with varying hopes and apprehensions about the group. Chairs can help diminish anxiety by clarifying the purpose of the group, asking members to introduce themselves, and using brainstorming or ice-breaking exercises to facilitate initial member interaction. Identifying the particular skills, experiences, and perspectives that different members bring can help members become more familiar with each other and more confident sharing their viewpoints. Please note, though, that early development in task groups will be affected by preexisting relationships among group members who already know or have worked with each other in other capacities.

Capacity building

Increasing the ability of a community to act on its own behalf, make decisions, and direct its own actions. the community develops its own agenda, and the work to be completed is directed "from the inside out"

five essential competencies for engagement and to facilitate empowerment:

Informational, in which the social worker is knowledgeable about and understands the community with whom he or she is working, including worldview, communication, and behavioral patterns and lifestyles Intellectual, in which the social worker considers the way in which information is used to advance the work with the client system Intrapersonal, in which the social worker demonstrates authentic and genuine concern and care for individuals and the community Interpersonal, in which the social worker relates with genuineness, warmth, understanding, and appreciation for the ways in which people communicate and the language or expressions they use Interventional, in which the social worker makes use of the knowledge and various skills that promote empowerment (for example, in selecting the intervention plan for the work to be done, engaging the community network and resources in the change effort, and including community participation in the monitoring and evaluation of the outcome)

Attending to Subgroup Structure

Initiating discussion of the reasons for the formation of dissident subgroups and their impact on the group as a whole. This discussion may reveal the difficulties that the cliques create for goal setting, communication, interaction, and decision making. Neutralizing the effects of negative subgroups through programming or structuring. Helping powerful subgroups or individuals to relinquish power or to use it sparingly in the interest of other members (Garvin, 1987). Appointing powerless members to roles that carry power, such as arranging for group activities, securing resources for the group, or fulfilling significant roles (e.g., observer, chairperson, or secretary). Finding means to "connect" with dissident subgroups and to demonstrate a concern for their desires (Garvin, 1987). Providing ways for subgroups to attain legitimate power by creating useful roles and tasks in the group.

Institutionalized Racism and Discrimination

Institutional racism often affects service delivery and availability of resources and opportunities in subtle ways. Therefore, it is vital that you, irrespective of your role in the organization, are sensitized to its manifestations, especially in treatment, allocation of resources, and the client experience (Abramovitz, 2005; Anderson et al., 2004; Banerjee, 2002). Racism and discrimination, whether direct, indirect, or subtle, are in reality facets of educational, legal, economic, and political institutions, all of which influence how people are perceived and treated and the services that they receive The NASW Code (4.02) speaks directly to the social worker's responsibility with regard to discrimination. Social workers have an ethical responsibility to work toward (1)obliterating institutional racism in organizational policies and practices (2)enhancing cultural competence

Interventions in the Intimacy and Differentiation Stages

Interventions in the intimacy and differentiation stages Promote conditions that aid members to make healthy choices in resolving issues Intensify therapeutic group conditions Enhance individual and group growth Support a continuing trend toward differentiation Focus on achieving members' goals Establish a systematic method of monitoring treatment goals and tasks in sessions Ensure that the issues and concerns worked on by the group resemble those that members will encounter outside the group Refer to a variety of situations and settings throughout the group experience to help members practice and acquire skills Facilitate members' discussion of how they will respond to possible setbacks in an unsympathetic environment Increase review and integration of learning Several sessions before termination suggest that members consider using the remaining time to complete their own agenda In the working phase, leaders continue to promote conditions that aid members to make healthy choices in resolving issues by straightforwardly addressing and resolving conflict, openly disclosing personal problems, taking responsibility for their problems, and making progroup choices. Leaders can also enhance individual and group growth by focusing on the universality of underlying issues, feelings, and needs that members seem to share In the working phase, leaders also support a continuing trend toward differentiation, in which members establish their uniqueness and separateness from others. Leaders do not create these expressions of differences but rather stimulate or advance them.

Increase Effective Communication

Leaders increase the probability that members will adopt effective communication skills by heavily utilizing and modeling these skills themselves. Intervening moment by moment to shape the communications of members, as in the instances illustrated here, increases the therapeutic potential of a group. Stage 2 of group development may also present a challenge when the group has co-leadership. The presence of two leaders may increase members' defensiveness as they seek to erect boundaries that protect them from the influence presented by two leaders.

Interventions in the Termination Stage

Leaders must be sensitive to the mixed feelings engendered by termination and carefully intervene to assist the group to come to an effective close Facilitate the completion of unfinished business between members Encourage members to identify areas for future work once the group concludes Engage individual members in relating how they have perceived themselves in the group, what the group has meant to them, and how they have grown Use evaluative measures to determine the effectiveness of the intervention

Interventions in the power and control stage

Minimize changes Encourage balanced feedback Increase effective communication Create constructive norms

The Dynamics of Minority Status and Culture in Exploring Reservations

Minority statuses, which encompass a range of social identities, are other factors that may cause a family or family member to have reservations about seeking help. Families may fear "what might happen" if their problems are brought out into the open Flores and Carey (2000) and Lum (2004) both emphasize that families are more likely to feel a level of comfort when they do not feel the need to defend who they are or their culture. Lum (2004) emphasizes the importance of the family's confidence in the helping relationship as well as the importance of mutual trust between the social worker and the family.

