SPE 566 Quiz 1
Increasing behavior
- Communicating, reading, defining words correctly - praising, describing an accomplishment, donning safety equipment, adhering to protocols precisely - completing assignments according to standards - participating in decision-making and following through on agreements - exercising more skillfully, harder, and/or longer - creating works of art, literature, or technological solutions to problems - adhering to health and/or self-help routines
Differences in articles from Baer and other (1968 & 1987)
- Expand meaning of applied characteristics, centered on social problems, social interest, and importance - recognized that novel, especially computerized, measurement and analytic strategies have emerged and that the context in which the behavior is emitted plays more important role in determining how one behaves at a particular time and place - Greater attention to particular function of unwelcome or dangerous behavior and to the complexity of interactions between antecedent circumstances and the behavior of interest - establish proper context in which to respond to failures
How to teach can't vs won't students
- There may be some students with autism who have not learned the skills. They can't perform a skill because they did not acquire that skill. - On the other hand, other students may have learned the skill but are not able to perform it at an acceptable level or are not motivated enough to perform the skill.
Reinforcement
- To describe a change in behavior; an observable natural event. - In ABA, to describe a behavioral procedure (as in applying positive reinforcement) by specifying the conditions under which the response produces a consequence (the contingent relations between the response and stimulus affecting it) - takes place when an individual's behavior increasing or stabilizing
Intraverbal teaching
- prompt and differentially reinforce use; gradually fade and thin supplementary reinforcers - use words learner has already mastered (e.g., the vocal response sought should already exist as a tact, mand, or echoic response) - consider using an established mand frame to supplement training Use a Mand Frame. Begin with a Motivational Antecedent (MA) (the learner would want), a non spoken prompt (item) and a verbal stimulus. Subsequently fade out the MA and the nonverbal prompt. Ex: you want a child to say "apple" in response to "you eat an _____" Start off with MA (child has not eaten an apple in a while and prefers to eat apples), the apple (nonverbal prompt) and the verbal stimulus ( you eat an ____) and when the child says "apple" you give him a piece of apple. subsequently you fade out the MA and when the child says apple you provide generalized reinforcers (praise, "thats right you eat an apple")
Steps ABA follows in designing programs
1. Identify problem or challenge 2. Assess physical, social environment 3. Specify goals and objectives / assess behavior of concern 4. Select, apply valid, reliable measures 5. Functionally assess current behavior 6. Identify effective contingencies of reinforcement and generalization 7. Graph baseline data 8. Select or design behavior-change, experimental analytic, and generalization plan 9. Increase - bring under stimulus control - shift, expand, or narrow stimulus control - shape or chain new behavior - prevent or reduce (mis-) behavior 10. Incorporate verbal behavior, if appropriate 11. Apply behavior change plan 12. continue graphing, assessing treatment fidelity, reliability of data collection 13. Assess for generalization & experimentally analyze results 14. Success? - Yes --> maintain, thin intervention strategies - No --> go back to step 8
Operant learning
Different responses or behaviors often produce similar results under similar circumstances. The composite set of behaviors that result in a single type of reinforcing event. Their probability is controlled by stimulus that follow behavior, often in the presence of a given stimulus or stimuli. The future rate of the behavior is a function of its previous history of consequences. operant class: preschooler asking for help, manipulating a stuck zipper Response 1: Shout "help" R2: Shrug shoulders and look helpless R3: say "I can't do it" R4: hold a help sign All responses produce the child receiving help
Event or Frequency Recording
Involves counting how often a specific behavior occurs within an interval, session, class period, day, week, month, or observation period. Good for measuring discrete behaviors that have a clear beginning and end. event recording = number of times behavior repeated per specific period of time Trials to criterion: number of responses it takes for someone to meet the standard set for success. Rate: the frequency of the behavior divided by time Percentage of opportunity: Frequency / opportunities x 100
Functional Communication Training (FCT)
Involves using differential reinforcement to teach people to mand in a socially acceptable way for the same reinforcer that historically served to maintain the problem behavior. Can be viewed as an application of mand training.
