Super Psych

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hindsight bias

"I knew it all along"

Endorphins

"Morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Charles Darwin

"On the origins of Species" (1859), natural selection, competition for scarce resources

Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)

"The Animal Mind", got her Phd at Cornell, 2nd female president of the APA

primary reinforcer

Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

Environment

Every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

socio-cultural

Examines the contributions that society makes to individual development. Stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

-informed consent -justification of deception (Milgram's Obedience Study) -Debriefing of subjects afterwards

Wilder Penfield

-stimulated brain with electrical probes while patients underwent surgery for epilepsy -created maps of sensory and motor cortices

Karl Wernicke

1848-1905; Field: perception; Contributions: area of left temporal lobe involved language understanding; Studies: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense

Robert Sternberg

1949-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)

Wilhem Wundt (1832-1920)

1st lab to study conscious experience. Father of psychology. German philosopher-physician, put the pieces of philosophy- to create psychology. He is a structuralist

Weber's Law

2 stimuli must differ by a constant proportion to be perceived as different

Gestalt rules

A set of rules that describe when elements in an image will appear to group together

Reflex

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Incentive

A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to change

delayed reinforcer

A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. I.e. a paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

Immediate reinforcer

A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. i.e. rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Emotion

A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.

Refractory Period

A resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

CT (Computed Tomography) Scan

A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Also called CAT scan.)

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

Paradoxical Sleep

A term that is sometimes used to describe REM sleep because the brain is active but the body is immobile

Hypothesis

A testable prediction often implied by a theory.

paranoid schizophrenia

A type of schizophrenia that is dominated by delusions of persecution along with delusions of grandeur.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

ACh Malfunction

Alzhiemier's disease causes ACh neurons to deteriorate

informed consent

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Consciousness

Awareness of internal and external stimuli

Somatosensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Area of the hypothalamus in which the body's biological clock is located

Glial Cells (glia)

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

Jet Lag

Collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our enviroment

iris

Colored part of the eye

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice or test-enhanced learning

psyche

Greek word for soul

Melatonin

Hormone secreted by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleep-wake cycle

three-box model/information-processing model

Memory storage involves 3 stages that info. passes through before its stored. Sensory Memory Short-term memory Long-Term Memory

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)

Psychological disorder characterized by guiltlessness, law-breaking, exploitation of others, irresponsibility, and deceit.

Replicate

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Two-Factor Theory

Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

Applied Research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

NREM-2

Second stage of sleep; the body goes into deeper relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles and K complexes; can still be waken up relatively easy and lasts about 20 minutes; theta waves

Well-Being

Self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

Binge-Eating Disorder

Significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa.

Taste Buds

Structures on the tongue that contain the receptor cells for taste

Jean Piaget

Swiss biologist was the last centuries most influential observer of children

Shadowing

Technique where a participant is asked to repeat a word or phrase immediately after its heard

Intrinsic drift

Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

Cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include some nonverbal learning, processing sensory input, and coordinating movement output and balance

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Coronary Heart Disease

The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in North America.

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting, of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Sigmund Freud

The controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist have influenced humanity's self-understanding

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Margaret Floy Wahburn

The first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., Washburn synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind

Margaret Floy Wahburn

The first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind

Glucose

The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Sexual Response Cycle

The four stages of sexual responding described by Matsters and Johnson-excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Drive-Reduction Theory

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

stroboscopic motion

The illusion of movement is produced by showing the rapid progression of images or objects that are not moving at all

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as the environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory info.

Chomsky

believed that given adequate nurture, language will naturally occur- people have language programmed into them together

Dependent Variable

The outcome factors; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Natural Selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Personality Psychology

The study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Experimental Psychology

The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without DNA change

Educational Psychology

The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

Psychoneuroimmunology

The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.

Social-Cultural Psychology

The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Molecular Genetics

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Identical Twins (Monozygotic Twins)

Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal Twins (Dizygotic Twins)

Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters but they share a fetal environment

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

Delta Wave

Type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of stage 3 and stage 4 sleep

Cross-sectional Research

a "snapshot;" a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at a given time

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

Rosy Retrospection

a happy fact for life- for most people the negative emotion recalled from bad events fades more rapidly than the positive emotion recalled from good events

client-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening with a genuine, accepting, environment to facilitate clients growth

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

frequency distribution

a mathematical function showing the number of instances in which a variable takes each of its possible values.

Recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

schizoid personality disorder

a personality disorder characterized by persistent avoidance of social relationships and little expression of emotion

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterizing by high arousal and appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterizing by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

Beta Wave

a small wave that follows alpha waves in NREM-1 in which humans are still awake but getting more drowsy

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that produces a responses w/o prior learning

line of best fit/regression line

a straight line drawn through the center of a group of data points plotted on a scatter plot, shows how variables are correlated

lens

a transparent + flexible disk-shaped structure filled w/ gelatin material. Both bend the light to put it in focus. Image is upside down and inverted on the retina.

experiment

a treatment is deliberately imposed on the individuals in order to observe a possible change in the response or variable being measured

lesion

abnormal changes in body organs because of injury or disease (ex: stroke)

Paraphilia

abnormal sexual desires, typically involving extreme or dangerous activities

Three Sins of Forgetting

absent mindedness, transience, blocking

cognitive triad

according to Beck, there are 3 important areas of life that are most influenced by the depressive cognitive schema; this refers to information about the self, about the world, and about the future

Short-Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the 7 digit of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored of forgotten

Fight or flight response

activation of sympathetic division of the sutonomic nervous system. energy reserves and hightened sensory compacity so that we may fight or run

Hobson and McCarley

activation synthesis

G. Stanley Hall

established the first formal U.S. Psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany

Independent Variable

experimenter manipulates

Dependent Variable

experimenter measures to see whether manipulation had an effect

Low Degree of Internal Validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences

High Degree of External Validity

extent to which we can generalize our findings to the real world

Ivan Pavlov

founded classical conditioning trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

how many biological rhythms or internal clocks do you have?

four

Carl Rogers

he developed client-centered therapy; encouraged therapists to exhibit acceptance, genuineness, and empathy

conditioned response/CR

in classical conditioning, learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus/CS

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any even strengthening the behavior it follows

Gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

involves a significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, for at least two weeks

divided attention

involves concentrating on more than one activity at the same time ex: multitasking-perform worse

inferential statistics

involves methods of using information from a sample to draw conclusions regarding the population

descriptive statistics

involving methods of organizing, picturing, + summarizing information from samples or population

preconscious level

information that can easily be recalled

inhibitory neurotransmitters

inhibit nerve impulses and calm the brain and help create balance

primary reinforcer

initially satisfying. One that does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable Ex: food/water

hindbrain

located at the skull's rear, the lower portion of the brain. Controls basics to keep us alive

dissertation

long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate's doctoral training

chromosome

long strand of genetic information

Archival Research

looking back at old records to obtain data, hard copy or electronically

Confirmation Bias

looking for evidence to support a preexisting belief and ignoring evidence that contradicts it

MRI

magnetic fields used to producde a picture of the tissue being imaged

axon

major extension of the soma

pituitary gland

master gland, works with hypothalamus

basilar membrane

membrane supporting the organ of Corti and hair cells in the cochlea

Mnemonic Devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

empirical method

method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities

just noticeable difference threshold

minimum difference a person can detect between any 2 stimuli 50% of the time. Not a constant amount.