Mobilizing Community Resources

Mobilizing existing community resources can address concrete needs Available resources can vary depending on the community and the situation n mobilizing community resources, Homan suggests four steps for eliciting and encouraging people's involvement (p. 188): Contact people. Give them a reason to join. Ask them to join. Maintain their involvement. The capacity to help others in times of need can be found in most communities. Community-level resources can be inspired when people become aware of a particular situation for which help is needed. Within communities, kin, informal networks, and natural support systems can be mobilized in much the same manner. For example, kinship care (e.g., the placement of children with kin) as a resource in child welfare is among the practices that organizations are encouraged to adopt as an alternative to foster care placement

Staff as Agents of Change

Nonetheless, because of the interactions between staff and clients, managers and administrators need to be able to rely on you and other staff at the street level of service delivery to alert them to the need for change in a program or policy or the development of a new resource. In initiating changes at the organizational level, you are acting as a diagnostician and facilitator/expediter. Assuming responsibility for and participating in change is the essence of staff empowerment, and participation in change efforts is consistent with the ethical obligation to your employment organization. To be an effective organizational change advocate, you must be aware of the benefits and risks of a proposed change, including assessing the risk to you as a professional. In your benefit-risk analysis, it is essential that you document and clarify the need for change.

Advocacy and social action

Obtain services or resources that would not otherwise be provided Modify or influence policies or practices that adversely affect groups or communities Promote legislation or policies that will result in the provision of requisite resources or services Proposing a new definition of advocacy, Schneider and Lester (2001) define social work advocacy as the "exclusive and mutual representation of a client(s) or cause in a forum, attempting to systematically influence decision making in an unfair and unresponsive system."

On-the-Spot Interventions

On-the-spot interventions are a potent way of modifying patterns of interaction by intervening immediately when problematic family patterns occur during a meeting with the social worker. On-the-spot interventions are appropriate when: A family member sends fuzzy or abrasive messages. The receiver of a message distorts its meaning. A receiver of a message fails to respond appropriately to important messages or feelings. A destructive interaction occurs as a result of a message. In implementing on-the-spot interventions, you would focus on the destructive effects of the preceding communication, labeling the type of communication so that family members can subsequently identify their own dysfunctional behaviors. In using the intervention, you also need to teach and guide family members in how to engage in more effective ways of communicating. Alternatively, after describing and intervening in the interaction and guiding the couple to communicate constructively, you might challenge the couple (or family members) to identify their behavior and to modify it accordingly. For example, interrupt their interactions with a statement like this: "Wait a minute! Think about what you're doing just now and where it's going to lead you if you continue." In modifying patterns, the intermediate objective is for family members to recognize and decrease their counterproductive behavior, and to substitute newly gained communication skills for the harmful communication style. The ultimate goal, of course, is for family members to eliminate the counterproductive processes through concentrated efforts between sessions. Conflicts typically are manifested over content issues, but how family members interact in dealing with the focal point of a conflict is far more important. As the blind alley argument example illustrated, the issue of who is right in a given dispute is usually trivial when compared to the destructive effects of the processes. Thus, you should usually deemphasize the topics of disputes and focus instead on helping family members to listen attentively and respectfully and to own their feelings and their responsibility in creating and maintaining the problem. As you intervene, it is important that you present feedback in a neutral manner that does not fault family members but rather allows them to pinpoint specific behaviors that produce difficulties. Feedback that evaluates their behavior produces defensiveness; overly general feedback fails to focus on behavior that needs to be changed. When more than one family member is involved in sessions, you must achieve a delicate balance while avoiding the appearance of singling out one person as being the sole cause of interpersonal difficulties. Otherwise, that person may feel that you and other family members are taking sides and blaming. By focusing on all relevant actors, you can distribute responsibility, model fairness, and avoid alienating one person. Moreover, although one person may contribute more to problems than others, all members of a system generally contribute to difficulties in some degree. When people are angry, they may express messages that are hostile, blaming, or critical, exacerbating an already difficult situation. Before redirecting messages, therefore, you must consider the likely consequences of the ensuing interaction. As you redirect such messages, you should actively intervene to facilitate positive interaction

Assisting Families to Disengage from Conflict

One of the most common and harmful types of interaction within families involves arguments that quickly escalate, causing anger and resentment between the participants. Sustained over time, these interactions may eventually involve other family members and subsystems. More often than not, the family system becomes factionalized, and individual efforts to regain equilibrium may result in further conflict. The content of the conflict is generally secondary to the fact that on a process level each family member is struggling to avoid being one-down, losing face, or yielding power to the other member. To assist family members in avoiding competitive struggles, you can emphasize that everyone loses in competitive situations or arguments and that negative feelings or emotional estrangement is likely to be a result (e.g., Twanna's withdrawal, slamming the door). It is also vital to stress that safeguarding mutual respect is far more important than winning. The concept of disengaging from conflict simply means that family members avoid escalating arguments by declining to participate further.

Technology-mediated groups

Online group facilitators must assure through informed consent that members understand the risks and benefits of such a model The nature of typed, asynchronous communication means that members have more control and time for reflection as they craft their responses. In addition, they can participate in the virtual group at their convenience (Fingeld, 2000) and with a high degree of anonymity (Meier, 2002). However, participation may be stymied by Internet provider system problems and by trust issues, especially with "lurkers" (those who read mail but do not post to the group) and with participants' actual level of engagement with the process. At this time, there is insufficient evidence to make claims about the ways that various technology-based or technology-enhanced group interventions parallel or diverge from face-to-face group practices. Clearly, social workers who employ these technologies must be aware of the technological and interpersonal capacities of prospective group participants and the pros and cons of various types of electronic interventions (Ramsey & Montgomery, 2014). Group facilitators must decide about the form of communication to be used and whether it will augment or replace face-to-face meetings. Social workers who lead electronic task or treatment groups must be active in guiding the process and drawing out implications for feelings and tone that are masked by the communication or interaction medium. They must also be wary of the potential for miscommunication and misuse of private data and take steps to educate group members and solicit their assistance in addressing problems as they arise