Valid measure
Is one that gauges what it claims to measure. If a measure is unreliable it cannot be valid. A scale measures weight, not height; a ruler measures dimensions of an object.Even if measures are found to reliable they may not necessarily be valid!
Reliable measure
Is one that is repeatable, i.e., remains standard, or consistent regardless of who does the measuring, on what occasions. When measuring behavior, you can only obtain reliable measures if the single measurement instrument includes objective behavioral definitions and precise instructions for use, so that regardless of who does the measuring the results will be essentially identical.
Objective measure
Is publicly verifiable. Personal feelings or interpretations do not affect the scoring, and the definitions of the behavior are observable, free of inferences, and unambiguous.
Latency recording
Measured by recording the time that elapses from the signal to begin until the response occurs. Used as a measure of treatment effectiveness in a number of clinical cases. Latency = time elapsed from signal until initiation of response
Duration recording
Measures the total time elapsed between the start of the behavior and its completion. Useful when the time the individual engages in the behavior is of particular concern or when the occurrences of a class of behavior varies in duration. Duration = time elapsed from the beginning to the end of responding
Negative reinforcement
Occurs when the stimulus is subtracted contingent on a response, resulting in the rate of that response subsequently increasing or maintaining. Ex: nagging husband to take out trash and stop nagging once he takes it out. Afterward, he will take out the trash to avoid hearing nagging
Social validity
A feature of measured results that includes - Social significance of the goals - Social appropriateness of the procedures - Social importance of the effects
Successive approximation
A particular response that has shifted along some dimension, such as quality, rate, or intensity as it more clearly approaches its target criterion
Bar graph
A type of graph used to compare discrete sets of data that may be, but are not necessarily related to one another; or to summarize performance within a condition or group of individuals. - does not represent response sequences - typically based on data combined across sessions, hours, or even days or weeks
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which voluntary (controllable; non-reflexive) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished. Operant conditioning is specifically limited to voluntary behavior, that is, emitted Reponses, which distinguishes it from respondent of Pavlovian conditioning, which is limited to involuntary or reflexive behavior (or elicited responses).
Role of MO/EO
A type of verbal operant in which a particular response form is reinforced by a characteristic consequence and is therefore under the functional control of the EO/MO relevant to that consequence. MO: child is hungry, wants cookie Mand: "cookie" Reinforcing consequences: mom gives child cookie
Tact
A verbal operant in which the response is reinforced by generalized conditioned reinforcement and is under the functional control of a nonverbal discriminative stimulus. Designates saying a word in the presence of an object, event, or a feature of an abstract stimulus class. You can only tact something when it is present.
ABA as a scientific approach
ABA has taken an empirical, that is, an experimental, data-based, scientific approach, drawing upon observation and experience. Its aim is to identify the variables that lawfully and meaningful influence behavior in real-world settings (home, clinic, school, work, community) Applied is defined as quantitatively describes and functionally addresses socially important behavioral challenges. Within ABA behaviors to be changed are explicitly important and objectively and quantitatively measurable. It's experimental manipulations analyze with precision sufficient to "show clearly what arrangements were responsible for change"
Motivating operations
Aka Establishing operations, or setting events are antecedent events that alter behavior by changing the value of a reinforcing and/or discriminative stimulus
Define ABA
An evidence-based method of examining and changing what people (and other living creatures) say and do
Permanent product recording
An observational method based on assessing durable products of behavior
Mand training
Before a mand is taught, a motivating antecedent needs to be in effect at the time of training. This is arranged by either capturing a naturally occurring motivating event or by contriving one. Without motivating antecedent there are no reinforcers. Similarly, without motivating antecedents, there are no mands. - ensure motivating stimulus visible but unattainable - prompt as minimally feasible to occasion response - If no response after many repeated efforts consider using augmentative communication system - conduct training in environment in which skill is functional (use incidental teaching) - gradually expand distance between communicative partner and learner - teach and in a socially accepted ways using reinforcers same or similar to those that historically served to maintain problem behaviors (FCT) - differentially reinforce mand or approximations thereto - gradually fade prompts and thin artificial reinforcers as mand becomes functional - promote generalization by varying operations for establishing different reinforcers, by involving multiple communicative partners and varying settings and other conditions
Behavior, learning, and teaching
Behavior is action and the function of those actions. Learning consists of altering response patterns, generally as a function of changes in environmental conditions. Teaching is promoting learning by any or a combination of various means.