Three Sins of Distortion

misattribution, suggestibility, bias

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

feature detectors

neurons in the brain which code for perceptually different stimuli

ganglion cells

neurons located near the inner surface of the retina that are the final output neurons of the vertebrae retina. Collect visual info. in their dendrite

association areas

not included in primary motor or sensory function, but involved in higher mental function

Somatic Disorders

occurs when a person feels extreme anxiety about physical symptoms such as pain or fatigue

experimenter bias

occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

Sleep Paralysis

occurs when the brainstem blocks the motor cortex's messages and the muscles don't move

nerve (or sensorineural) deafness

occurs when the hair cells in the cochlea are damaged- usually by a loud noise -harder to treat- can't get the hair cells to regenerate

Brainstem

oldest part of the brain, newer parts are built on top of this, automatic survival functions

split brain

one hemisphere could no longer communicate w/ the other side

Autism

broad range of conditions characterized by challenges w/ social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech + non-verbal communication

gyrus

bump or ridge on the celebral cortex

nerves

bundle of neurons

random assignment

chance of being a member of either the experimental group or the control group is equal

Hawthorne effect

changes in behavior that occur when people know that others are observing them

Middle Ear

channels the sound through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup to the inner ear

dissociative amnesia

characterized by extreme memory loss that is caused by extensive psychological stress

anxiety disorders

characterized by motor tension, hyperactivity + apprehensive expectation/thoughts ex: G.A.D, Panic disorders, Phobic disorders, O.C.D, P.T.S.D

depression

characterized by persistently depressed mood/loss of interest in activities=> impairs life

neurotransmitter

chemical messanger for the nervous sstem

hormone

chemical messenger released by endocrine glands

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Neurotransmitters

chemical substances that are stored in tiny spaces

Carl Rogers

co-founder of humanistic psychology

limbc system

collection of structures involved in the processing of emotion and memory

trichromatic theory

color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths

instutional review board (IRB)

committee that applies research ethics by reviewing the methods proposed for research to ensure that they are ethical

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

CAT scan (CT scan)

computerized axial tomography scan

lateralization

concept that each hemisphere of the brain is assosiated with specialized functions

social anxiety disorder

condition in which social interactions cause irrational anxiety

autonomic nervous system

contorls our internal organs and glands

Hypothalamus

control of hunger, thirst, temperature and other visceral bodily functions

endocrine system

controlled by the hypothalamus. The Body's "slow" chemical communication system. A set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by secreting

Reticular Formation

controls arousal

Demand Characteristics

cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypotheses

mood disorders

disorders in which there is a primary disturbance in mood; include depressive + bipolar disorder

Midbrain

dividion of the brain. contains the reticular formation

hindbrain

division of the brain consisting of the mendulla, pons, and cerebellum

avoidance learning

organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided

Operant Conditioning

organisms associate their own actions with consequences

classical conditioning

organisms learn the association b/w 2 stimuli. Learn to anticipate events. Learning process in which a neural stimulus becomes associated w/ a meaningful stimulus

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

parietal lobe

part of the celebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information:; contains the primary somatosensory cortex

frontal lobe

part of the celebral cortex involved in the reasoning , motor control, emotion, and kanguage , contains motor cortex

occipital lobe

part of the cerebral cortex assosiated with visual processsing: contains the primary visual cortex

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

Chaining

perform a number of responses successively in order to get a reward

sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness---as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia or hibernation. (Adapted from dement, 1999.)

One Sin of Intrusion

persistence

generalized anxiety disorder

persistent anxiety for at least 6+ months + are unable to specify the reasons for the anxiety

Dysthymia (Persistent Depressive Disorder)

persistent mild depression

Opinions

personal judgements, conclusions, or attitudes

dependent personality disorder

personality disorder characterized by a pervasive psychological dependence on other people

biopsychosocial model

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health

humanism

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

Hawthorne Effect

phenomenon in which participant's knowledge that they're being studied can affect their behavior

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Cause and Effect

possible to infer, w/ random assignment and manipulation of independent variable

introspection

process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts

Conditioning

process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses

American Psychological Association

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

receptor site

proteins that are on the surface of each cell. Act as little receives that listen to the messages of the chemical messenger molecules.

kinesthetic senses

provide information about movement, posture, and orientation

gilial cell

provide support and nutrition to the nervous system

vesitubular sense

provides info. about balance + mov't. (Oriented in space)

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

fluid intelligence

one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

pupil

opening in the center of the iris. Muscles control size of the pupils. Controls the amount of light.

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

hippocampus

special role in the storage of memories: recall

allel

specific version of gene

Broca's Area

speech

Embryo

stage in prenatal development from 2 to 8 weeks

homeostasis

state of equilibrium

catatonia

state of immobility and unresponsiveness lasting for long periods of time

auditory cortex

strip of cortex in the temperal lobe that is resposible for processing auditory information

motor cortex

strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinationg movement

Healthy Skpeticism

strive to think critically about information we encounter (regardless of the source)

dissociative disorders

sudden loss of memory or change in identity

narcolepsy

sudden uncontrollable sleepiness or lapse into REM sleep

ology

suffix that denotes "scientific study of"

Displacement

taking out built-up feelings of frustration or anger on objects or people less dangerous than those who initially aroused that feeling (taking things out on other people)

motion parallex

tendency for objects to seem like they are moving with you when you are moving; moon "following you"; tendency to see objects moving "backwards" such as car wheels in motion

Leniency Effect

tendency of raters to provide ratings that are overly generous (opposite of Halo Effect)

Halo Effect

tendency of ratings of one positive characteristics to spill over to influence the ratings of other positive characteristics

social desirability bias

tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

Albert Ellis

psychologist who founded the cogntive psychotherapy called rational-emotive therapy (RET), which emphasizes recognizing and changing irrational beliefs

fixed ratio

reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors Ex: working on an assembly line and getting paid for each 10 pieces you make

Reliability

repeatable/consistency in the data or results

Implicit Memory

retention independent of conscious recollection- processed in the cerebellum

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. These detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.

Elizabeth Loftus

revealed how easily memories can be reconstructed

developmental psychology

scientific study of development across a lifespan

psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

coercion

the practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats

Dualism

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

night terrors

screaming nightmares

annual cycles

seasons, migration, seasonal depression

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

generalized reinforcer

secondary reinforcer, can be traded for virtually anything ex: money

Insulin

secreated by pancreas; controls blood glucose

Ghrelin

secreted by empty stomach; sends "im hungry" signals to the brain

Leptin

secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

Obestatin

secreted by stomach; sends out "im full" signals to the brain

pituitary gland

secretes hormones

pancreas

secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar

gonad

secretes sexual hormone

Confirmation Bias

seeking evidence that verifies our ideas more eagerly than we seek evidence that might refute them

bipolar disorder

severe mood swings between major depressive episodes and manic episodes

Phonemes

single sounds

Adrenal Gland

sits atop our kidneys and secretes hormones involved with stress response

ninety-minute cycles

sleep cycles

evolutionary perspective

sleep protects

what are examples of altered states of consciousness?

sleep, being under the influence of drugs, meditation, hypnosis (maybe)

Eye Witness Recall

someone claiming to have seen an event recalls details from it- they often misconstuct the information

conduction deafness

something goes wrong w/ the system of conducting the sound to the cochlea

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

audition

the sense or act of hearing.

opponent-process theory

the sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs: red/green, yellow/blue, and black/white

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

Functional Fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Expectancy Theory

theory that people are motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, which leads to rewards, and that they are offered attractive rewards

Confounding Variable

third-variable problem

semicircular canals

three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement

imagery

use mental imagery to recall enormous amounts of info. Dual-code hypothesis. Memory for pictures is better than memory for words. Stranger pictures are better.

biological perspective

view that psychological disorders like depression and schitzophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

Behaviorism

view that psychology: 1 be an objective science, 2 studies behavior w/o reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree w/ 1 but not w/ 2

William James (1842-1910)

views it as not so much as what the mind is as what is for- known as functionalism. 1st American book, "Principles of Psychology", Human thought is adaptive-functalionist

Hypnagogic sensations

vivid bodily sensations

Naturalistic Observation

watching behavior in real-world settings

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

Lesion

Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

diabetes

disease related to insufficient insilun production

Erik Erikson

famous for his 8-stage model of psychosocial development; neo-Freudian

Hallucination

fantastic images

myelin sheath

fatty substance that insulates axon

amygdala

fear and aggression

agoraphobia

fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

features anxiety-provoking thoughts that will not go away/urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to prevent or produce some future situation

electroencephalography eeg

records the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp

biopsychology

study of how biology influences behavior

Broca's area

region in the left hemisohere that is essential for language productiom

Behaviorism

study of observable behavior Ex: Skinner and Pavlov *Watson rejected introspection b/c unscientific-must deal w/ observable

personality psychology

study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

biological psychology

study of the relationship between behavior and the function of the brain and nervous system

case study

study one individual in depth in hopes that findings will generalize to all people (Phineas Gage)