Improving the organizational environment

Organizational learning and learning organizations Staff as agents of change Describe and document a systems-level goal Weigh benefits against potential detrimental effects and plan strategies to counter reactions Culture and environment of organizations Quality core values and purposes as portrayed in mission statements, leadership styles, assumptions, and rituals

Stages, Dynamics, and Leader Focus

Preaffiliation DYNAMICS Arm's-length exploration Approach/avoidance Issues of trust, preliminary commitment Intellectualization of problems Interaction based on superficial attributes or experiences Protection of self; low-risk behavior Milling around Sizing up of leader and other members Formulation of individual and group goals Leader viewed as responsible for group Member evaluation as to whether group is safe and meets needs Fear of self-disclosure, rejection Uncertainty regarding group purpose Little commitment to goals or group LEADER FOCUS Observe and assess Clarify group objectives Establish group guidelines Encourage development of personal goals Clarify aspirations and expectations of members Encourage discussion of fears, ambivalence Gently invite trust Give support; allow distance Facilitate exploration Provide group structure Contract for help-seeking, help-giving roles Facilitate linkages among members Model careful listening Focus on resistance Power and control Rebellion; power struggles Political alignments forged to increase power Issues of status, ranking, and influence Complaints regarding group structure, process Challenges to leader's roles Emergence of informal leadership, factional leaders Individual autonomy; everybody for himself/herself Dysfunctional group roles Normative and membership crisis; dropout danger high Testing of leader; other group members Dependence on leader Group experimentation in managing own affairs Program breakdown at times; low planning Feedback highly critical LEADER FOCUS Protect safety of individuals and property Clarify power struggles Turn issues back to group Encourage expression and acceptance of differences Facilitate clear, direct, nonabrasive communication Examine nonproductive group processes Examine cognitive distortions Facilitate member discussion of dissident subgroups Hold group accountable for decision by consensus Clarify that conflict, power struggles are normal Encourage norms consistent with herapeutic group Consistently acknowledge strengths, accomplishments Nondefensively deal with challenges to leadership Focus on the here and now STAGE DYNAMICS LEADER FOCUS Preaffiliation Arm's-length exploration Approach/avoidance Issues of trust, preliminary commitment Intellectualization of problems Interaction based on superficial attributes or experiences Protection of self; low-risk behavior Milling around Sizing up of leader and other members Formulation of individual and group goals Leader viewed as responsible for group Member evaluation as to whether group is safe and meets needs Fear of self-disclosure, rejection Uncertainty regarding group purpose Little commitment to goals or group Observe and assess Clarify group objectives Establish group guidelines Encourage development of personal goals Clarify aspirations and expectations of members Encourage discussion of fears, ambivalence Gently invite trust Give support; allow distance Facilitate exploration Provide group structure Contract for help-seeking, help-giving roles Facilitate linkages among members Model careful listening Focus on resistance Assure opportunities for participation Power and control Rebellion; power struggles Political alignments forged to increase power Issues of status, ranking, and influence Complaints regarding group structure, process Challenges to leader's roles Emergence of informal leadership, factional leaders Individual autonomy; everybody for himself/herself Dysfunctional group roles Normative and membership crisis; dropout danger high Testing of leader; other group members Dependence on leader Group experimentation in managing own affairs Program breakdown at times; low planning Feedback highly critical Protect safety of individuals and property Clarify power struggles Turn issues back to group Encourage expression and acceptance of differences Facilitate clear, direct, nonabrasive communication Examine nonproductive group processes Examine cognitive distortions Facilitate member discussion of dissident subgroups Hold group accountable for decision by consensus Clarify that conflict, power struggles are normal Encourage norms consistent with therapeutic group Consistently acknowledge strengths, accomplishments Nondefensively deal with challenges to leadership Focus on the here and now Intimacy DYNAMICS Intensified personal involvement Sharing of self, materials Striving to meet others' needs Awareness of significance of the group experience Personality growth and change Mutual revelation, risk taking Beginning commitment to decision by consensus Beginning work on cognitive restructuring Importance of goals verbalized Growing ability to govern group independently Dissipation of emotional turmoil Member initiation of topics Constructive feedback LEADER FOCUS Encourage leadership Assume flexible role as group vacillates Aid sharper focus on individual goals Encourage deeper-level exploration, feedback Encourage acknowledgment, support of differences Guide work of group Encourage experimentation with different roles Encourage use of new skills inside and outside group Assist members to assume responsibility for change Give consistent feedback regarding successes Reduce own activity Differentiation DYNAMICS Here-and-now focus High level of trust, cohesion Free expression of feelings Mutual aid Full acceptance of differences Group viewed as unique Clarity of group purpose Feelings of security, belonging, "we" spirit Differentiated roles Group self-directed Intensive work on cognitions Goal-oriented behavior Work outside of group to achieve personal goals Members feel empowered Communication open, spontaneous Self-confrontation LEADER FOCUS Emphasize achievement of goals, exchange of skills Support group's self-governance Promote behaviors that increase cohesion Provide balance between support, confrontation Encourage conversion of insight into action Interpret; explore common themes Universalize themes Encourage deeper-level exploration of problems Assure review of goals, task completion Stimulate individual and group growth Support application of new behaviors outside group Separation Review and evaluation Development of outlets outside group Stabilizing and generalizing Projecting toward future Recognition of personal, interpersonal growth Sadness and anxiety over reality of separation Expression of fears, hopes, and others' anxiety for self Some denial, regression Moving apart, distancing Less intense interaction Plans as to how to continue progress outside group Talk of reunions, follow-up LEADER FOCUS Prepare for letting go Facilitate evaluation and feelings about termination Review individual and group progress Redirect energy of individuals away from group and toward self-process Enable individuals to disconnect Encourage resolution of unfinished business Reinforce changes made by individuals Administer evaluation instruments