Verbal behavior
Behavior reinforced through the mediation of other persons. It includes any spoken or non-spoken form of communication that helps people to get what they want and avoid what they don't want.
How ABA works
Breaking complex behavior down into its functional parts. Behavior analysts restricts itself to actions that can validly and reliably be observed and recorded, either by the person engaging in the behavior or by others. A successful analyst should allow the behavior to be synthesized by putting the parts back together
task analysis
Breaking down complex skill, job or behavioral chain into its component behaviors, sub-skills of subtasks. Components are is stated in tis order of occurrence an dare designed to set the occasion for the occurrence of the next behavior. Task analyses are particularly use in planning specific stimulus control and chaining procedures.
Difference between bribery and reinforcers
Bribes are tendered before the act, whereas reinforcement occurs afterwards. Bribes are often used to corrupt conduct, pervert judgement, and to promote dishonest or immoral behavior. Bribes are used to benefit the person giving the bribe, not for that of the recipient, and usually involves artificial or contrived rewards that bear little relation to the act.
Permanent products
Outcomes of the behavior of interest. Also referred to as outcome recording. Just about any tangible item directly tied to human performance illustrates a permanent product.: shoe, paper, gloves, etc.
Shaping and Personalized system of Instruction (PSI)
PSI resembles programmed instruction in the sense that goals are clearly defined, step sizes are small, correct responses are prompted via study questions, and feedback and reinforcement are delivered constantly with minimal delay. PSI is characterized by self-pacing, use of proctors, unit mastery, emphasis on the written word, and lectures and demonstrations used primarily for motivational purposes. PSI are so effective because it incorporates the principles of effective shaping. Approximations consist of mastering the concepts included in short prose passages. Achievement is reinforced consistently with minimal delay.
Shaping and Physical guidance
Physical guidance is used to prompt approximations of motor skills by guiding and then reinforcing approximations of the skills. physical guidance is used when prompts or other methods have failed repeatedly to evoke the desired response.
Graphic variations
Plotting both data sets on the same graph can be informative, particularly when multiple sets of different kinds of data are expected to relate to one another in some way as in the case of remaining on-and off-task and number of problems completed.
Social competence
Refers to an individual's overall social functioning. As Hops describes - "competence is a summary term which reflects social judgment about the general quality of an individual's performance in a given situation..." The key concept here is quality of performance as viewed by others. How do other people in your environment view your social functioning.
Social skills
Refers to an individual's situation-specific behaviors that enhance social functioning. The concept of social skills from a behavioral perspective is based on the assumption that specific identifiable skills form the basis for socially competent behavior. Teach socially acceptable behaviors that will be naturally recognized and accepted (reinforced) by high status, productive peers and significant others
Applied research
Refers to choosing as our subject matter behavior that is important and immediately beneficial to individuals and/or society.
