Super Psych
hindsight bias
"I knew it all along"
Endorphins
"Morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
Charles Darwin
"On the origins of Species" (1859), natural selection, competition for scarce resources
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)
"The Animal Mind", got her Phd at Cornell, 2nd female president of the APA
primary reinforcer
Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
Environment
Every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
socio-cultural
Examines the contributions that society makes to individual development. Stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live.
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
-informed consent -justification of deception (Milgram's Obedience Study) -Debriefing of subjects afterwards
Wilder Penfield
-stimulated brain with electrical probes while patients underwent surgery for epilepsy -created maps of sensory and motor cortices
Karl Wernicke
1848-1905; Field: perception; Contributions: area of left temporal lobe involved language understanding; Studies: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense
Robert Sternberg
1949-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)
Wilhem Wundt (1832-1920)
1st lab to study conscious experience. Father of psychology. German philosopher-physician, put the pieces of philosophy- to create psychology. He is a structuralist
Weber's Law
2 stimuli must differ by a constant proportion to be perceived as different
Gestalt rules
A set of rules that describe when elements in an image will appear to group together
Reflex
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
Incentive
A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.
Mutation
A random error in gene replication that leads to change
delayed reinforcer
A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. I.e. a paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
Immediate reinforcer
A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. i.e. rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
Emotion
A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.
Refractory Period
A resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
CT (Computed Tomography) Scan
A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Also called CAT scan.)
Operational Definition
A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
Homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.
Paradoxical Sleep
A term that is sometimes used to describe REM sleep because the brain is active but the body is immobile
Hypothesis
A testable prediction often implied by a theory.
paranoid schizophrenia
A type of schizophrenia that is dominated by delusions of persecution along with delusions of grandeur.
PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan
A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
ACh Malfunction
Alzhiemier's disease causes ACh neurons to deteriorate
informed consent
An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Informed Consent
An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
punishment
An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
Consciousness
Awareness of internal and external stimuli
Somatosensory Cortex
Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
Area of the hypothalamus in which the body's biological clock is located
Glial Cells (glia)
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking
Jet Lag
Collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our enviroment
iris
Colored part of the eye
Testing Effect
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice or test-enhanced learning
psyche
Greek word for soul
Melatonin
Hormone secreted by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleep-wake cycle
three-box model/information-processing model
Memory storage involves 3 stages that info. passes through before its stored. Sensory Memory Short-term memory Long-Term Memory
Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)
Psychological disorder characterized by guiltlessness, law-breaking, exploitation of others, irresponsibility, and deceit.
Replicate
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Two-Factor Theory
Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
Applied Research
Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
NREM-2
Second stage of sleep; the body goes into deeper relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles and K complexes; can still be waken up relatively easy and lasts about 20 minutes; theta waves
Well-Being
Self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.
Binge-Eating Disorder
Significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa.
Taste Buds
Structures on the tongue that contain the receptor cells for taste
Jean Piaget
Swiss biologist was the last centuries most influential observer of children
Shadowing
Technique where a participant is asked to repeat a word or phrase immediately after its heard
Intrinsic drift
Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement
Cerebellum
The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include some nonverbal learning, processing sensory input, and coordinating movement output and balance
Thalamus
The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Coronary Heart Disease
The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in North America.
Genome
The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting, of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
Sigmund Freud
The controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist have influenced humanity's self-understanding
pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
Culture
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Margaret Floy Wahburn
The first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., Washburn synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind
Margaret Floy Wahburn
The first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind
Glucose
The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.
Neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons
Sexual Response Cycle
The four stages of sexual responding described by Matsters and Johnson-excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
Drive-Reduction Theory
The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
stroboscopic motion
The illusion of movement is produced by showing the rapid progression of images or objects that are not moving at all
Cognitive Neuroscience
The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Interaction
The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as the environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
Synapse
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft
Corpus Callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory info.
Chomsky
believed that given adequate nurture, language will naturally occur- people have language programmed into them together
Dependent Variable
The outcome factors; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Natural Selection
The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Personality Psychology
The study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Experimental Psychology
The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method
Epigenetics
The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without DNA change
Educational Psychology
The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.