Interventions with Task Groups

Preaffiliation - Being attentive to group process and group content Power and control - Being prepared for conflict and respond nondefensively Working phase - Contributing to the creation of a productive working atmosphere Termination phase - Being alert to reactions that may detrimentally affect the success of the members and the group itself

Levels of Community Contact

Primary Requires that an individual have the same racial, cultural, and linguistic background as the community. The community is open to and respects this individual. Secondary The individual need not be a member of the same racial, ethnic, or cultural group but should be closely aligned and sensitive to community needs. He or she may serve as a liaison to the broader community and facilitate contact with institutions outside the community. Tertiary The individual is an "outsider" yet shares the community's concerns. The practitioner's skills and access to power—rather than his or her ethnic, racial, or cultural identity—are valued assets.

Developing Resources with Diverse Groups

Relying on the group as key informants and cultural interpreters the social worker gains an understanding of the group resource needs . Beyond your efforts to assess and document a resource need, entry into a situation that is unfamiliar to you requires interpersonal skills such as respectful preparation and engagement, building trust and relationship resources, and facilitating empowerment. In addition, unfamiliar situations call for you to engage in self-reflection so that you are aware of your bias and any predetermined notions you might have of a particular group.

Developing and Mobilizing Resources

Resource development includes educating people about social conditions for which responsive resources are needed Policy makers, civic groups, and administrators of social welfare organizations Whether the population of interest is urban, rural, or suburban, conditions may exist for which resource development is needed to help individuals, families, or groups secure essential services. Developing or supplementing resources is indicated when it is apparent that a significant number of people within given ecological boundaries (e.g., neighborhoods, communities, institutions) or populations who share certain characteristics have needs for which matching resources are unavailable. Moreover, in a world characterized by relentless change—whether in the physical environment, technology, or politics—social workers are constantly confronted with unmet needs and the pressure to organize resources. The roles of enabler, broker, and mediator, as supported by the principles of empowerment, may be particularly important for social workers involved in developing resources.

Improving the Organizational Environment

Rothman (2007) uses the term policy advocacy to refer to an internal professional advocate who operates within a system to help an organization achieve its goals. Change efforts, according to Netting, Kettner, and McMurtry (2004), can occur in an organization on two levels: Improving resources provided to clients Enhancing the organization's working environment so that personnel can perform more efficiently and effectively, thus improving services to clients Similarly, organizational change as conceptualized by Brager and Holloway (1978) can focus on three areas: people-focused change, technological change, and structural change, which may take the form of a new policy, modifications to an existing policy, the development of a program, or the initiation of a project in which the results can be used to inform service delivery.

Locality development

Seeking to build relationships within the community and enhance community integration and capacity thorough broad participation in defining problems and determining goals.

Different Perspectives of Social Justice

Segal (2007) proposes that many of the shortcomings and injustices in social policies can be understood with respect to the social distance between those in need and those who make policy. Presenting information about a particular problem to the public and to policy makers is a means by which you can lessen the distance between them and those who are affected by a social problem or a policy, as well as advance social justice. Also, consider that people's thinking is complex and their perspectives can range from liberal to moderate to centrist to conservative, depending on the issue at hand. Understanding the basis of different perspectives is essential. An understanding of the ideological, political, and value context in which social problems and policies are framed can inform your assessment of the forces that may promote, resist, or inhibit change.

Social justice

Social justice, as articulated in the Council of Social Work Educational Policy Standards, includes economic and social justice. Social justice is broadly understood to include equality and fairness in access to and distribution of resources (distributive justice) and access to opportunity.

Social Media as a Resource for Social Advocacy and Community Organizing

Social media can be combined with direct contact A focused message that has a direct appeal is essential to recruiting and engaging participants in the change effort Although the opportunities provided by social media are infinite, this means of communicating has limitations. For example, certain demographics may not have ready access to this form of communication. Social media may be generational in that their appeal can vary by age. Specifically, it may be easier for young people to access and respond to this form of communication than it is for some older people. Irrespective of age, certain other factors should be considered, such as whether individuals or communities have the capability to communicate using social media tools. Nonetheless, because these resources provide for connective relationship opportunities between people, you should evaluate their benefit.

First-Order Change Strategies Skills Training

Social workers are frequently called upon to teach skills either as a core intervention activity or as an ancillary intervention in support of a larger intervention effort with families. Examples of interventions with skill-training components include parenting skills programs, caregiver support programs, and communication skills training. The first principle is elementary for social workers: to conduct a careful assessment of clients' potential skill deficits. Care should be taken at this stage because a lack of skill expression does not necessarily indicate a skill deficit. Instead, environmental contingencies could suppress skillful behaviors or reinforce expression of behaviors that are opposite to a given skill. Second, once a skill deficit is ascertained, it is important for the social worker and client to define the skill as specifically as possible (McGinnis, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 2011). Often, skills have cognitive as well as behavioral components. Both should be explicated. In conducting this step, it is important to incorporate as much as possible the contingencies and complications that clients will encounter when they transfer skill training to their day-to-day lives Third, teach skills through presentation and discussion. Often, skills taught by social workers include a series of mental and behavioral steps, so that skill implementation by clients initially requires effortful memory. To facilitate learning, research suggests that clients be engaged in a process of active learning Fourth, many skill-training programs include role models of successful skill expression. Finally, clients should be afforded the opportunity for skill practice where direct feedback is possible (Healy & Bourne, 2012). Consideration should be given to the structure of practice, again ensuring that the practice context mirrors the contingencies that clients will face when implementing their skills in the real world. In a meta-analysis of parenting skills programs, among the most important components for parenting outcomes was the opportunity to practice skills under observation with their own children