Little Albert

subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear

identity

the individual characteristics by which a thing or person is recognized or known

acquisition

the initial learning of the connection b/w the unconditioned stimulus and the neural stimulus- when these two stimulus are paired

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Assimilation

the process of assimilating new ideas into an existing cognitive structure

attention

the process of focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Conditioning

the process of learning these associations/ connections b/w events. 2 types: operand + classical

Discrimination

the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Daniel Goleman

1946-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: emotional intelligence

Clinical Psychology

A branch of psych that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

cerebellum

"the little brain", motor coordination. Helps maintain balance + posture + voluntary movement. 50% of the brains neurons

token economy

(Generalized Reinforcer Example) every time people perform a desired behavior, they are given a token, and periodically they are allowed to trade their tokens for a specific reinforcer

PhD

(doctor of philosophy) doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences

PsyD

(doctor of psychology) doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context

latent learning

(implicit)- in reinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior -Edward Tolman

Alcohol Use Disorder

(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal and a drive to continue problematic use.

resting potential

(slightly negative) in an inactive neuron the voltage b/w the inside and outside of the axon wall (-70 millivolts). Once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity called the threshold it fires

To Minimize Hawthorne Effects

1. convert observation 2. participant observation

benefits of sleep

1. protected our ancestors from predators, 2. restores and repairs the brain and body, 3. strengthens memories, 4. facilitates creative problem solving, 5. growth hormones are active, 6. NREM and REM play important roles in learning and memory

Ernst Weber

1795-1878; Field: perception; Contributions: just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law; Studies: 1st study on JND

Gustav Fechner

1801-1887; Field: perception; Contributions: stated that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportionate to the # of JND's that the stimulus causing the experiences above the absolute threshold

Charles Darwin

1809-1882; Field: geology, biology; Contributions: transmutation of species, natural selection, evolution by common descent; Studies: "The Origin of Species" catalogs his voyage on the Beagle

Francis Galton

1822-1911; Field: differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; Studies: Twin Studies-compare identical & fraternal twins, Hereditary Genius-used bell curve for normal distribution, & "Law of Errors"-differences in intellectual ability

Phineas Gage

1823-1860; Field: neurobiology; Contributions: 1st person to have a frontal lobotomy (by accident), his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning

William Wundt

1832-1920; Field: structuralism, voluntarism; Contributions: introspection, basic units of experience; Studies: 1st psychological laboratory in world at University of Leipzig

William James

1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth

Stanly Hall

1844-1924, student of William James. Was the 1st president of the APA

Hermann Ebbinghaus

1850-1909; Field: memory; Contributions: 1st to conduct studies on forgetting: first, a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss; Studies: memory-series of meaningless syllables/words

Sigmund Freud

1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms (expanded by Anna Freud), psychoanalysis, transference

Alfred Binet

1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: general IQ tests, designed test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French)

Charles Spearman

1863-1945; Field: intelligence; Contributions: found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability)

Alfred Adler

1870-1937; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: basic mistakes, style of life, inferiority/superiority complexes, childhood influences personality formation; Studies: Birth Order

Walter B. Cannon

1871-1945; Field: motivation; Contributions: believed that gastric activity as in empty stomach, was the sole basis for hunger; Studies: inserted balloons in stomachs

Edward Thorndike

1874-1949; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence; Studies: Law of Effect with cats

Carl Jung

1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation

Robert Yerkes

187601956; Field: intelligence, comparative; Contributions: social behavior of gorillas/chimps, Yerkes-Dodson law-level of arousal as related to performance

Lewis Terman

1877-1956; Field: testing; Contributions: revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children

John B Watson

1878-1958; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: generalization-inductive reasoning, emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; Studies: Little Albert

Hermann Rorschach

1884-1922; Field: personality, psychoanalysis; Contributions: developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test which consists of 10 standardized inkblots where the subject tells a story, the observer then derives aspects of the personality from the subject's commentary

Clark Hull

1884-1952; Field: motivation; Contributions: maintains that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates

Karen Horney

1885-1952; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends

Kurt Lewin

1890-1947; Field: social psychology; Contributions: German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; Studies: Leadership syles-studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities

Ivan Pavlov

1891-1951; Field: Gastroenterology; Contributions: developed foundation for classical conditioning, discovered that a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation

Harry Stack Sullivan

1892-1949; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: groundwork for enmeshed relationships, developed the Self-System-a configuration of personality traits

Henry Murray

1893-1988; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) with Christina Morgan, stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach and evaluate their own performances

Anna Freud

1895-1982; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: focused on child psychoanalysis, fully developed defense mechanisms, emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle

Lev Vygotsky

1896-1934; Field: child development; Contributions: investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development, zone of proximal development; play research

Jean Piaget

1896-1980; Field: cognition; Contributions: created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation)

David Weschler

1896-1981; Field: testing; Contributions: established an intelligence test especially for adults (WAIS)

Mary Cover-Jones

1896-1987; Field: learning; Contributions: systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned

Benjamin Whorf

1897-1941; Field: language; Contributions: his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think

Gordon Allport

1897-1967; Field: trait theory of personality; Contributions: list of 11,000 traits, 3 levels of traits-cardinal, central, and secondary

William Sheldon

1898-1977; Field: personality; Contributions: theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny)

Carl Rogers

1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

Erik Erikson

1902-1994; Field: neo-Freudian, humanistic; Contributions: created an 8-stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

BF Skinner

1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box

Skinner

1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies:..Skinner box

Harry Harlow

1905-1981; Field: development; Contributions: realized that touch is preferred in development; Studies: Rhesus monkeys, studied attachment of infant monkeys (wire mothers v. cloth mothers)

Raymond Cattell

1905-1998; Field: intelligence; Contributions: fluid & crystal intelligence; 3 domains of personality sphere (personality, ability, & motivation), 16 Personality Factors (personality test)

Solomon Asch

1907-1996; Field: social psychology; Contributions: studied conformity, found that individuals would conform even if they knew it was wrong; Studies: conformity, opinions and social pressures

Abraham Maslow

1908-1970; Field: humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied, self-actualization, transcendence

Mary Ainsworth

1913-1999; Field: development; Contributions: compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; Studies: The Strange Situation-observation of parent/child attachment

Albert Ellis

1913-2007; Field: cognitive-behavioral; Contributions: Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions

Kenneth Clark

1914-2005; Field: social psychology; Contributions: research evidence of internalized racism caused by stigmatization; Studies: Doll experiments-black children chose white dolls

HJ Eysenck

1916-1997; Field: personality; Contributions: asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion

David McClelland

1917-1998; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised a way to measure Murray's theory (TAT), developed scoring system for TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation, not the TAT

Aaron Beck

1921-present; Field: cognitive; Contributions: father of Cognitive Therapy, created Beck Scales-depression inventory, hopelessness scale, suicidal ideation, anxiety inventory, and youth inventories

Stanley Schachter

1922-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: stated that in order to experience emotions a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it

Robert Zajonc

1923-present; Field: motivation; Contributions: believes that we invent explanations to label feelings

Albert Bandura

1925-present; Field: sociocultural; Contributions: pioneer in observational learning, stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

Elizabeth Kübler-Ross

1926-2004; Field: development; Contributions: 5 stages the terminally ill go through when facing death (1. death, 2. anger/resentment, 3. bargaining with God, 4. depression, 5. acceptance)

Lawrence Köhlberg

1927-1987; Field: cognition, moral development; Contributions: created a theory of moral development that has 3 levels; focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behavior

Noam Chomsky

1928-present; Field: language; Contributions: disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

Stanley Milgram

1933-1984; Field: social psychology; Contributions: wanted to see how the German soldiers in WWII fell to obedience, wanted to see how far individuals would go to be obedient; Studies: Shock Study

Robert Rosenthal

1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher's expectations on students

Philip Zimbardo

1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that peoples behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; Studies: Stanford Prison Study-studied power of social roles to influence people's behavior

Paul Ekman

1934-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: found that facial expressions are universal

Carol Gilligan

1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg's work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of boys and girls; girls focus more on relationships than laws and principles

Martin Seligman

1942-present; Field: learning; Contributions: Positive Psychology, learned helplessness; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness

Howard Gardner

1943-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: devised the theory of multiple intelligences (logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic)

Elizabeth Loftus

1944-present; Field: memory; Contributions: expert in eyewitness testimony (false memories or misinformation effect); Studies: Reconstruction of Auto. Destruction, Jane Doe Case (repressed memories of Nicole Taus' sex abuse)

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

2+ distinct personalities/identities. Each identity has its own memories, behaviors + relationships

Physical Punishment

4 Drawbacks

positive punishment/aversive conditioning

A behavior is followed by the presentation or an aversive stimulus or removal of an appetitive stimulus respectively, decreasing the probability of that behavior.