Social-Cultural Psychology
The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
Behavior Genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Molecular Genetics
The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
Identical Twins (Monozygotic Twins)
Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
Fraternal Twins (Dizygotic Twins)
Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters but they share a fetal environment
Amygdala
Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
Delta Wave
Type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of stage 3 and stage 4 sleep
Cross-sectional Research
a "snapshot;" a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at a given time
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
Developmental Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
Rosy Retrospection
a happy fact for life- for most people the negative emotion recalled from bad events fades more rapidly than the positive emotion recalled from good events
client-centered therapy
a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening with a genuine, accepting, environment to facilitate clients growth
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
frequency distribution
a mathematical function showing the number of instances in which a variable takes each of its possible values.
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
schizoid personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by persistent avoidance of social relationships and little expression of emotion
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterizing by high arousal and appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterizing by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
Dementia
a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes
Beta Wave
a small wave that follows alpha waves in NREM-1 in which humans are still awake but getting more drowsy
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that produces a responses w/o prior learning
line of best fit/regression line
a straight line drawn through the center of a group of data points plotted on a scatter plot, shows how variables are correlated
lens
a transparent + flexible disk-shaped structure filled w/ gelatin material. Both bend the light to put it in focus. Image is upside down and inverted on the retina.
experiment
a treatment is deliberately imposed on the individuals in order to observe a possible change in the response or variable being measured
lesion
abnormal changes in body organs because of injury or disease (ex: stroke)
Paraphilia
abnormal sexual desires, typically involving extreme or dangerous activities
Three Sins of Forgetting
absent mindedness, transience, blocking
cognitive triad
according to Beck, there are 3 important areas of life that are most influenced by the depressive cognitive schema; this refers to information about the self, about the world, and about the future
Short-Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the 7 digit of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored of forgotten
Fight or flight response
activation of sympathetic division of the sutonomic nervous system. energy reserves and hightened sensory compacity so that we may fight or run
Hobson and McCarley
activation synthesis
G. Stanley Hall
established the first formal U.S. Psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University
Wilhelm Wundt
established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany
Independent Variable
experimenter manipulates
Dependent Variable
experimenter measures to see whether manipulation had an effect
Low Degree of Internal Validity
extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences
High Degree of External Validity
extent to which we can generalize our findings to the real world
Ivan Pavlov
founded classical conditioning trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
William James
founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
how many biological rhythms or internal clocks do you have?
four
Carl Rogers
he developed client-centered therapy; encouraged therapists to exhibit acceptance, genuineness, and empathy
conditioned response/CR
in classical conditioning, learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus/CS
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
reinforcer
in operant conditioning, any even strengthening the behavior it follows
Gender
in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
involves a significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, for at least two weeks
divided attention
involves concentrating on more than one activity at the same time ex: multitasking-perform worse
inferential statistics
involves methods of using information from a sample to draw conclusions regarding the population
descriptive statistics
involving methods of organizing, picturing, + summarizing information from samples or population
preconscious level
information that can easily be recalled
inhibitory neurotransmitters
inhibit nerve impulses and calm the brain and help create balance
primary reinforcer
initially satisfying. One that does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable Ex: food/water
hindbrain
located at the skull's rear, the lower portion of the brain. Controls basics to keep us alive
dissertation
long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate's doctoral training
chromosome
long strand of genetic information
Archival Research
looking back at old records to obtain data, hard copy or electronically
Confirmation Bias
looking for evidence to support a preexisting belief and ignoring evidence that contradicts it
MRI
magnetic fields used to producde a picture of the tissue being imaged
axon
major extension of the soma
pituitary gland
master gland, works with hypothalamus
basilar membrane
membrane supporting the organ of Corti and hair cells in the cochlea
Mnemonic Devices
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
empirical method
method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities
just noticeable difference threshold
minimum difference a person can detect between any 2 stimuli 50% of the time. Not a constant amount.
Three Sins of Distortion
misattribution, suggestibility, bias
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.