Single-session groups

Social workers must be attentive to the steps in planning, structure, dynamics, and worker roles when meetings take place To make effective use of the middle phases of group work, leaders should be prepared with various types of content to meet the needs of the particular configuration of individuals at a given session. This content may include educational material (on medications, symptoms, resources, diagnoses, phases of recovery) or activities to foster self-expression and problem solving (Keats & Sabharwal, 2008). Facilitators in single-session groups should be especially skilled at exploration and empathy to build trust and cohesion, and at linking, to help individual members understand and support each other Leaders must also be comfortable with flexibly shifting roles and focus, based on the composition and needs of any given group. They must balance structure and independence, leaning in and being directive and leaning back and encouraging the members to take leadership.

First-Order Change Strategies Contingency Contracting

Social workers often broker reciprocal agreements among family members. In this kind of quid pro quo or contingency contract, a member agrees to disengage from conflict if the other party agrees to avoid using code words that always prompt a negative response. Individuals are receptive to making changes when other parties agree to make reciprocal changes for two reasons. First, people are more prone to give when they know they are getting something in return. Second, when all parties involved agree to make changes, no single person loses face by appearing to be the sole cause of an interactional problem. Contingency contracting counters the tendency to wait for others to initiate changes and encourages mutual engagement in the change process. This mutual involvement may spark collaboration in other dimensions of their relationships—an important gain where interactions have been largely dysfunctional rather than collaborative. Family members are unlikely to be able to implement reciprocal contracts if they have not moved beyond competitive bickering and blaming one another for their problems. For this reason, we recommend deferring use of this technique (unless clients spontaneously begin to negotiate) until you have assisted them in listening attentively to one another and changing the tone of their interactions. It is also essential that participants demonstrate a commitment to improving their relationship. In developing reciprocal contracts, it is wise to encourage family members to make their own reciprocal behavioral agreement. By so doing, they become invested in the proposed changes. Moreover, they often generate innovative and constructive ideas, based on their knowledge of their particular family that might not occur to you. As you mutually consider proposals, it is important to explore potential barriers and guard against the tendency to undertake overly ambitious actions. Initial task exchanges in reciprocal agreements should be relatively simple and likely to succeed, especially when intense conflict has marked interactions. When a feasible reciprocal proposal has been agreed upon, you can assist family members to reach a further agreement that specifies the tasks each member will complete prior to the next session. Stressing the individual responsibility of all family members to fulfill their respective commitments, as in the preceding message, counters the tendency of clients to justify their inaction in subsequent sessions by asserting, "He (or she) didn't carry out his part. I knew this would happen, so I didn't do my part either." If one or more family members have not fulfilled their parts of the agreement, you can focus on obstacles that prevented them from doing so. When the results have been favorable, you can focus on this experience to set the stage for exploring additional ways of achieving further positive interaction.

Family Engagement

Social workers who work with families adopt a distinctive view of client engagement, in which the social worker establishes working relationships with each member of the family as well as with the family as a whole. Family therapists often use the word joining to describe this process. The term joining implies that, in some respects, the social worker enters into a family and becomes part of the family system. Social workers who work with families employ collective language purposefully to establish simultaneous relationships with individuals within a family as well as with the family as a whole. In practical terms, successful family engagement happens when social workers establish working relationships with each member of the family and when social workers utilize family systems language that emphasizes boundaries, both around the family as a whole and boundaries that demarcate important family subsystems. To do this, it is recommended that social workers elicit the opinions and perspectives of each family member who participates in any meeting or intervention and to establish rapport with each member of a family early in an intervention.

Determining and Documenting Needs

Specific assessment questions that may clarify the need for resource development and guide the data to be gathered include: What are the resource needs of a particular group? How would a group or community describe their resource needs? Are there unmet needs, gaps, or underutilized existing resources? How prevalent are the needs across the population and in various subgroups? Are there barriers to the utilization of existing resources? Are the current resources an effective response? Mapping utilizes geographic information systems to track problems of interest Qualitative methods involve inviting client groups to identify their resource needs, such as through focus groups, group interviews, standardized self-administered questionnaires, or community forums with key informants or a targeted group Whichever method you use, as noted earlier, you should focus on discovering unmet or undeclared needs. Noting that all groups and communities have resource capabilities, the overall intent of the needs assessment is to assist them in determining whether there is a need for action to address a resource need Participatory action research involves the governance, composition, and active participation of stakeholders throughout the project You should also be aware of the wealth of information available in your agency's case records. For example, a review of agency case records can inform you as to whether resource needs identified by a significant number of clients at intake remained a concern at termination. Whichever method you use to document resource needs, the results may lead to advocacy for social action involving a coalition of agencies and other professionals in order to influence a desired outcome. Be aware also that the methods are not limited to documenting resource needs. They may be used as informative resources for each of the forthcoming intervention strategies to be discussed.