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

Psychiatry

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practice by physicians who often provide medical (for example drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

Counseling Psychology

A branch of psych that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well- being

positive psychology

A branch of psychology that emphasizes human strengths. ex: hope, happiness, gratitude

Community Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

Psychodynamic Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Instinct

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Split Brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

narcissistic personality disorder

A disorder in which a person has an inflated sense of self-importance.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next

Scatterplot

A graphed clutter of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (litter scatter indicates high correlation).

Population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

Humanistic Psychology

A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

B.F. Skinner

A leading behaviorist, Skinner rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior

B.F. Skinner

A leading behaviorist, rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior

Polygraph

A machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts to other.

Antagonist

A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

Agonist

A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Reticular Formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

All-or-None Response

A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Adrenal Glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

Refractory Period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

paranoid personality disorder

A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of the motives of others without sufficient basis

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Cocaine

A stimulant that works by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitter dopamine

Secondary reinforcers

A stimulus that gains power through association with a primary reinforcer

SQ3R

A study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review

Health Psychology

A subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

ecstasy (MDMA)

A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self repeated attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the groups.

fMRI (Function MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer -generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy

Double-Blind Procedure

AN experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug evaluation studies.

humanistic psychology

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) + Carl Rogers (1902-1987), emphasizes on individuals choice, free will, a person's positive qualities + positive growth

Rescola and Wagner

According to them, classical conditioning depends on the information the conditioned stimulus provides about the unconditioned stimulus. They concluded that the rats in both groups were actively processing information about the reliability of the signals that they encountered

serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

biological

All of your feelings and behaviors have an organic root. In other words, they come from your brain, body chemistry, neurotransmitters, etc...

Non-REM (NREM)

All periods of sleep other than the period of rapid eye movement (REM)

Population

All the cases in a group being studies, from which samples may be drawn (except for national studies).

Human Factors Psychology

An I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Humility

An awareness of our own vulnerability and error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives.

Bulimia Nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Anorexia Nervosa

An eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.

Sexual Orientation

An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation).

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Biophysical Approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social- cultural levels of analysis

Behavioral Medicine

An interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease.

Case Study

An observation technique in which one person is studies in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Habituation

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

Theory of mind

An understanding of mental states such as feelings, desires, beliefs, and intentions and of the causal role they play in human behavior;

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, speaking, and integrating information

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experiments and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

observational/social learning

Bandura et al (1963): response measures- 1. Total aggression

Social Learning theory

Bandura's view of human development; emphasizes interaction

psychodynamic

Based on the work of Sigmund Freud Defenses mechanisms used to reduce anxiety Bring unconscious into conscious, analyze impulses behind the defenses.

K-Complex

Big spurts of brain waves associated with NREM-2 sleep

Biopsychology

Biological Approach-focuses on the body, especially the brain + nervous system Ex: genes, hormones and neurotransmitters

Circadian Rhythm

Biological rhythm takes place over 24-hour period, sleep-wake cycle, linked to natural light-dark cycle (controlled by the hypothalamus-specifically regarding melatonin that the body makes in response to light and dark)

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

left hemisphere

CALM controls important function analytical thoughts language/speech math/science

Wakefulness

Characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Anna Freud

Continued her father's work in psychoanalysis with an emphasis on children.

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing

Charles Darwin

Created theory of natural selection, helped to understand the roots of behavior and mental processes

Naomi Weisstein

Credited with starting the feminist revolution in psychology

Charles Darwin

Darwin argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies

PYY

Digestive tact hormone; send "im not hungry" signals to the brain

Functionalism

Early school of thought promoted by William James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Structuralism

Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener, used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Catharsis

Emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.

Pineal Gland

Endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin

Functional magnetic resoncance imagaing

FMRI mri that shows changes in metabolic activity

NREM-1

First stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep (which includes alpha and beta waves); the period during which a person drifts off to sleep; lasts 5-10 minutes and includes hallucinations and hypnagogic sensations

evolutionary

Focuses on Darwinism. We behave the way we do because we inherited those behaviors/traits. Thus, those behaviors/traits must have helped ensure our ancestors survival.

cognitive

Focuses on how we think (or encode information) How do we see the world? How did we learn to act to sad or happy events? Therapist attempt to change the way you think.

behavioral

Focuses on observable behaviors while putting feelings to the side. We behave in ways because we have been conditioned to do so.

Abraham Maslow

Founder (father) of humanistic psychology

Descartes

French philosopher, nativist, and dualist

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people.

Type A

Friedman and rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

negative punishment

Goal: Decrease the specific behavior A behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed Ex: getting grounded for failing a test

positive punishment

Goal: decrease a specific behavior An unpleasant stimulus following a given behavior Ex: Getting a speeding ticket

serotonin

HAMS hunger arousal mood sleep

G. Stanley Hall

Hall established the first formal U.S. Psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

Harvard graduate seminar, earned phD(outscored all males), denied the degree, paired associated + memory, APA's 1st female president

Latent Content

Hidden meaning of a dream

Carl Rogers

Humanistic Psychologist that believed the environment is what shaped the minds growth (nature>nurture)

Egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control

In an experiment, the standard that is used for comparison

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Schema

In observational learning, a generalized idea that captures the important components, but not every exact detail. Pertaining to memory and person perception, a generalized idea about objects, people, and events that are encountered frequently.

dissociative fugue

Individual not only develops amnesia, but also unexpectedly travels away from home and assumes a new identity

Biological Rhythm

Internal rhythms of biological activity

Disorganized language

Involves neologisms (when people make up their own words), and clang associations (when people string together a series of nonsense words that rhyme).

William James and Mary Whiton Calkins

James was a legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He mentored Calkins, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association

Sleep Debt

Lack of enough sleep on a regular basis; insufficient sleep can cause a number of adverse psychological and physiological consequences. In this instance, a person can go straight to REM without going through the other stages

basal ganglia

Large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements.

Toleman

Latent learning- learning that becomes obvious only once a reinforcement is given for demonstrating it, rats ran faster through maze after being rewarded

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. Events may be 2 stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Dorothea Dix

Led the way to human treatment of those with psychological disorders

Psychophysiological Illness

Literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.

midbrain

Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears.

Dopamine function

MALE movement, attention, learning, emotion

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

evolutionary psychology

Natural selection (Darwinism), uses evolutionary ideas such as adaption and reproduction

spinal cord

Nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the body and brain

Limbic System

Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Sensory (afferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

placebo effect

Occurs when participants' expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an outcome.

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Adaption-Level Phenomenon

Our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.

conditioned reinforcer

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Lucid Dream

People become aware that they are dreaming and can control the dream's content

Dichromats

People who can distinguish only two of the three basic colors.

Feel Good Do Good Phenomenon

People's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood.

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep

Period of sleep characterized by brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids; this stage occurs about 1 hour into sleep, the heart rate rises and breathing becomes rapid, muscles are relaxed and the person cannot be easily awakened. In fact, humans are paralyzed and muscles cannot move; brain waves are saw toothed

all-or-none

Phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either suffiecent or insufficientto reach the threshold of excitment

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical features that are associated with gender but that are not directly involved in reproduction.