feature detectors
neurons in the brain which code for perceptually different stimuli
ganglion cells
neurons located near the inner surface of the retina that are the final output neurons of the vertebrae retina. Collect visual info. in their dendrite
association areas
not included in primary motor or sensory function, but involved in higher mental function
Somatic Disorders
occurs when a person feels extreme anxiety about physical symptoms such as pain or fatigue
experimenter bias
occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
Sleep Paralysis
occurs when the brainstem blocks the motor cortex's messages and the muscles don't move
nerve (or sensorineural) deafness
occurs when the hair cells in the cochlea are damaged- usually by a loud noise -harder to treat- can't get the hair cells to regenerate
Brainstem
oldest part of the brain, newer parts are built on top of this, automatic survival functions
split brain
one hemisphere could no longer communicate w/ the other side
Autism
broad range of conditions characterized by challenges w/ social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech + non-verbal communication
gyrus
bump or ridge on the celebral cortex
nerves
bundle of neurons
random assignment
chance of being a member of either the experimental group or the control group is equal
Hawthorne effect
changes in behavior that occur when people know that others are observing them
Middle Ear
channels the sound through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup to the inner ear
dissociative amnesia
characterized by extreme memory loss that is caused by extensive psychological stress
anxiety disorders
characterized by motor tension, hyperactivity + apprehensive expectation/thoughts ex: G.A.D, Panic disorders, Phobic disorders, O.C.D, P.T.S.D
depression
characterized by persistently depressed mood/loss of interest in activities=> impairs life
neurotransmitter
chemical messanger for the nervous sstem
hormone
chemical messenger released by endocrine glands
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Neurotransmitters
chemical substances that are stored in tiny spaces
Carl Rogers
co-founder of humanistic psychology
limbc system
collection of structures involved in the processing of emotion and memory
trichromatic theory
color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths
instutional review board (IRB)
committee that applies research ethics by reviewing the methods proposed for research to ensure that they are ethical
addiction
compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
CAT scan (CT scan)
computerized axial tomography scan
lateralization
concept that each hemisphere of the brain is assosiated with specialized functions
social anxiety disorder
condition in which social interactions cause irrational anxiety
autonomic nervous system
contorls our internal organs and glands
Hypothalamus
control of hunger, thirst, temperature and other visceral bodily functions
endocrine system
controlled by the hypothalamus. The Body's "slow" chemical communication system. A set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by secreting
Reticular Formation
controls arousal
Demand Characteristics
cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypotheses
mood disorders
disorders in which there is a primary disturbance in mood; include depressive + bipolar disorder
Midbrain
dividion of the brain. contains the reticular formation
hindbrain
division of the brain consisting of the mendulla, pons, and cerebellum
avoidance learning
organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided
Operant Conditioning
organisms associate their own actions with consequences
classical conditioning
organisms learn the association b/w 2 stimuli. Learn to anticipate events. Learning process in which a neural stimulus becomes associated w/ a meaningful stimulus
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
parietal lobe
part of the celebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information:; contains the primary somatosensory cortex
frontal lobe
part of the celebral cortex involved in the reasoning , motor control, emotion, and kanguage , contains motor cortex
occipital lobe
part of the cerebral cortex assosiated with visual processsing: contains the primary visual cortex
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change
Chaining
perform a number of responses successively in order to get a reward
sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness---as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia or hibernation. (Adapted from dement, 1999.)
One Sin of Intrusion
persistence
generalized anxiety disorder
persistent anxiety for at least 6+ months + are unable to specify the reasons for the anxiety
Dysthymia (Persistent Depressive Disorder)
persistent mild depression
Opinions
personal judgements, conclusions, or attitudes
dependent personality disorder
personality disorder characterized by a pervasive psychological dependence on other people
biopsychosocial model
perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health
humanism
perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans
Hawthorne Effect
phenomenon in which participant's knowledge that they're being studied can affect their behavior
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
Cause and Effect
possible to infer, w/ random assignment and manipulation of independent variable
introspection
process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts
Conditioning
process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses
American Psychological Association
professional organization representing psychologists in the United States
receptor site
proteins that are on the surface of each cell. Act as little receives that listen to the messages of the chemical messenger molecules.
kinesthetic senses
provide information about movement, posture, and orientation
gilial cell
provide support and nutrition to the nervous system
vesitubular sense
provides info. about balance + mov't. (Oriented in space)
hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
fluid intelligence
one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
pupil
opening in the center of the iris. Muscles control size of the pupils. Controls the amount of light.