Structural family therapy

Structural family therapy is intended to strengthen current family relationships, interactions, and transactional patterns. The approach emphasizes the wholeness of the family—that is, its hierarchical organization and the interdependent functioning of subsystems (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2004; Minuchin, 1974). Because of its primary focus on improving family relationships, structural therapy pays attention to subsystems, boundaries, alignments in the family system, and power, using the resources and power inherent in families to effect change. Graphic symbols of the family structure and alignment include lines that show rigid, diffused, or clear boundaries, as well as conflict and coalitions (Nichols, 2006). Using the technique of enactment, family members are encouraged to interact with each other during a family session. This exercise is observed by the social worker, who subsequently intervenes to modify problematic interactions.

Systems theory

Systems theory is relevant to working with groups and communities because such entities are subsystems that interact with and are influenced by larger systems in the social environment. An important consideration is the extent to which these subsystems are marginalized or have a relationship that promotes and sustains growth and development.

Interventions with Task Groups Working Phase

Task group leaders model and support the use of effective communication skills, as discussed earlier in this book regarding communications with clients. These important skills include listening, reframing, probing, seeking concreteness, and summarizing. Chairs contribute to the creation of a productive working atmosphere by conveying that each member has something to contribute and by maintaining civility so that no member—or his or her idea—is allowed to be degraded In specifying appropriate problems and goals, the group can employ techniques such as brainstorming and nominal group technique to consider an array of possibilities before selecting a focus. Brainstorming involves generating and expressing a variety of opinions without evaluating them. In the nominal group technique, members first privately list potential problems. The group then takes one potential problem from each member until all are listed. Finally, it evaluates and ranks those potential problems as a group in deciding which should take priority

Authority of the Social Worker

The authority vested in the social worker can vary by culture and race. For some families, the helping practitioner is perceived as a knowledgeable expert who will guide them in the proper course of action. Therefore, they expect you to take a directive role when working with the family. An informal and egalitarian approach, which is second nature to many Americans, is actually considered improper in many cultures. A passive response to authority from immigrants, migrants, or refugees, for example, may stem from their social and political status in the United States, a distrust of helpers, and a fear of expressing their true feelings to figures of authority Most diverse families perceive the social worker as acting in his or her professional role rather than fulfilling a social role; therefore, social workers are viewed as representatives of the majority society. Within this context, the social worker symbolizes the larger society's power, values, and standards. Because of the authority that is assigned to you as a professional, it is important to explicitly recognize families as decision makers and experts on their situations, and to ensure that you have their informed consent before proceeding further To alleviate clients' concerns, you will find it helpful to explain their purpose, standards of confidentiality, and requirements for information that may involve an identified third party.

Selecting a Strategy

The decision about which strategy to use depends on the contextual nature and assessment of the target concern and the related goal.

Empowerment and Strengths

The empowerment perspective assumes that power and powerlessness are inextricably linked to the experience of inequality. Understanding human agency theory at the individual and collective levels is essential to empowerment in that both recognize the shared competence of groups or communities to act to prevent problems and to interact with the systems in the social environment to change their situation To this end, it is vital that you observe and respect their values and beliefs and that your actions are consistent with the ethical principles of the profession. In your entry into a community or group, valuing the community or group's definitions of problems is vital to establishing a collaborative problem-solving relationship (Burhardt, 2013; Gutierrez, 1994; Gutierrez & Lewis, 1999; Long, Tice, & Morrison, 2006; Saleebey, 2004; Van Voorhis & Hostetter, 2006). Assessing and utilizing the collective strengths and engaging participants in a change effort essentially avoids a trickle down approach in which you as a professional identify a concern and the solution Recognizing strengths at the macro level means seeing people as resourceful and resilient, being respectful of their stories, and working in collaboration with them to achieve a range of human and community capital goals based on their viewpoints. Combined strengths and empowerment are critical to communities and groups developing, owning, and governing their self-efficacy. In this way, the shape and influence of the change effort are directed by active community leadership

Cultural Perspectives on Engagement

The engagement process with families is strongly influenced by sociocultural realities, which in turn demand culturally competent practices on the part of social workers. During engagement, social workers must also be aware of the potential intrusion of their own bias into the helping process. Different emphases on the quality of family life, marital relationships, or problem definition may be a function of cultural and class differences between you and the families with whom you are working. Toward this end, "therapists must try to distinguish family patterns that are universal (common to a wide variety of families), culture-specific (common to a particular group) or idiosyncratic (unique to this particular family)" (p. 52). Patterns in family interactions vary, of course, and your understanding this fact essentially minimizes a tendency to formulate generalizations about family dynamics. Identification with a particular culture or race may be a peripheral issue for some families. In other instances, it may be useful to help families determine how culturally specific behavior affects the problem at hand

Addressing Group Norms

The facilitator sets the stage for a therapeutic atmosphere and a "working group" by establishing an explicit contract with members in initial sessions that includes normative guideposts for the group. Along the way, the leader helps the group identify and articulate norms they wish the group to follow. Once decided, the guidelines should be recorded and revisited regularly and the leader should take an active role in helping members consistently adhere to them. In addition to generating structural guidelines that pave the way for the adoption of therapeutic norms, leaders may aid members in adopting personal guidelines, such as "I can decide what, how much, and when I share personal issues," "I will be an active participant in the group, not an observer," and "I will be open to feedback from others" (Corey & Corey, 2006). The leader often intervenes to remind people of these individual-level norms or to point out when they are being violated.