Paul Broca and Carl Wernickle

Physician and investigator who led to the discovery of specialized language brain areas. (Damage to Broca's area disrupts speaking, while damage to Wernicke's area disrupts understanding

Occipital Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Parietal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Frontal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Temporal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga

Psychologists who split brains to study the information of the different hemispheres

Basic Research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Developmental Psychology

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Koelling

Ran experiments with John Garcia on Taste Aversion in species using rates, loud sounds, and bad tasting water.

Sleep Spindle

Rapid bursts of high frequency brain waves during stage 2 sleep that may be important for learning and memory

longitudal study

Research in which the same people are restudies and retested over a long period

Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance. Conducted pioneering research on taste of aversion. He discovered that when rats drank flavored water before becoming nauseated from a drug that produced gastrointestinal distress, they acquired a conditioned taste for the water. .....research supports the evolutionary perspective that being biologically prepared to quickly associate nausea with food and drink is adaptive.

Confidentiality

Respecting the privacy of both parties and keeping details secret

papillae

Rounded bumps above the tongue's surface that contain the taste buds, the receptors for taste. -replaced every 2 weeks -5 tastes: sweet, salty, bitter, sour, + umami

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who pioneered the study of learning

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages--alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Estrogens

Sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females that by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promotion sexual receptivity.

psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed that the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapists interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patent to gain self insight

Psychodamic psychology

Sigmund Frued, emphasized unconscious thought + the conflict b/w biological drive + societal demands

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD)

Sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur; sleepers have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams

Narcolepsy

Sleep disorder in which the sufferer cannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times, often as a result of high arousal

Albert Bandura

Social learning theory; Bobo doll experiment

Plato

Socrates' most well known pupil. Founded an academy in Athens.

Sleep

State marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness

negative punishment/omission training

The act of removing a stimulus (i.e. something the animal wants) in order to decrease occurrences of a behavior. For example, a person turns her back and removes her attention from a dog who is jumping on her.

Manifest Content

The actual content of storyline of a dream

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution; obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

Endocrine System

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Basal Metabolic Rate

The body's resting rate of energy expenditure.

Nervous System

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Levels of Analysis

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social- cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

flat affect

The display of little or no emotion—a common negative symptom of schizophrenia.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

Facial Feedback Effect

The effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness, the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Nature-Nurture Issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

THC

The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Testosterone

The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Dendrites

The neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

The neuron's extension that passes messages through its branching terminal fibers that form junctions with other neurons, muscles, or glands

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

Relative Deprivation

The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

Set Point

The point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

Debriefing

The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants.

Dual Processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Natural Selection

The principle that, among he range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Stress

The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

Gender Typing

The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes

Cognitive Psychology

The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Positive Psychology

The scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Behavioral Psychology

The scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and Psychological Processes

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)

Psychometrics

The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Cannon-Bard Theory

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

James-Lange Theory

The theory that we experience emotion because we are aware of our bodily response to an emotionan rousing stimulus.

Lymphocytes

The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

Empiricism

The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Lawrence Kohlberg

Theory of Moral Development

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assess conclusions.

NREM-3 and NREM-4

Third and fourth stages of sleep; deep sleep characterized by very large delta waves; the fourth stage is the deepest stage of sleep and both stages together last approximately 30 minutes

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

diathesis-stress model

View of schizophrenia emphasizing that a combination of bio-genetic disposition and stress causes the disorder.

dopamine

Voluntary movement, learning, and feelings of pleasure

Linguistic Determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Structuralism

William Wundt. Dealt with the structure of mental life, hoped to analyze experience into basic elements or building blocks

John B. Watson

Working with Rosalie Rayner, Watson championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "Little Albert."

John B. Watson

Working with Rosalie Rayner, championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "Little Albert."

John B. Watson

Working with Rosalie Rayner, he championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "Little Albert."

Wilhelm Wundt

Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany

pons

a bridge in the hindbrain that connects the cerebellum and the brain stem. Sleep + breathing, dreaming

corpus callosum

a broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain.

Theory

a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and to make predictions about future observations

unconditional positive reward

a caring, accepting, non judgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self awareness and self acceptance

sensory adaptation

a change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.

Flashbulb Memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant memory or event

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

hue

a color or shade

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

conversion disorder

a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found

delusions of grandeur

a false impression of one's own importance.

Zygote

a fertilized egg

operant conditioning

a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence

insight learning

a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution Wolfgang Kohler

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Relearning

a measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Concepts

a mental group of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototypes

a mental image of best example of a category

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

meta-anylsis

a method that allows researchers to combine the results of several different studies on a similar topic in order t establish the strength of an effect

Echoic Memory

a momentary sensory memory or auditory stimuli

Iconic Memory

a momentary sensory memory, or visual stimuli

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

a mood characterized y depression that occurs at the same time every year

Working Memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

a part of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm - in response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

panic disorder

a person experiences recurrent, sudden onsets of intense apprehension or terror, often w/o warning + w/ no specific cause

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)

a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions and marked impassivity beginning in early adulthood.

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

Sample

a portion of a population to be studied

Testosterone

a potent androgenic hormone produced chiefly by the testes

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

perceptual set

a predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way

Sexual Dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

Higher-order conditioning/Second-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second, often weaker, conditioned stimulus I.e. an animal learning that a tone predicts food might then learn a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

Schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

partial reinforcement

a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time

Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

Longitudinal Research

a research that tests the same group of individuals over an extended period of time

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Self Concept

a sense of one's identity and personal worth

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

longitudinal study

a special kind of systematic observation, used by correlation research, that involves obtaining the same variable overtime

neuron

a specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell.

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors occur simultaneously with others.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

p-value

a statistically significant difference is a difference not likely due to chance

thalamus

a structure deep in the brain that coordinates and controls muscle activity. Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. Final switching station for most incoming messages.

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

Anecdote

a study of one person

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

posthypnotic suggestions

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

variable interval

a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed

fovea

a tiny area in the center of the retina at which vision is the best. Only has cones

Alpha Wave

a tiny wave at the start of the sleep cycle where humans are fully awake

aversive conditioning

a type of counter-conditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

systematic desensitization

a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Applications 1. School 2. Sports 3. Work 4. Home 5. Self-improvement

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events

Decibel (dB)

a unit used to measure the intensity of a sound or the power level of an electrochemical signal by comparing it with a given level on a logarithmic scale

intimacy

a usually secretive or illicit sexual relationship

interpersonal psychotherapy

a variation of psychodynamic therapy that has virtually treated depression, symptom relief "here and now"

stratified sampling

a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population

insight therapies

a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses

ossicles

a very small bone, especially one of those in the middle ear

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

Algorithms

a way of problem solving in which one tries every available option(even after the right answer is found)

Theory

a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation of observed phenomena

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

postdoctoral training program

allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field

Insight

an "ah ha" moment

amygdala

an almond-shaped structure located inside the brain toward the base: emotion (fear)

Pseudopsychology

an unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behavior

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug induced hallucinations

hypnosis

an altered state of heightened suggestibility

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

an anxiety disorder that develops through exposure to a traumatic event that has overwhelmed the person's ability to cope

virtual reality exposure therapy

an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic stimulation of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking

eclectic approach

an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the clients problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Theory of Mind

an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own

Hypothesis

an educated guess that derives from a theory or prediction that can be tested

Cohort Effect

an effect that different age groups give different reaction results not necessarily due to their age

sampling error

an error that occurs when a sample somehow does not represent the target population

natural selection

an evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to the environment will survive and, importantly produce offspiring

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.