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
hippocampus
special role in the storage of memories: recall
allel
specific version of gene
Broca's Area
speech
Embryo
stage in prenatal development from 2 to 8 weeks
homeostasis
state of equilibrium
catatonia
state of immobility and unresponsiveness lasting for long periods of time
auditory cortex
strip of cortex in the temperal lobe that is resposible for processing auditory information
motor cortex
strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinationg movement
Healthy Skpeticism
strive to think critically about information we encounter (regardless of the source)
dissociative disorders
sudden loss of memory or change in identity
narcolepsy
sudden uncontrollable sleepiness or lapse into REM sleep
ology
suffix that denotes "scientific study of"
Displacement
taking out built-up feelings of frustration or anger on objects or people less dangerous than those who initially aroused that feeling (taking things out on other people)
motion parallex
tendency for objects to seem like they are moving with you when you are moving; moon "following you"; tendency to see objects moving "backwards" such as car wheels in motion
Leniency Effect
tendency of raters to provide ratings that are overly generous (opposite of Halo Effect)
Halo Effect
tendency of ratings of one positive characteristics to spill over to influence the ratings of other positive characteristics
social desirability bias
tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others
social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
Albert Ellis
psychologist who founded the cogntive psychotherapy called rational-emotive therapy (RET), which emphasizes recognizing and changing irrational beliefs
fixed ratio
reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors Ex: working on an assembly line and getting paid for each 10 pieces you make
Reliability
repeatable/consistency in the data or results
Implicit Memory
retention independent of conscious recollection- processed in the cerebellum
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. These detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
Elizabeth Loftus
revealed how easily memories can be reconstructed
developmental psychology
scientific study of development across a lifespan
psychology
scientific study of the mind and behavior
coercion
the practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats
Dualism
the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact
night terrors
screaming nightmares
annual cycles
seasons, migration, seasonal depression
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
generalized reinforcer
secondary reinforcer, can be traded for virtually anything ex: money
Insulin
secreated by pancreas; controls blood glucose
Ghrelin
secreted by empty stomach; sends "im hungry" signals to the brain
Leptin
secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
Obestatin
secreted by stomach; sends out "im full" signals to the brain
pituitary gland
secretes hormones
pancreas
secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar
gonad
secretes sexual hormone
Confirmation Bias
seeking evidence that verifies our ideas more eagerly than we seek evidence that might refute them
bipolar disorder
severe mood swings between major depressive episodes and manic episodes
Phonemes
single sounds
Adrenal Gland
sits atop our kidneys and secretes hormones involved with stress response
ninety-minute cycles
sleep cycles
evolutionary perspective
sleep protects
what are examples of altered states of consciousness?
sleep, being under the influence of drugs, meditation, hypnosis (maybe)
Eye Witness Recall
someone claiming to have seen an event recalls details from it- they often misconstuct the information
conduction deafness
something goes wrong w/ the system of conducting the sound to the cochlea
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.
audition
the sense or act of hearing.
opponent-process theory
the sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs: red/green, yellow/blue, and black/white
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.
Functional Fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
Expectancy Theory
theory that people are motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, which leads to rewards, and that they are offered attractive rewards
Confounding Variable
third-variable problem
semicircular canals
three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement
imagery
use mental imagery to recall enormous amounts of info. Dual-code hypothesis. Memory for pictures is better than memory for words. Stranger pictures are better.
biological perspective
view that psychological disorders like depression and schitzophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems
Behaviorism
view that psychology: 1 be an objective science, 2 studies behavior w/o reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree w/ 1 but not w/ 2
William James (1842-1910)
views it as not so much as what the mind is as what is for- known as functionalism. 1st American book, "Principles of Psychology", Human thought is adaptive-functalionist
Hypnagogic sensations
vivid bodily sensations
Naturalistic Observation
watching behavior in real-world settings
Chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
Lesion
Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.
diabetes
disease related to insufficient insilun production
Erik Erikson
famous for his 8-stage model of psychosocial development; neo-Freudian
Hallucination
fantastic images
myelin sheath
fatty substance that insulates axon
amygdala
fear and aggression
agoraphobia
fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
features anxiety-provoking thoughts that will not go away/urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to prevent or produce some future situation
electroencephalography eeg
records the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp
biopsychology
study of how biology influences behavior
Broca's area
region in the left hemisohere that is essential for language productiom
Behaviorism
study of observable behavior Ex: Skinner and Pavlov *Watson rejected introspection b/c unscientific-must deal w/ observable
personality psychology
study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique
biological psychology
study of the relationship between behavior and the function of the brain and nervous system
case study
study one individual in depth in hopes that findings will generalize to all people (Phineas Gage)
Little Albert
subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear
identity
the individual characteristics by which a thing or person is recognized or known
acquisition
the initial learning of the connection b/w the unconditioned stimulus and the neural stimulus- when these two stimulus are paired
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
Assimilation
the process of assimilating new ideas into an existing cognitive structure
attention
the process of focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
Conditioning
the process of learning these associations/ connections b/w events. 2 types: operand + classical
Discrimination
the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
Daniel Goleman
1946-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: emotional intelligence
Clinical Psychology
A branch of psych that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
cerebellum
"the little brain", motor coordination. Helps maintain balance + posture + voluntary movement. 50% of the brains neurons
token economy
(Generalized Reinforcer Example) every time people perform a desired behavior, they are given a token, and periodically they are allowed to trade their tokens for a specific reinforcer
PhD
(doctor of philosophy) doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences
PsyD
(doctor of psychology) doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context
latent learning
(implicit)- in reinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior -Edward Tolman
Alcohol Use Disorder
(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal and a drive to continue problematic use.