Stage 2. Power and Control: A Time of Transition

The first stage of group development merges imperceptibly into the second stage as members, having determined that the group experience is potentially safe and rewarding and worth the preliminary emotional investment, shift their concerns to matters related to autonomy, power, and control. The frame of reference for this storming stage (Tuckman, 1963) is transition—that is, members must endure the ambiguity and turmoil of change from a nonintimate to an intimate system of relationships. After dealing with the struggle of whether they "belong" in the group, members now become occupied with how they "rank" in relation to other members. Turning to others like themselves for support and protection, members create subgroups and a hierarchy of statuses, or social "pecking order." Gradually, the processes of the group become stylized as various factions emerge and relationships solidify. Conflicts between opposing subgroups often occur in this stage, and members may team up to express anger toward the leader, other authority figures, or outsiders. Verbal abuse, attacks, and rejection of lower-status members may occur as well, and isolated members of the group who do not have the protection of a subgroup may stop attending. Attrition in membership may also occur if individuals find outside pursuits more attractive than the conflicted group experience.

First-Order Change Strategies

The first-order change strategies reviewed below are all directed to helping families overcome challenges that disrupt their equilibrium, helping them to return to a state of homeostasis. They work with resources within families as currently structured to enable them to mitigate family system stress without focusing on such family system topics as boundary maintenance, decision-making power and authority, or implicit family rules.

Stage 4. Differentiation: Developing Group Identity and an Internal Frame of Reference

The fourth stage of group development is marked by cohesion and harmony as members come to terms with intimacy and make choices to draw closer to others in the group. In this performing stage (Tuckman, 1963), group-centered operations are achieved and a dynamic balance between individual and group needs evolves. Members, who participate in different and complementary ways, experience greater freedom of personal expression and come to feel genuinely accepted and valued as their feelings and ideas are validated by other members of the group. In experiencing this newfound freedom and intimacy, members begin to perceive the group experience as unique. Indeed, as the group creates its own mores and structure, in a sense it becomes its own frame of reference. Customs and traditional ways of operating emerge and the group may develop inside jokes or shared sayings, or adopt a "club" name or insignia that reflects its purpose. By the time the group reaches the differentiation stage, members have accumulated experience in "working through problems" and have gained skill in analyzing their own feelings and the feelings of others, in communicating their needs and positions effectively, in offering support to others, and in grasping the complex interrelationships that have developed in the group. Having become conscious about the group's operations, members bring conflict out into the open and identify obstacles that impede their progress. All decisions are ultimately the unanimous response of the group and are strictly respected. Disagreements are not suppressed or overridden by premature group action; instead, the group carefully considers the positions of any dissenters and attempts to resolve differences and to achieve consensus among members.

Orchestrating the Initial Family or Couple Session

The goal of bringing the family together is to identify the problem at hand by eliciting the viewpoints of the various family members. The initial session, whether it occurs in the office, home, or institution, is referred to as the social or joining stage (Boyd-Franklin, 1989; Nichols, 2012). In this stage, a central task is to establish rapport and build an alliance with the family. In facilitating the social or joining stage, the social worker's tasks are twofold: Ensure that each family member can voice his or her opinion without interruptions from other family members. Encourage family members to listen so that members feel understood and accepted. You can further facilitate this stage by adopting an attitude of inquiry: What can I learn from and about this family that will help me work with them? Establish a personal relationship with individual members and an alliance with the family as a group Clarify expectations and explore reservations about the helping process Clarify roles and the nature of the helping process Clarify choices about participation in the helping process Elicit the family's perception of the problem Identify wants and needs of family members Define the problem as a family problem Emphasize individual and family strengths Establish individual and family goals based on earlier exploration of wants and needs

Create Constructive Norms

The leader can intervene then to shape the power structure, the stylistic communications of the group, and the ways in which the group chooses to negotiate and solve problems. In shaping the group's norms, leaders need to intervene, for example, in the following instances: When socializing or distracting behavior substantially interferes with the group's task When one or more members monopolize the group's airtime When one or more members are "out of step" with the group process and/or experience strong feelings such as hurt, anger, disgust, disappointment, or disapproval When several members or the entire group begin to talk about one member When a member's behavior is incompatible with the governing guidelines set by the group When participants intellectualize about emotion-laden material When one or more members display hostility through jokes, sarcasm, or criticism, or when they interrogate, scapegoat, or gang up on a single member When the group offers advice or suggestions without first encouraging a member to fully explore a problem When there is silence or withdrawal by one or more members or the group itself seems to be "shut down" When a member adopts a "co-leader" role When problems such as these emerge, the leader must focus the group's attention on what is occurring in the here and now. Leaders may simply document what they see by describing specific behaviors or the progression of events that have occurred and then request group input. Once the group focuses on the problem, the leader should facilitate discussion and problem solving rather than take decisive action on his or her own

Fostering Cohesion

The leader forges connections among group members and tries to expand the interpersonal networks of subgroup members so that they relate to a broader range of people in the group. Further, the leader encourages cohesive behaviors by "pointing out who is present and who is absent, by making reference to 'we' and 'us' and 'our' and by including the group as a whole in his or her remarks in group sessions" (Henry, 1992, p. 167). Leaders also encourage the development of cohesion by commenting on and reinforcing positive group-building behaviors as they occur Ironically, these efforts at developing cohesion must be restrained as groups wind down.

The Leader's Role throughout the Group

The leader's role is a primary one at the outset of the group in that he or she recruits members and determines the group's purpose, structure, location, and duration, brings structure to the group, plans its content and function, and negotiates reciprocal contracts with each prospective member. As the group gets started, the leader initiates and directs group discussion, encourages participation, and begins blending the individual contracts with members into a mutual group contract. In ongoing groups, when the group evolves to new levels of connectedness, the leader intentionally steps back from the central location and primary role, and the members begin to supplant some of what the worker has been doing. However, because the group's internal and external systems are not yet stabilized at full functioning capacity, the worker needs to let the process run at its own speed and sometimes needs to move back in to help keep the system afloat. This is why the worker's role is referred to as variable, and the worker's location as pivotal The leader's variable role and pivotal location continue in the group during the conflict/disequilibrium stage (Stage 2). When the group enters its maintenance or working phases (Stages 3 and 4), the leader assumes a facilitative role and occupies a peripheral location. As the group moves into its separation or termination phase (Stage 5), the leader once again returns to a primary role and central location to support the divesting of members, who are launching their own independent journeys.