Fidelity of implementation
Refers to ensuring that everyone involved carries out and supports the intervention as planned. Data collection continues throughout all behavior analytic programs, thereby fulfilling its role of 1. demonstrating that the program continues faithfully to be administered according to its original design (program fidelity) 2. Demonstrating the ongoing efficacy of the program of intervention or not. Behavior analyst and client(s) must decide whether to return to assessing the behavior anew and altering the plan of intervention according
Variability
Refers to the extent to which data "bounce around" on the graph. In ABA, refers to measures of an individual's ongoing performance during baseline and/or during one or more intervention or follow-up periods. When inquiring, ask if the behavior of interest is being emitted consistently or jumping around from one data point to the next
Three-term contingency
Refers to the interdependency among the antecedent conditions (A), the behavior (B), and the consequences (C).
Echoic
Repeating the verbal behavior of another person, as in parroting what another has said.
Philosophical doubt
Requires the scientist to continually question the truthfulness of what is regarded as fact. The skeptical practitioner requires scientific evidence before implementing a new practice but also evaluates continually its effectiveness once the practice has been implemented
Respondent learning
Respondent conditioning (aka classical conditioning) are a new relation develops between a stimulus and a formerly unconditioned response Pavlov's dog - salivary reflex in dogs pg. 25
Difference between reward and reinforcer
Reward is an arbitrarily selected item or event chosen under the (sometimes) misguided assumption that it will encourage an individual to repeat a given behavior. By contrast, to be identified as a reinforcer, a stimulus gained as a consequence of a response must have demonstrated its function by increasing or sustaining the specific behavior of a particular person, at least under given conditions In ABA you need to be sure any rewards you select actually promise to serve as a reinforcing function for that individual at that time and place
Shaping
Teaching new behavioral properties by differentially reinforcing successive approximations toward the behavioral objective Begins with a response as it currently exists in the individual's repertoire. Then reinforce slight changes in the form or topography of the behavior as they gradually approach or approximate the target behavior. Place extinction on poorer or lesser quality of the target behavior.
Permanent products of behavior
The evidence remains intact. Some behavior leaves physical evidence in the form of a product that endures more or less permanently after the performance.
Topography
The form, appearance, or shape of the behavior; its physical or natural features
Tact training
The goal is to bring the verbal response under the control of a nonverbal stimulus (e.g., saying "car" in the presence of a toy car). One of the easiest way to tact is to take advantage of other verbal repertoires. Support systems like PECS can be used to promote appropriate tacting. - once echoic or matching repertoire developed, present object or event (toy car or boy swinging) along with an echoic prompt ("car" "boy swinging") - differentially reinforce client's use of tact (saying "car" or "boy swinging") with social or other reinforcing events. Gradually fade echoic prompt and thin reinforcers. - teach and test for correspondence between stimulus and response, e.g., match-to-sample; delayed match-to-sample. - Ask "what is it/that?" differentially reinforce correct choosing; labeling - prompt, if necessary, then gradually fade verbal prompt and thin reinforcers
Duration
The length of time that passes from the onset to the offset of a behavior
teaching social skills by chaining
The majority of social skills training programs consist of chains of given responses, typically derived from an analysis of the tasks constituting the particular social skill to be taught. a. Paying attention Example: i. Look at the face of the person who is talking ii. Nod once in a while to show you are listening iii. Wait until the person stops talking before you talk iv. Be ready to answer, to ask a question, or to react to what the person said.
Frequency
The number of times the response occurs
Positive reinforcement
The organism GAINS a stimulus, dependent or contingent on a response, resulting in the rate of that response increasing or maintaining. Ex: praise husband for taking out the trash, leads to an increase in how frequently he takes out the trash
whole-interval time sampling
The response must be emitted throughout the entire interval if it is to be scored as occurring Underestimates errors Use especially when increasing behavior
partial-interval time sampling
The response must occur at least once during any part of the interval, even if only briefly, for it to be scored. Overestimates errors Use especially when decreasing behavior
Momentary time sampling
The response must occur at the moment the interval ends for it to be scored. Random errors Use especially when observational constraints
Interval time-sampling
The simple presence or absence of the response of interest within an interval is scored. The interval time sampling method requires that the observer divide the observation session into time intervals of equal lengths, and record behavior as occurring or not occurring within each interval.