resting potential
(slightly negative) in an inactive neuron the voltage b/w the inside and outside of the axon wall (-70 millivolts). Once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity called the threshold it fires
To Minimize Hawthorne Effects
1. convert observation 2. participant observation
benefits of sleep
1. protected our ancestors from predators, 2. restores and repairs the brain and body, 3. strengthens memories, 4. facilitates creative problem solving, 5. growth hormones are active, 6. NREM and REM play important roles in learning and memory
Ernst Weber
1795-1878; Field: perception; Contributions: just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law; Studies: 1st study on JND
Gustav Fechner
1801-1887; Field: perception; Contributions: stated that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportionate to the # of JND's that the stimulus causing the experiences above the absolute threshold
Charles Darwin
1809-1882; Field: geology, biology; Contributions: transmutation of species, natural selection, evolution by common descent; Studies: "The Origin of Species" catalogs his voyage on the Beagle
Francis Galton
1822-1911; Field: differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; Studies: Twin Studies-compare identical & fraternal twins, Hereditary Genius-used bell curve for normal distribution, & "Law of Errors"-differences in intellectual ability
Phineas Gage
1823-1860; Field: neurobiology; Contributions: 1st person to have a frontal lobotomy (by accident), his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning
William Wundt
1832-1920; Field: structuralism, voluntarism; Contributions: introspection, basic units of experience; Studies: 1st psychological laboratory in world at University of Leipzig
William James
1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth
Stanly Hall
1844-1924, student of William James. Was the 1st president of the APA
Hermann Ebbinghaus
1850-1909; Field: memory; Contributions: 1st to conduct studies on forgetting: first, a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss; Studies: memory-series of meaningless syllables/words
Sigmund Freud
1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms (expanded by Anna Freud), psychoanalysis, transference
Alfred Binet
1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: general IQ tests, designed test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French)
Charles Spearman
1863-1945; Field: intelligence; Contributions: found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability)
Alfred Adler
1870-1937; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: basic mistakes, style of life, inferiority/superiority complexes, childhood influences personality formation; Studies: Birth Order
Walter B. Cannon
1871-1945; Field: motivation; Contributions: believed that gastric activity as in empty stomach, was the sole basis for hunger; Studies: inserted balloons in stomachs
Edward Thorndike
1874-1949; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence; Studies: Law of Effect with cats
Carl Jung
1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation
Robert Yerkes
187601956; Field: intelligence, comparative; Contributions: social behavior of gorillas/chimps, Yerkes-Dodson law-level of arousal as related to performance
Lewis Terman
1877-1956; Field: testing; Contributions: revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children
John B Watson
1878-1958; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: generalization-inductive reasoning, emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; Studies: Little Albert
Hermann Rorschach
1884-1922; Field: personality, psychoanalysis; Contributions: developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test which consists of 10 standardized inkblots where the subject tells a story, the observer then derives aspects of the personality from the subject's commentary
Clark Hull
1884-1952; Field: motivation; Contributions: maintains that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates
Karen Horney
1885-1952; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends
Kurt Lewin
1890-1947; Field: social psychology; Contributions: German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; Studies: Leadership syles-studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities
Ivan Pavlov
1891-1951; Field: Gastroenterology; Contributions: developed foundation for classical conditioning, discovered that a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation
Harry Stack Sullivan
1892-1949; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: groundwork for enmeshed relationships, developed the Self-System-a configuration of personality traits
Henry Murray
1893-1988; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) with Christina Morgan, stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach and evaluate their own performances
Anna Freud
1895-1982; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: focused on child psychoanalysis, fully developed defense mechanisms, emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle
Lev Vygotsky
1896-1934; Field: child development; Contributions: investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development, zone of proximal development; play research
Jean Piaget
1896-1980; Field: cognition; Contributions: created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation)
David Weschler
1896-1981; Field: testing; Contributions: established an intelligence test especially for adults (WAIS)
Mary Cover-Jones
1896-1987; Field: learning; Contributions: systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned
Benjamin Whorf
1897-1941; Field: language; Contributions: his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think
Gordon Allport
1897-1967; Field: trait theory of personality; Contributions: list of 11,000 traits, 3 levels of traits-cardinal, central, and secondary