Long-Term Potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation- believed to be a neural basis for memory and learning

parasymapathetic nervous system

assosiated with routine

alzheimers disease

an irreversible, progressive brain disorder, characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Critical Period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

unconditioned response

an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by unconditioned stimulus -involuntary

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

Confounds

any difference between the experimental and control groups, other than the independent variable; makes it impossible to interpret any findings

specific phobia

any kind of anxiety disorder that amounts to an unreasonable or irrational fear related to exposure to specific objects or situations

Sensory cortex

area at front of parietal lobe that registers and processes the senses

forensic psychology

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system

counseling psychology

area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

clinical psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

sport and exercise psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities

Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)

argued against dividing human thought + behavior into discrete structures

Charles Darwin

argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies

reticular formation

arousal-responsible for regulating wakefullness and sleep-wake transitions. W/o it you'd be in a coma

sympathetic nervous system

arouses the body to mobilize it for action, fight or flight

positive correlation

as one variable increases, so does the other

negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

Negative Correlation

as the value of one variable changes, the other goes in the opposite direction (one goes up, other goes down)

Positive Correlation

as the value of one variable changes, the other goes in the same direction (both goes up)

survey

ask people opionins + beliefs Pros: cheap, easy to ask many, can ask people from anywhere cons: bias, sampling bias, social desirability bias, low responsibilities, response bias

limbic system

associated with emotions and memory

frontal lobe

associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving

Rationalization

attempting to justify an action to oneself and others by "proving" it to be rational (this is why I did it; why it makes sense) (smoker stating that something else will kill him any way so he mine as well smoke)

Source Amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined- at the heart of many false memories

direct inner awareness

aware of what's going on inside of you (EX: feelings and emotions)

sensory awareness

awareness of environment

sense of self

awareness of ourselves and our existence

consciousness

awareness of self and environment

nonconscious level

basic biological functions that we do not sense such as your fingernails growing, or your pupils adjusting to light

Mary Calkins

became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association

cerebrum

beefy portion of the brain

Two-Word Stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks 2-word statements

Babbling Stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously mutters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

law of effect

behavior followed by positive outcomes are strengthened + that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

continuous reinforcement

behavior is reinforced every time it occurs -learning occurs rapidity -reinforcement stops, extinction occurs

respondent behavior

behavior occurring as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior operates on the environment, producing consequences

abnormal behavior

behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful over a relatively long period of time (statistical distress)

counter conditoining

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and adverse cxonditoining

exposure therapies

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things that they fear and avoid

Thorndike

behaviorist- Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence

John Broadus Watson

behaviorist; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat and associated his fear with white fur and objects

Operational Definition

being specific about what is being observed; important to specify how we're measuring our variables ahead of time

Skinner

believed we can explain language development with familiar learning principles: association, imitation, and reinforcement

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

Projection

blame ones own forbidden desires and wants on others; the unconscious transfer of one's own desires or emotions to another person

Placebo Effect

blind

addiction

body craves a drug to feel normal

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

Plasticity

brain's ability to reorganize itself, higher in younger people to overcompensate for damage

dendrite

branch like extension of the soma that recieves incoming signals from other neurons

Little Albert

ca. 1920; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles: Studies: Little Albert-generalization of fear

Parasympathetic nervous system

calming system (peaceful)

parasympathetic nervous system

calms the body

chronic deprivation

can change your biology, leading to obesity, hypertension and memory impairment

psychological construct

can't be seen or felt but are known because how it affects behavior

Falsifiable

capable of being false

adaptability

capacity to learn new behaviors to cope with changing circumstances

optic nerve

carries visual information from the retina to the brain

sensory neurons/afferent nerves

carry information about the external environment using the 5 senses (ex: hot stove signal)

motor neurons/efferent neurons

carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body (ex: muscles and glands-response)

Critical Period

childhood represents a this for mastering certain aspects of language

Regression

childish, immature behavior

personality disorders

chronic, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns that are thoroughly integrated into an individual's personality

twenty-four hours

circadian rythyms

Cornea

clear membrane just in front of the eye

Belief Perserverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

independent variable

conditions that are altered by the experiment

corpus callosum

connects left and right brain hemispheres

peripheral nervous system PNS

connects the central nervous sytem to the rest of the body

Reliability

consistency of measurement

personality trait

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

aversive conditioning

consists of repeated pairing of a stimulus w/ a very unpleasant stimulus

somatic nervous system

consists of sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the Central Nervous System (CNS)

cell body

contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neurons need for growth + maintenance

Substance Use Disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

right hemisphere

controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial

left hemisphere

controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

Cerebellum

coordinates voluntary movement and balance

Overcompensation

covering up a perceived weakness by overemphasizing on some other characteristic or making up for a frustration in one area by gratifying oneself in another (overeating)

Abraham Maslow

created hierarchy of needs

Judith Langlois

dates ?; Field: developmental; Contributions: social development & processing, effects of appearance on behavior, origin of social stereotypes, sex/love/intimacy, facial expression

David Rosenhan

dates?; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a mental health setting; Studies: Hospital experiment-checked into hospital to check diagnosis

punishment

decrease the probability of a response

logitudinal fissure

deep groovein the brain cortex

colorblindness

deficiency of the way you see color

single blind

denoting a test or experiment in which information that may bias the results is concealed from either tester or subject.

double blind

denoting a test or trial, especially of a drug, in which any information that may influence the behavior of the tester or the subject is withheld until after the test.

norepinephrine malfunctions

depress mood

what are the 3 categories of drugs?

depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.

Sensation

detect physical energy from the environment and encode it as neutral signals. Transforming stimuli like light or sound into neural energy that is converted to an action potential.

John B. Watson

developed behaviorism ( the study of observable behavior)

Mary Cover Jones

developed the technique of counterconditioning

Joseph Wolpe

developed the technique of systematic desensitization

physiological function

develops the brain and neural pathways

membrane potential

difference in charge across the neutal membrane

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Control Group

does not receive the manipulation

Experimenter Expectancy Effect

double-blind

freud

dreams reflect unconscious wishes and dreams, uses symbols to represent real motives, emotions, etc

Attrition Rates

dropouts/people lost over the course of the study

antagonist

drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitters

agonist

drug that mimics or strengthens ffects of neurotransmitters

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body function

active listening

empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Roger's client centered therapy

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

Telegraphic Speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram- "go car"- using mostly nouns and verbs

Action Potential

electrical signal that moves down the neuron's axon

right hemisphere

emotion, artsy

Gestalt Psychology

emphasized the study of thinking, learning, pieces make a whole

Cognitive View

emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing, How we interpret, process and remember environmental events. John Piaget (1896-1980)

acetylcholine functions

enables muscle action, learning, memory

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Availability Heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

humanistic

every person has the potential to become self actualized

Population

everyone in a particular group

conditioned stimulus

ex: bell ringing a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired w/ the unconditioned stimulus

conditoned response

ex: getting up b/c the bell rings a learned response to the conditioned stimulus after the conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing

correlational study

examines how two variables are related. Does NOT imply causation

Sociocultural View

examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior Ex: America v. China

Prefrontal Lobotomy

example of what happens when we rely on our subjective impressions; brain damage before and after the surgery remained the same

histrionic personality disorder

excessive emotionality and attention seeking

Norepinephrine

excites heart rate, sleep, control, alertness

Sympathetic nervous system

excites; scared--> s

outliers

extreme values that don't appear to belong with the rest of the data

confounding variable

factors other than the independent variable that may cause a result

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment.

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Malingering

faking bad (worse than reality)

Positive Impression Management

faking good (better than reality)

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Identification

feeling better about oneself by identifying with a successful person or their positive attributes

cochlea

fluid-filled structure that is coiled up like a snail. The fluid inside the cochlea passes vibrations in tiny hairs connected to auditory nerves

behaviorism

focus on observing and controlling behavior

psychoanalytic theory

focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

functionalism

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

signal detection theory

focuses on decision making about stimuli under conditions of uncertainty. The detection stimuli depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical/psychological state of the individual. Also on individual + contextual variations like fatigue, exceptions + urgency of the moment

selective attention

focusing on a specific aspect of experiments while ignoring others

hypothalamus

forebrain structure that reguklates the sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homestaic processes. Serves as the interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system

Empirical Approach

gaining knowledge through observation. Events, collection of data and logical reasoning

depressed immune system

get sick quicker

auditory nerves

hair cells are receptor sites

frequency theory

hair cells fire at different rates/ frequencies in the cochlea -especially for the lower tones

place theory

hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea Low frequency (low pitch)- travel farther high frequency (high pitch)- travel shorter

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Amplitude

height of the wave of light which determines brightness

norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

Hypothalamus

helps maintain homeostasis (balance) within body; controls the circadian rhythm

unconscious/subconscious level

hidden info, unknown motivations, too painful or socially acceptable

frontal

higher order thinking (what makes us human)

pons

hindbrain structure that connect the brain and soinal cord; involved in regulating brai activity during sleep

cerebellum

hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movemment , motor skills, and is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

medulla

hindbrian structure tha controls automate dprocesses like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