Parsimony
The simplest theory that fits the facts of a problem is the one that should be selected
Interresponse time (IRT)
The time between instances of the response (elapsed time from the end of one response to the beginning of the next)
Latency
The time elapses between an antecedent (cue, prompt, signal) and a response
Echoic training
To enable the speaker to repeat the trainer's sounds, words, or phrases. Generally the end goal is to transfer the response form to other, generally more advanced, verbal operants. Shaping is most commonly used form of echoic training. Teacher presents a vocal verbal (spoken) stimulus and reinforces the student's successive approximations toward the sample. - vary communicative partners - model/demonstrate verbal (communicative stimulus) to be imitated: spoken word, gesture, sign; displaying exchanging symbol or picture, operating electronic communicative device - differentially reinforce echoic responses or approximations thereto within natural environment -gradually fade out prompting echoics - gradually deliver thin and delay delivery of reinforcers by pausing or distancing communicative partner or "listener"
ABA as a technology of change
To meet technological qualification well-prepared program implementers must be able to take that description and apply it reliably to similar participants to achieve or replicate (duplicate) the results
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
Uses pictorial images rather than spoken or written words as the communicative medium. Students learn to mand by exchanging pictorial images for reinforcers.
Define behavior
What living organisms do, including what and how they communicate, aside from its value or acceptability.
Components of the graph
Y-axis: vertical line. Y-axis with values attached is called the Ordinate. Provides a standard for measuring the dependent variable (the behavior) such as frequency, number, percentage - contains axis scales or numerals X-axis: horizontal line. Displays the label for the observational sessions. Abscissa (the x-value) Vertical phase-change lines: indicate a new condition is in effect; usually a different "treatment" or independent variable is being implemented. Ex: phase line between last baseline session and first treatment session Phase label: uses a simple descriptor of the conditions in place (baseline, treatment, follow up) Usually only 1 data set is plotted on a graph. if there are more than 1 data set on graph use different symbols or connecting lines Give each graph a descriptive label. The labels should make it possible for another person to examine the graph and understand what happened when and under what conditions. omit large areas of dead space by using a break in axis If needed for clarity should many data points fall on the zero line, extend the ordinate to below zero if variations in the data plot seem to obscure a socially important change, expand the ordinate
Mand
a verbal operant in which the response is reinforced by a characteristic consequence and is therefore under the functional control of relevant conditions of deprivation or aversive stimulation and ...the response has no specified relations to a prior stimulus.
Shaping and Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAPSI)
a. CAPSI - Computer -Assisted PSI b. CAPSI is a self-paced instructional program. c. Provides clear study questions for each unit based on written material, not lectures. d. Students must pass a short-essay test on each unite before progressing on to the next unit e. Tests are attempted when the student indicates his or her readiness to take the exam. If the student fails the first attempt at the test, other forms covering the same unit are available. f. These tests are scored and feedback is provided by proctors.
forward chaining
developing a chain of responses by training the first response or link in the chain initially, the second next, and so on; then joining the series of links together until the entire chain is emitted or "expressed" as a unitary complex behavior.
Respondent conditioning
involuntary or reflexive behavior (elicited responses)
total task chaining
involves training all sub-skills at the same time, or jointly, rather than adding one link at a time.
Sensitive measure
one the reflects subtle changes in the target response (response of interest) Ex: to measure how rapidly someone ran the 50-yard dash, you used a watch that only measured time in minutes. This method would be less sensitive than if you had used a stopwatch that displayed time in tenths of a second.
backward chaining
progresses in the opposite direction, starting with the last link.
Line graph
A type of graph that is used most frequently in the field, usually displays data that can be scaled along some dimension, such as time or the order of responses in a sequence.