William Sheldon
1898-1977; Field: personality; Contributions: theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny)
Carl Rogers
1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person
Erik Erikson
1902-1994; Field: neo-Freudian, humanistic; Contributions: created an 8-stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
BF Skinner
1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box
Skinner
1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies:..Skinner box
Harry Harlow
1905-1981; Field: development; Contributions: realized that touch is preferred in development; Studies: Rhesus monkeys, studied attachment of infant monkeys (wire mothers v. cloth mothers)
Raymond Cattell
1905-1998; Field: intelligence; Contributions: fluid & crystal intelligence; 3 domains of personality sphere (personality, ability, & motivation), 16 Personality Factors (personality test)
Solomon Asch
1907-1996; Field: social psychology; Contributions: studied conformity, found that individuals would conform even if they knew it was wrong; Studies: conformity, opinions and social pressures
Abraham Maslow
1908-1970; Field: humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied, self-actualization, transcendence
Mary Ainsworth
1913-1999; Field: development; Contributions: compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; Studies: The Strange Situation-observation of parent/child attachment
Albert Ellis
1913-2007; Field: cognitive-behavioral; Contributions: Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions
Kenneth Clark
1914-2005; Field: social psychology; Contributions: research evidence of internalized racism caused by stigmatization; Studies: Doll experiments-black children chose white dolls
HJ Eysenck
1916-1997; Field: personality; Contributions: asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion
David McClelland
1917-1998; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised a way to measure Murray's theory (TAT), developed scoring system for TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation, not the TAT
Aaron Beck
1921-present; Field: cognitive; Contributions: father of Cognitive Therapy, created Beck Scales-depression inventory, hopelessness scale, suicidal ideation, anxiety inventory, and youth inventories
Stanley Schachter
1922-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: stated that in order to experience emotions a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it
Robert Zajonc
1923-present; Field: motivation; Contributions: believes that we invent explanations to label feelings
Albert Bandura
1925-present; Field: sociocultural; Contributions: pioneer in observational learning, stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
Elizabeth Kübler-Ross
1926-2004; Field: development; Contributions: 5 stages the terminally ill go through when facing death (1. death, 2. anger/resentment, 3. bargaining with God, 4. depression, 5. acceptance)
Lawrence Köhlberg
1927-1987; Field: cognition, moral development; Contributions: created a theory of moral development that has 3 levels; focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behavior
Noam Chomsky
1928-present; Field: language; Contributions: disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language
Stanley Milgram
1933-1984; Field: social psychology; Contributions: wanted to see how the German soldiers in WWII fell to obedience, wanted to see how far individuals would go to be obedient; Studies: Shock Study
Robert Rosenthal
1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher's expectations on students
Philip Zimbardo
1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that peoples behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; Studies: Stanford Prison Study-studied power of social roles to influence people's behavior
Paul Ekman
1934-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: found that facial expressions are universal
Carol Gilligan
1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg's work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of boys and girls; girls focus more on relationships than laws and principles
Martin Seligman
1942-present; Field: learning; Contributions: Positive Psychology, learned helplessness; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness
Howard Gardner
1943-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: devised the theory of multiple intelligences (logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic)
Elizabeth Loftus
1944-present; Field: memory; Contributions: expert in eyewitness testimony (false memories or misinformation effect); Studies: Reconstruction of Auto. Destruction, Jane Doe Case (repressed memories of Nicole Taus' sex abuse)
dissociative identity disorder (DID)
2+ distinct personalities/identities. Each identity has its own memories, behaviors + relationships
Physical Punishment
4 Drawbacks
positive punishment/aversive conditioning
A behavior is followed by the presentation or an aversive stimulus or removal of an appetitive stimulus respectively, decreasing the probability of that behavior.
convergence
A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
Psychiatry
A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practice by physicians who often provide medical (for example drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
Counseling Psychology
A branch of psych that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well- being
positive psychology
A branch of psychology that emphasizes human strengths. ex: hope, happiness, gratitude
Community Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
Psychodynamic Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
Instinct
A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
Split Brain
A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
narcissistic personality disorder
A disorder in which a person has an inflated sense of self-importance.