Encoding

how info. gets in. The process by which info. gets into the memory storage

retrieval

how info. gets out

Orexin

hunger-triggering homrone secreted by hypothalamus

john b. watson

ignored mental processes and defined psychology as scientific study of observable behavior

computorized tomogtaphy ct scan

imaging technique in which a computor coordinated and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area

aphasia

impairment of language

Wernicke's area

impairs understanding. Speak in meaningless words w/ no comprehension

Formal Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Control Group

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Unconditioned stimulus/US

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally & automatically- triggers a response

Conditioned stimulus/CS

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association w/ an unconditioned stimulus/US, comes to trigger a conditioned response

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish btwn a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that don't signal an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned response/UR

in classical conditioning, unlearned, naturally occurring response to unconditioned stimulus/US, i.e. salivation when food is in mouth

Case Study

in depth study of rare cases (does not tell cause and effect); ex: Phineas Gage, H.M., Little Albert

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

Grammar

in language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

discriminative stimulus

in operant condition, a stimulus eliciting a response after association with reinforcement, in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement

Operant chamber/Skinner box

in operant conditioning research, this contains a bar/key an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

interpretation

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events to promote insight

resistance

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety- late materials

transference

in psychoanalysis, the patent's transfer to the analysts of emotions linked with other relationships (such a love or hatred for a parent)

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memory

Embodied Cognition

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements

Accommodation

in the theories of Jean Piaget: the modification of internal representations in order to accommodate a changing knowledge of reality

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.

insomnia

inability to sleep, racing thoughts

Misinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory on an event

Reinforcement

increase the probability of a response

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, i.e. food.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, i.e. shock. Is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. This is not a punishment

z-score

indicates how many standard deviations an element is from the mean

Temperament

individuals characteritc manner of behavior or reaction assumed to have a strong genetic basis

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

individuals show 1+ symptoms: inattention, hyperactivity or impulsive

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental process. Based on experience or expectations. Begin w/ a framework of what is happening and apply to incoming information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

representative sample

is drawn from a population of interest and has demographics and characteristics that match those of the population in as many ways as possible.

Representativeness Heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

Wernicke's Area

language and comprehension

forebrain

largest part of the brain, contains the celebral cortex, thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures

learned helplessness

learned helplessness the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past the organism has learned that it has no control over negative outcomes

hippocampus

learning and memory

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it a change in behavior due to experience acquired without conscious effort, for example, a student using a quote in an exam essay that the student had never tried to memorize, though he had encountered it in studying

observational learning

learning that takes place when a person observes and imitates another's behavior Albert Bandura + Modeling 1961- Bobo Doll experiment Modeling-learning that occurs when a person observes + imitates behavior

Seligman

learning; Positive Psychology; learned helplessness theory of depression; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness

Broca's area

left hemisphere damage-impairs speaking-struggle to find words but can sing a familiar song

motor cortex

left hemisphere section controls movement of the right side of the body and right hemisphere section controls movement of left side of the body

hemisphere

left of right of the brain

William James

legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text

William James and Mary Calkins

legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He mentored Calkins, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association

retina

light-sensitive surface that records electro-magnetic energy and converts it to neural impulses for processing in the brain

DSM-V

lists +describes a wide range of disorders by category (diagnostic + statistical manual of mental disorders)

right skew

mean is greater than median

left skew

mean is less than median

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

Validity

measure of something being measured (if valid, also reliable)

dependent variable

measure the results of the experiment

Explicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare-processed in the hipppocampus

twenty-eight day cycles

menstrual cycle (for females)

Imagery

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

Heuristics

mental shortcuts or rules of thumb

selective attention

more aware

polygenic

multiple genes affecting a given trait

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Facts

observable realities

observational study

observations are conducted in a way that doesn't change the response of the variable being measured

hypochondriasis

occurs w/ the idea of having a serious but undiagnosed medical condition

information-processing

organizing/sorting out the day and fixing them to memory

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Serial Position Effect

our tendency to recall better the last and first items in a list

cerebral cortex

outside of the brain, control an information-processing center of the brain

mania

overexcited, unrealistically optimistic state

dopamine malfunctions

oversupply: schizophrenia, undersupply: tremors and Parkinson's disease

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

blind spot

place where optic nerve leaves the retina. No rods or cones

excitatory neurotransmitters

pre-synaptic neurons conduct the action potential to release a neurotransmitter and they affect the post-synaptic neurons

biomedical approach

prescribes medications or procedures that act directly on the person's psychology

Reaction Formation

preventing oneself from expressing unacceptable feelings by expressing the opposite (having a bad day presenting yourself as happy)

Functionalism

probes the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaption to the environment

counterconditioning

procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response

Random Selection

procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

activation synthesis

random neurons firing and brain trying to make sense by creating a story (making sense of neural static)

response (participant) bias

range of tendencies to respond inaccuracy or falsely to questions

measures of variability

range, standard deviation, variance

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dream commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except of minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Ratings Data

rating the behavior of others

variable ratio

ratio schedule. Timetable in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times. Unpredictable. Ex: Ways slot machines are set up

spontaneous recovery

reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

temporal lobe

receives auditory information

parietal

receives sensory input for touch/body position

Experimental Group

receives the manipulation

occipital

receives visual information

rods

receptors in the retina that are sensitive to light. Not useful for color vision. Night vision. Out number cones 20-1

cones

receptors that we use for color perception. Light sensitive. Day-light

level of processing

refers to a continuum from shallow to intermediate to deep, deeper processing produces better memory

shaping

refers to rewarding approximations of a desired behavior

applied research

refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. It is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness + develop innovative technologies.

altered states of consciousness

refers to states in which a person's sense of self changes

plasticity

refers to the brain's special physical capacity for change

inattentional blindness

refers to the failure to detect unexpected events when our attention is engaged by a task. More likely to occur when the task is difficult

elaboration

refers to the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding

cognitive development

reflects awake cognitive abilities

Denial

refusing to perceive reality

fixed interval

reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed Ex: running for election

Partial/Intermittent reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

behavior modification

reinforcing desired behaviors, and withholding reinforcement for undesired behaviors

Continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs When first teaching a new behavior, rewarding the behavior each time is best.

Procedural Memory

related to implicit memory- motor skills, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument

selfreference

relating material to your own experience -processing information deemed important or relevant more deeply, making it easier to recall

progressive relaxation

relaxing one muscle group after another, until you achieve a blissful state of complete relaxation and comfort

Correlational Design

research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated; depicted in a scatter plot; correlations have predictive value; CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION

experiment

research method that best establishes cause and effect relationships

group matching

researchers attempt to categorize the subjects (by age, health status, gender, ect.) and ensure that the control group has members similar to those in the experimental group

hypothalamus

reward center, hunger, thirst, sexual arousal

saturation

richness of visual stimuli

Fantasy

satisfying frustrated desires by imagining a scenario in which they come true

after image

sensations that remain after stimulus is removed

Hallucinations

sensory experiences that occur in the absence of real stimuli

Thalamus

sensory switch board, processes every sense other than smell

Isolation

separating feelings and emotions of an event into compartments so they are never thought about in relation to one another

gene

sequence of dna that controls or partially controls a pysical characteristic

endocrine system

series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones

visual acuity

sharpness of vision

Heuristics

short-cut; a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve efficiently

Morphemes

smallest unit of language that carries meaning

operational definition

states the exact procedure used to represent a concept or how a variable is going to be measured + observed in a particular study

Brainstem

stem-like area that includes much of the hindbrain and the midbrain (medulla + pons) Controls automatic survival functions. Alertness, breathing, heart beat, blood pressure

sleep Apnea

stop breathing while asleep

terminal button

store chemicals called neurotransmitters

amygdala

structure in the limbic sytem involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories

hippocampus

structure in the temperal lobe assosiated with learning and memory

parietal lobe

structures at the top and toward the rear of the head. Receives sensory input for touch and body position

temporal lobe

structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing and memory

occipital lobe

structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimuli

Roger Sperry

studied split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions

cross-sectional study

study different groups of people at the same time (different age groups)

cognitive psychology

study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions

humanist

study of current environmental influences and the importance of satisfying the need for love and acceptance Happiness is defined by the distance between our "self-concept" and "ideal self" self actualization

epigenetics

study of gene-environment interactions, such as same genotype leads to different phenotype

Repression

suppress things unconsciously (remains unconscious)

Cerebral cortex

surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities

Self-Report Measures and Surveys

surveys and questionnaires; advantages: -easy to administer -subtle information disadvantages: -may not have insight -may not be honest

basic research

systematic study directed toward greater knowledge or understanding of the fundamental aspects of phenomena and of observable facts without specific applications towards processes or products in mind.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

takes messages to and from the body's internal organs, monitoring such processes like breathing, heart rate, and digestion

Hertz (Hz)

the SI unit of frequency, equal to one cycle per second.