Empiricism
Derived from or guided by experience or experiment
Teaching and maintaining behavior
-academic skills: reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic operations - technical skills, such as designing an engine, a computer program, an electromechanical device - professional skills, like performing difficult diagnostic, surgical, or engineering routines - self-care skills: organizing one's time, completing assignments, controlling emotional outbursts - choosing and conforming to healthy diets and exercise - family, organizational, and management skills: systematizing, choosing, and monitoring individual and group goals - job skills, as in assembling products, providing specific services, preparing reports - social skills: asking/answering questions, greeting people, excusing one's inappropriate (rude) behavior, engage in conversation, participate in community organizations - leadership skills: defining an organization's mission, setting objectives, defining job requirements assessing performance, providing feedback, reinforcing positive practices - continuing productive, proactive practices such as those in this list - engage in activities of civic responsibility: voting, caring for environment - detecting subtle differences in one's own or others' behavior or the products of their behavior
How to interpret data
1. How much has the behavior changed? We discover this by looking at level changes 2. In what direction (for better or worse) is the change headed? We can determine this by looking at trend 3. How consistent (regularly or irregularly) is the change that is taking place? In this case examine variability
Steps involved in teaching social skills
1. identify social skill deficit through observation or use of social skill inventory 2. do task analysis of social skill to be taught 3. Use chaining, modeling, other prompts such as instructions, role-playing, and provide real-life practice across various situations once social skill has reached a degree of fluency 4. Use differential reinforcement throughout training
Chaining
A sequence of responses that are functionally linked to the same terminal reinforcer Behavioral or response chains are composed of elements or links (responses or Rs) that serve a dual purpose: 1) to reinforce (Sr) the previous link and 2) to set the occasion (Sd) for the next link. Reinforce combinations of 2 or more response links (behavioral components) to form a complex behavior
Behavioral objective
A statement that communicates a proposed change in behavior. It describes a level of performance and serves as a basis for evaluation.
Reinforcer
A stimulus - an object or event that when gained or lost as a function of behavior, increases or maintains the likelihood that the behavior will reoccur. A specific stimulus, the addition or withdrawal of which functions to increase or maintain the behavior upon which it is dependent
Positive reinforcement procedure
A stimulus is called a positive reinforcer if its contingent presentation increases responding. Ex: food, praise, monetary incentives, or symbolic items The individual gains a positive reinforcer (something s/he "wants" to have or do at the time) as a consequence or function of the behavior. Behavior --> reinforcer may be abbreviated: R(response) --> Sd or (R+)
Dimensions of ABA
Applied - focuses on socially significant behaviors Behavioral - focuses on observable events (what people say and do) Analytical - Demonstrates functional relationships Technological - Defines procedures clearly and objectively Conceptually Systematic - references and relates to procedures to basic principles of behavior analysis from which the procedures are derived; ties procedures directly to the principles of behavior analysis Effective - Demonstrates socially significant behavior change Generality - Extends behavior change across time, setting, or other behavior
Incidental teaching
Apply directly within the environment in which the learner would be expected to use the particular verbal skill naturally. Ex: child reaches for a banana that he can't grasp. The parent prompts "what do you want?" then pause and model the word "banana"
Intraverbal
Controlled by a verbal stimulus without point-to-point correspondence or formal similarity and is reinforced by nonspecific reinforcers . It can assume many forms, such as social interchanges ("your welcome" after someone says "thank you"); word associations (black when someone says white); translations from one language to another; answering questions such as "what is a tact?" with a set response
Cumulative graph
Display rates of some event (usually a response), in the form of changes in the slope or curve of the record as a function of condition effects. The record shows how rapidly or slowly the responses are repeated. - has the advantage of revealing, at a glance, the frequency of responses over time, or rate.