Confounding Variable
A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
Myelin Sheath
A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next
Scatterplot
A graphed clutter of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (litter scatter indicates high correlation).
Population
A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area
Humanistic Psychology
A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
myelin sheath
A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
B.F. Skinner
A leading behaviorist, Skinner rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior
B.F. Skinner
A leading behaviorist, rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior
Polygraph
A machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts to other.
Antagonist
A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
Agonist
A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
linear perspective
A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.
Motivation
A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
Neuron
A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Reticular Formation
A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
Action Potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
All-or-None Response
A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction
Reuptake
A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
Adrenal Glands
A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
Refractory Period
A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
paranoid personality disorder
A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of the motives of others without sufficient basis
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).
Statistical Significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
Cocaine
A stimulant that works by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitter dopamine
Secondary reinforcers
A stimulus that gains power through association with a primary reinforcer
SQ3R
A study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review
Health Psychology
A subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.
Normal Curve
A symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
ecstasy (MDMA)
A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self repeated attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the groups.
fMRI (Function MRI)
A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function
fMRI (functional MRI)
A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer -generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy
Double-Blind Procedure
AN experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug evaluation studies.
humanistic psychology
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) + Carl Rogers (1902-1987), emphasizes on individuals choice, free will, a person's positive qualities + positive growth
Rescola and Wagner
According to them, classical conditioning depends on the information the conditioned stimulus provides about the unconditioned stimulus. They concluded that the rats in both groups were actively processing information about the reliability of the signals that they encountered
serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
biological
All of your feelings and behaviors have an organic root. In other words, they come from your brain, body chemistry, neurotransmitters, etc...
Non-REM (NREM)
All periods of sleep other than the period of rapid eye movement (REM)
Population
All the cases in a group being studies, from which samples may be drawn (except for national studies).
Human Factors Psychology
An I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
Motor Cortex
An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Humility
An awareness of our own vulnerability and error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives.
Bulimia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.
Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.
Sexual Orientation
An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation).
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Biophysical Approach
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social- cultural levels of analysis
Behavioral Medicine
An interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease.
Case Study
An observation technique in which one person is studies in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Habituation
An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
Theory of mind
An understanding of mental states such as feelings, desires, beliefs, and intentions and of the causal role they play in human behavior;
Association Areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, speaking, and integrating information
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experiments and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
observational/social learning
Bandura et al (1963): response measures- 1. Total aggression
Social Learning theory
Bandura's view of human development; emphasizes interaction
psychodynamic
Based on the work of Sigmund Freud Defenses mechanisms used to reduce anxiety Bring unconscious into conscious, analyze impulses behind the defenses.
K-Complex
Big spurts of brain waves associated with NREM-2 sleep
Biopsychology
Biological Approach-focuses on the body, especially the brain + nervous system Ex: genes, hormones and neurotransmitters
Circadian Rhythm
Biological rhythm takes place over 24-hour period, sleep-wake cycle, linked to natural light-dark cycle (controlled by the hypothalamus-specifically regarding melatonin that the body makes in response to light and dark)
Nerves
Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
left hemisphere
CALM controls important function analytical thoughts language/speech math/science
Wakefulness
Characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
Anna Freud
Continued her father's work in psychoanalysis with an emphasis on children.
Medulla
Controls heartbeat and breathing
Charles Darwin
Created theory of natural selection, helped to understand the roots of behavior and mental processes
Naomi Weisstein
Credited with starting the feminist revolution in psychology
Charles Darwin
Darwin argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies
PYY
Digestive tact hormone; send "im not hungry" signals to the brain
Functionalism
Early school of thought promoted by William James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Structuralism
Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener, used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Catharsis
Emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
Pineal Gland
Endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin
Functional magnetic resoncance imagaing
FMRI mri that shows changes in metabolic activity
NREM-1
First stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep (which includes alpha and beta waves); the period during which a person drifts off to sleep; lasts 5-10 minutes and includes hallucinations and hypnagogic sensations
evolutionary
Focuses on Darwinism. We behave the way we do because we inherited those behaviors/traits. Thus, those behaviors/traits must have helped ensure our ancestors survival.
cognitive
Focuses on how we think (or encode information) How do we see the world? How did we learn to act to sad or happy events? Therapist attempt to change the way you think.
behavioral
Focuses on observable behaviors while putting feelings to the side. We behave in ways because we have been conditioned to do so.