Statistical Learning

the ability for organisms to extract statistical regularities from the world around them to learn about the environment

Receptive Language

the ability to comprehend speech

cocktail party phenomenon

the ability to concentrate on one voice in a noisy place

stereoscopic vision

the ability to determine an object's depth based on that object's projections to each eye

shiftable attention

the ability to have your attention shift from one sensory perception to another. Ex: texting in class

sustained attention

the ability to main attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time ex: focusing on notes while studying

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Productive Language

the ability to produce words

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

Role

the actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person or group

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.

90 minutes

the amount of time that it takes for humans to cycle through the 4 distinct stages of sleep

sensory cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes touch and body sensations

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

delusions of persecution

the belief that people are out to get you

normal curve

the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of the temperature and wakefulness) that occurs on 24- hour cycle

Primary Sex Characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

nervous system

the body's electrochemical communication circuitry

brain plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

forbrain

the brain's largest division and its most forward part. Controls thought and reason

action potential

the brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.

Rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

medulla oblongata

the continuation of the spinal cord within the skull, forming the lowest part of the brainstem and containing control centers for the heart and lungs.

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same does of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effects

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus/US doesn't follow a conditioned stimulus/CS Occurs in operant conditioning when a response in no longer reinforced

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Retroactive Interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Proactive Interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic versions of this vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.

Wavelength

the distance from the peak of one wavelength to the peak of the next. Shorter blue/purple. Longer Red + yellow

optic chiasm

the division of optic nerve fibers in the brain dividing information b/w the left + right occipital lobe

Deja Vu

the eerie sense that I've experienced this before"- cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

Semantic Encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

Visual Encoding

the encoding of picture images

Acoustic Encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Stranger Anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

menarche

the first occurrence of menstruation in a woman

Sensorimotor Stage

the first stage in Piaget's theory, during which the child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

negative reinforcement

the frequency of a behavior increases b/c it is followed by the removal of something unpleasant Ex: Lever turns off electric shock

positive reinforcement

the frequency of a behavior. Increase b/c it is followed by something good Ex: Giving a dog a treat after a trick

Sample

the group of people who take part in the investigation

aerial perspective

the haziness that surrounds objects that are farther away from the viewer, causing the distance to be perceived as greater

conscious level

the here and now

learned helpnessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Infantile Amnesia

the implicit reactions and skills we learned during infancy reach far into our future, yet as adults we recall nothing(explicitly) of our first 3 years

all or nothing principle

the impulse occurs completely or not at all and it moves all the way down the axon without losing any of its intensity

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

statistical significance

the likelihood that a relationship between two or more variables is caused by something other than random chance

olfactory bulb

the lining the roof of the nasal cavity, containing receptors for small. Connects to the Limbic System (Emotion + Memory)

Amnesia

the loss of memory

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. Also called the just noticeable difference (jnd).

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. below we cannot detect. Above we can detect.

Axon

the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).

response rate

the number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

figure/ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

glial cells (glia)

the other type of cell in the nervous system. Provides support, nutritional benefits, and other functions in the nervous system. Keep neurons running smoothly.

cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain responsible for complex mental functions

autokinetic illusion

the perception that a stationary object is actually moving

pitch

the perceptual interpretation of the frequency of sound

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye and no receptor cells are located there.

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance dcreases.

Conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount).

spontaneous recovery

the process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

accomodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

Perception

the process of selecting, organizing and interpreting our sensations

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Parallel Processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Cognition

the psychological result of perception and learning and reasoning

brightness

the quality or state of giving out or reflecting light.

frequency

the rate at which something occurs or is repeated over a particular period of time or in a given sample

Long-Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system- includes knowledge skills and experience

Storage

the retention of encoded information over time

memory

the retention of information or experience over time. An active system that revives, stores, organizes, alters + recovers information.

Syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

Psychology

the scientific study of behavioral and mental processes

Preoperational Stage

the second stage in Piaget's theory, marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language

successive approximations

the sequence of new response classes that emerge during the shaping process as the result of differential reinforcement; each successive response class is closer in form to the terminal behavior than the response class it replaces

Semantics

the set or rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

Y Chromosome

the sex chromosome that is carried by men

X chromosome

the sex chromosome that is present in both sexes: singly in males and doubly in females

One-Word Stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

anonymity

the state of being unknown

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.

kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation ( created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice

texture gradient

the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases

generalization

the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. Learning not tied to specific response.

instinctive drift

the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning

Observer Bias

the tendency of the observer to unconsciously skew observations to fit the research goal/expectations

Mental Set

the tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct- t overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

size constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance

shape constancy

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina

brightness constancy

the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change

Mood-Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

Concrete Operational Stage

the third of Piaget's stages, when a child understands conversation but still is incapable of abstract thought

hammer, anvil, stirrup

the three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear

menopause

the time in a woman's life in which the menstrual cycle ends

Adolescence

the time period between the beginning of puberty and adulthood

transduction

the translation of incoming stimuli into neural signals. Light activates the neurons in the retina. 126 million receptor cells

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

Theta Wave

the type of wave found in NREM-2

axon terminal

the very end of a branch of a nerve's axon, a long slender nerve fiber that conducts electrical signals to a nerve synapse

visible light

the wavelengths that are visible to most human eyes

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

cerebrum

the whole top part of the brain

psychodynamic therapy

therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences

behavior therapy

therapy that applies leaning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors

corpus callosum

thick band of neural fibers connecting the brains 2 hemispheres

secondary reinforcer

things we have learned to value ex: Getting an A and test, Paycheck

Imagination

thinking in images

synapse (synaptic gap/space)

tiny spaces b/w neurons and the gap b/w neurons that the synapses create is referred to as the synaptic gap

Introspection

to look inward

timbre

tone saturation

oval window

transmits sound waves to the cochlea

psychotherapy

treatment involving psychological techniques;consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

Dendrites

treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it toward the neuron's cell body

meditation

tries to narrow consciousness to put stress outside of one's self

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Tend and Befriend Response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

Inborn Universal Grammar

underlying human grammar- all human languages therefore have the same grammatical building blocks

structuralism

understanding the conscious experience through introspection

Serotonin malfunctions

undersupply: depression

histogram

used for descriptive statistics

soundwaves

vibrations processed by the auditory system

sound

vibrations that travel through the air or another medium and can be heard when they reach a person's pr animal's ear

genetic environmental correlation

view of gene-environment interaction thataaserts our genes affectour environment, and our environment influences our expression of genes

Levels of processing model

we remember things we spend more cognitive time and energy processing. repetition- shallow processing stories + questions- deeper processing

State-Dependent Memory

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

undifferentiated schizophrenia

when a person exhibits behaviors which fit into 2+ other types of schizophrenia

threshold

when electrical chemical level reaches the certain level of intensity

Illusory Correlation

when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists

hawthorne effect

when people know that they are being observed, they change their behavior to what they think the observe expects or to make themselves look good

naturalistic observation

when you describe an individual in its natural setting (describe NOT explain behavior) ex: measuring expressions

storage

where info. goes in- encompasses how memory is retained

Sublimation

where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable behavior

seizure prevention

why might you have your corpus callosum severed?


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