SQ #1-9

Relate the functions of both DNA and RNA to the definition of a "gene".

A gene is a small portion of DNA. It contains the genetic code that provides instructions for making certain proteins, which can vary slightly from person to person. The DNA as a whole forms a template of instructions used by the RNA in order to assemble the proteins. The RNA takes these instructions from the DNA in the nucleus into the cytoplasm, which is where the construction of proteins takes place, and then the proteins go on to build and/or operate the body.

Explain what makes ATP a better source of energy for cell activities than are other organic molecules like glucose.

ATP is a better source of energy inside the cell than glucose. Glucose cannot be used as an immediate energy source because it needs to be broken down first to release its energy, which is then typically converted to ATP in the process. On the other hand, the energy from ATP is much more easily consumed because it only requires a one-step process in order to release its energy; the energy is consumed within 60 seconds of the decomposition of each ATP molecule. The bonds between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups of ATP are conveniently and readily available to break off and form ADP and release energy in more manageable quantities. Additionally, when glucose is oxidized in the process called glycolysis, the reaction can produce up 38 total molecules of ATP, which are then readily available for providing energy to the cell.

Identify by both acronym and full chemical name 3 other "nucleotide" molecules important to the human body

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a vital nucleotide and the body's most important energy-transfer molecule. It is the easiest energy source within the body, therefore known as the "energy currency". Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is another nucleotide that assists in energy transfer and can be used as an energy source for tRNA. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is formed from ATP and acts as a second messenger that is used inside of cells to signal that something is taking place, which then activates other metabolic effects.

ATP is the direct source of energy that cells use to perform work. Describe the ATP/ADP cycle including how energy is released and how energy is consumed.

Adenosine triphosphate is a nucleotide with three phosphate groups that store energy gained from exergonic reactions. The second and third phosphate groups are bonded by high energy covalent bonds to the rest of the ATP molecule, which consists of a sugar (ribose), the first phosphate group, and the nitrogenous base (adenine). All of the phosphate groups are negatively charged and naturally repel each other, so a high energy covalent bond is necessary to attach these phosphate groups together and keep the forces from pulling them apart. When the third phosphate group is added to an ADP molecule that already consists of two negatively charged phosphates, the energy involved in the process is then transferred and stored in the high-energy bonds on the phosphate groups. The enzyme called adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) assists in breaking the third phosphate group from ATP to then produce ADP (adenosine diphosphate). Breaking the bonds between the terminal phosphate and second phosphate releases mainly heat and some energy that can further be used by the cell within seconds of its release, and which produces ADP and Pi (used in phosphorylation). Energy from digested food, mainly in the process of glucose oxidation and aerobic respiration, is used to reattach the phosphate group to ADP, which produces the more energized ATP molecule again

State the name of the monomers that make up these molecules and identify the 3 components of each monomer

DNA and RNA are both composed of long strings of monomers with constantly repeating subunits. These monomers are called nucleotides that are joined together by covalent bonds or hydrogen bonds. Nucleotides are composed of one or more covalently-bonded phosphate groups, a five-carbon sugar molecule/monosaccharide, and a nitrogen-containing base.

Describe the essential function of both the DNA and RNA

DNA and RNA are both information molecules. The DNA is where all the genes for each organism are stored that contains all the instructions needed for protein synthesis. Non-coded DNA plays a role in chromosome structure and regulation of gene activity. DNA also assists in the construction of RNA, which is the molecule responsible for assembling the proteins based on the DNA's instructions. The three main RNA molecules directly involved in protein synthesis are mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. Messenger RNA (mRNA) has the function of carrying the code from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Transfer RNA (tRNA) binds the amino acid to the ribosome to develop a growing chain. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) assists in the translation of the mRNA.

Describe the chemical structure of DNA and RNA with respect to A) the names of the specific chemical components of each, B) how these chemical components are combined to form nucleotides, and C) how individual nucleotides are arranged to form the molecule of DNA or RNA. Your description should indicate which bonds in the molecule are hydrogen bonds and which are covalent bonds, and which bases pair with one another. Include diagrams.

DNA consists of a phosphate group (which is the same for all nucleic acids), a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose) and a nitrogen-containing base (adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymine). Together, this structure resembles an "L" shape where phosphate forms the vertical structure, the sugar located at the point and the horizontal part of the "L" is composed of the base, all of which are covalently-bonded together. The nucleotides in DNA can be formed with different bases. A couple different examples are: phosphate, deoxyribose, and adenine; or phosphate, deoxyribose, and thymine. Thymine is not found in RNA. RNA is composed of the same phosphate group with a different five carbon sugar called ribose, and a nitrogen-containing base of adenine, guanine, cytosine or uracil, which are also covalently-bonded together. Uracil is not found in DNA. DNA molecules are composed of two intertwined monomer strings of nucleotides referred to as a double helix with the sugar/phosphate on the vertical rung and the inner, horizontal rungs of adenine and thymine, or guanine and cytosine, which are bonded in the middle by hydrogen bonds. RNA molecules are only single-stranded, so the molecule forms only half of a ladder structure, with the nitrogen-containing bases hanging off the edge of the half ladder. The nitrogen bases in RNA are similar to DNA in that they also have specific base pairings. RNA only sometimes bonds with itself and forms complementary base pairs in small sections where the molecule folds over on itself and attaches with hydrogen bonds. Guanine will only form hydrogen bonds with cytosine, and adenine will only form hydrogen bonds with uracil.

State the full chemical names of DNA and RNA.

DNA is an abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA is the abbreviated name for ribonucleic acid.

Contrast DNA and RNA molecules with respect to A) the location of these molecules in the cell and B) the overall length of these molecules.

DNA is found in nucleus of cells, consisting of strings of molecules millions of nucleotides long. RNA is also made in the nucleus like DNA but then it moves immediately into the cytoplasm. RNA is hundreds to tens-of-thousands of nucleotides long. In comparison to DNA, RNA is much shorter.

State in which of the 4 broad categories of organic molecules you would place the molecules DNA and RNA.

The four categories include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Although DNA and RNA both contain a monosaccharide which is a carbohydrate (either ribose for RNA or deoxyribose for DNA), they are both placed into the category of nucleic acids.