Determinism
Doctrine that acts of the will, occurrences in nature, or social or psychological phenomena are casually determined by preceding events or natural laws
Calculating Interobserver Agreement (IOA)
IOA - Permanent product measuring: # of agreements (A) / # of agreements (A) + # of disagreements (D) x 100 IOA - Frequency/event measures: Smaller total/larger total. Multiply the above by 100 if you wish to report your results as a percentage IOA - Duration and IRT measures: Shorter duration/longer duration x 100 IOA - interval time sampling measures: # of intervals agreed/ # of intervals agreed + # of intervals disagreed x 100 pg.130
Graphing behavioral data
Provides a visual representation of behavior over time. By plotting and connecting data points, we notice performance patterns emerging.
Selecting a time-sampling method
Select whole-interval time sampling: - When measuring non-discrete or continuous behavior with a goal of increasing it - promote total presence (attending to work) rather than absence (humming) - conservative measure, underestimates rate - when you want to increase behavior Select partial-interval time sampling: -For behaviors that are targeted for reduction - overestimates behavior, because emitting the behavior during even a small fraction of the time within the interval results in the entire interval being scored for the behavior - goal of the intervention is to decrease behavior Whole and partial intervals require the individuals behavior to be observed and recorded continuously Momentary time sampling permits the recording of the behavior during preset fleeting points in time Ex: when cued by a random-time generator, kitchen timer, audio or vibrating time signal. - distortions this method may produce tend to be randomly distributed, leading sometimes to over-estimating and sometimes underestimating the actual frequency of the behavior of interest. - remain conservative to keep the intervals as short as feasible and to adhere to a schedule of frequent preset observations
Four characteristics of a good measurement system
Sensitive Objective Reliable Valid
Topography of verbal behavior
Shape or form, as poor word choices or enunciation or disfluent speech. Use of a combination of peer modeling, shaping, approval, contingent points, and feedback as a function of progressively clearer articulation of /l/,/r/,/th/,and /ting/
Shaping and fading
Shaping can be expedited by using instructions, prompts, and physical guidance to prompt approximations. However, those supports need to be faded if the terminal goal, responding independently, is firmly established with the learner's repertoire. Fading involves gradually removing antecedent stimuli that might be supporting the behavior in its present form fading and shaping are frequently combined in the development of programmed instructional materials.
Function of verbal behavior
Skinner proposed that verbal behavior is learned, increases in quantity and breadth, and is maintained in the same way as nonverbal behavior. It is also composed of one or more verbal operants. 1. One consists of acting directly on the environment 2. mediated by the behavior of others - verbal bx
Intensity
Strength or force with which a behavior is expressed. AKA magnitude size
How to choose effective reinforcers
Surveys and Reports Observation Preference assessments
Basic research
Takes place in a laboratory where responses can be investigated under tight experimental control.
Negative reinforcement procedure
When a response increases or maintains its rate as a function of the termination, removal or postponement of aversive stimuli. negative refers to subtracting, removing, or reducing or lowering the intensity of an aversive stimulus, resulting in an increase or maintenance of a behavior A stimulus that the individual finds aversive or unpleasant (that s/he does "not want" to have to do) is withdrawn as a function of the behavior. Behavior--> aversive stimulus removed. Behavior --> Sd removed Behavior --> Sd (or Response removed) Response (behavior) leads to removal of the aversive stimulus
Trend
When data points seem to be producing patterns that either rise or fall overtime. Trendline can tell you whether the data generated are increasing or decreasing over time, and can give you a standard reference for determining if the rate of change is accelerating or decelerating over time.
Shaping and goal setting
When goals are set in advance, participants have a clearer vision of where they are headed; what new levels will result in reinforcers. The practice of setting gradual step=wise goals in educational ,service occupational , and other settings is analogous, and similar guidelines apply. Performers in programs of this sort are taking giant steps, but success depends on reinforcement along the way.
Level
When the data's average value changes - Mean: or sum of the values divided by the total number of occurrences of a set of data - Mode: value of the data point most heavily represented - Median: the value of the score in the middle of the array of scores (lowest to highest) easily documented by taking the average value of each condition and comparing them