Linking Micro and Macro Practice

The micro-to-macro continuum is a natural extension of helping individual clients deal with the social problems, conditions, or policies that affect their lives. Understanding this continuum is consistent with the social justice agenda of the profession and helps you to be aware of issues beyond the individual, family, or group As you read this chapter, you will appreciate that knowledge and skills you learned in earlier chapters are also compatible with macro practice. For example, you will use both structural and interpersonal skills in macro practice as in micro practice. Structural skills include assessing, documenting, developing and planning measurable strategic goals, and monitoring and evaluating outcomes. On an interpersonal level, you will use oral and written communication skills and facilitative and relationship-building skills such as empathy, authenticity, genuineness, and self-awareness.

Demand needs

The needs of a particular group or community to address deprivation, the absence of a resource, or a particular concern for example, (the lack of affordable housing for low-income families, in which the need is greater that the supply)

Family Interventions

The primary distinction between first- and second-order change strategies is that first-order strategies are aimed at solving a presenting problem without regard to modifying family system structure, whereas second-order changes involve modification to family system structures as the primary vehicle for problem solving. Or, said another way, first-order strategies attempt to solve problems within the current family structure; second-order strategies attempt to foster changes to family structure itself. First, the challenges of implementing any family intervention are to be able to detect and assess family system characteristics, and to establish a strong working alliance with the entire family system. Both first- and second-order change strategies require careful assessment of family structure and successful joining. Second, devaluing first-order strategies carries with it the implicit assumption that family system structural changes are the better, more enduring kind of change. In fact, even "dysfunctional" family systems have adaptive capacity and strengths, and social workers should not assume that structural changes within families are always required. Lastly, in practice, first- and second-order strategies are usually blended.

Settlement house movement

The profession's emphasis on the relationship between people and their environment can be traced to the belief system that guided the work of the settlement house movement

Second-Order Change Strategies

Thus, the second-order change strategies presented here solve presenting problems indirectly through changes in family system structure characteristics. That is, these intervention strategies focus on such topics as family rules, boundaries, communication patterns, and hierarchy. This chapter presents four second-order change strategies: modifying misconceptions and distorted cognitions, modifying communication patterns, modifying family rules, and modifying family alignments and hierarchy.

needs assessment

Understanding and documenting the nature and the extent of resource needs in a community.

Indications for Advocacy or Social Action

When services or benefits to which people are entitled are denied to a group or community When services or practices are dehumanizing, confrontational, or coercive When discriminatory practices or policies occur because of race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, culture, family form, or other factors When gaps in services or benefits cause undue hardship or contribute to dysfunction When people lack representation or participation in decisions that affect their lives When governmental or agency policies and procedures or community or workplace practices have a disparate impact that adversely affects or targets groups of people When a significant group of people have common needs for which resources are unavailable When clients are denied basic human, civil, or legal rights Other circumstances for which advocacy or social action may be necessary include situations in which a group or community is unable to act effectively on its own behalf, such as persons who are institutionalized, people who have a need for immediate services or benefits because of a crisis situation, or people who cannot act as self-advocates because of their legal status.

Intervening with Members' Roles

Whereas norms are shared expectations held, to some extent, by everyone in the group, roles are shared expectations about the functions of individuals in the group. Unlike norms, which define behavior in a wide range of situations, roles define behavior in relation to a specific function or task that the group member is expected to perform. Constructive roles or roles that are consistent with the members' goals for the group should be noted and reinforced. Counterproductive roles also require the leader's attention. The key, when facing counterproductive roles, is to encourage members to be self-observant, assure that they do not become locked into dysfunctional roles, and empower other participants to confront the member about the role and its impact. One means of intervening is to use a technique developed by Garvin (1986) to identify informal roles occupied by group participants. Leaders administer a questionnaire asking members to "vote" on who (if anyone) fulfills group roles such as referee, expert, humorist, nurturer, spokesperson, and "devil's advocate." The discussion that results from this exercise can powerfully influence both members' awareness and the group process. Another technique is to simply describe a specific role that a member seems to have assumed and to ask that member for observations regarding the accuracy of that assessment. Preface this observation by asking the member if he or she would like group feedback. Doing so reduces defensiveness and gives the member appropriate control over the situation.

Attending to Group and Individual Processes

While the content that is shared in group is important, so are the processes observed among members. As with families, leaders must attend to the messages demonstrated by each individual member and the process of the group as a whole. Once processes are observed, the worker will intervene in different ways depending on how these processes are enhancing achievement of group and individual goals and what phase of work the group is in. In more developed groups, the members themselves may observe, comment on, and regulate process. In those cases, the facilitator can comment on those processes.

Case and cause advocacy

Work on behalf of clients to ensure they receive benefits they are entitled to Address effects of legislation and policies Political Action for Candidate Election (PACE) Committee Support and elect candidates who support policies that affect social work constituents, practice, and programs But advocacy that involves action on a larger scale—for example, addressing the effects of legislation and policies—cannot rely on the efforts of a single social worker. Indeed, the profession has been and continues to be actively involved in addressing many of these causes (Marsh, 2005). The shift in policy making from the federal to the state level is also an opportunity for you to join in collaborative advocacy to influence policy at the state level on behalf of clients