Abraham Maslow
Founder (father) of humanistic psychology
Descartes
French philosopher, nativist, and dualist
Type B
Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people.
Type A
Friedman and rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.
mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
negative punishment
Goal: Decrease the specific behavior A behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed Ex: getting grounded for failing a test
positive punishment
Goal: decrease a specific behavior An unpleasant stimulus following a given behavior Ex: Getting a speeding ticket
serotonin
HAMS hunger arousal mood sleep
G. Stanley Hall
Hall established the first formal U.S. Psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
Harvard graduate seminar, earned phD(outscored all males), denied the degree, paired associated + memory, APA's 1st female president
Latent Content
Hidden meaning of a dream
Carl Rogers
Humanistic Psychologist that believed the environment is what shaped the minds growth (nature>nurture)
Egocentrism
In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control
In an experiment, the standard that is used for comparison
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
Schema
In observational learning, a generalized idea that captures the important components, but not every exact detail. Pertaining to memory and person perception, a generalized idea about objects, people, and events that are encountered frequently.
dissociative fugue
Individual not only develops amnesia, but also unexpectedly travels away from home and assumes a new identity
Biological Rhythm
Internal rhythms of biological activity
Disorganized language
Involves neologisms (when people make up their own words), and clang associations (when people string together a series of nonsense words that rhyme).
William James and Mary Whiton Calkins
James was a legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He mentored Calkins, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association
Sleep Debt
Lack of enough sleep on a regular basis; insufficient sleep can cause a number of adverse psychological and physiological consequences. In this instance, a person can go straight to REM without going through the other stages
basal ganglia
Large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements.
Toleman
Latent learning- learning that becomes obvious only once a reinforcement is given for demonstrating it, rats ran faster through maze after being rewarded
Associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together. Events may be 2 stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
Dorothea Dix
Led the way to human treatment of those with psychological disorders
Psychophysiological Illness
Literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.
midbrain
Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears.
Dopamine function
MALE movement, attention, learning, emotion
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.
evolutionary psychology
Natural selection (Darwinism), uses evolutionary ideas such as adaption and reproduction
spinal cord
Nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the body and brain
Limbic System
Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Sensory (afferent) Neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
Motor (Efferent) Neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
placebo effect
Occurs when participants' expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an outcome.
Consciousness
Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Adaption-Level Phenomenon
Our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.
conditioned reinforcer
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Lucid Dream
People become aware that they are dreaming and can control the dream's content
Dichromats
People who can distinguish only two of the three basic colors.
Feel Good Do Good Phenomenon
People's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep
Period of sleep characterized by brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids; this stage occurs about 1 hour into sleep, the heart rate rises and breathing becomes rapid, muscles are relaxed and the person cannot be easily awakened. In fact, humans are paralyzed and muscles cannot move; brain waves are saw toothed
all-or-none
Phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either suffiecent or insufficientto reach the threshold of excitment
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Physical features that are associated with gender but that are not directly involved in reproduction.
Paul Broca and Carl Wernickle
Physician and investigator who led to the discovery of specialized language brain areas. (Damage to Broca's area disrupts speaking, while damage to Wernicke's area disrupts understanding
Occipital Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Parietal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
Frontal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Temporal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
Psychologists who split brains to study the information of the different hemispheres
Basic Research
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Developmental Psychology
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Koelling
Ran experiments with John Garcia on Taste Aversion in species using rates, loud sounds, and bad tasting water.
Sleep Spindle
Rapid bursts of high frequency brain waves during stage 2 sleep that may be important for learning and memory
longitudal study
Research in which the same people are restudies and retested over a long period
Garcia
Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance. Conducted pioneering research on taste of aversion. He discovered that when rats drank flavored water before becoming nauseated from a drug that produced gastrointestinal distress, they acquired a conditioned taste for the water. .....research supports the evolutionary perspective that being biologically prepared to quickly associate nausea with food and drink is adaptive.
Confidentiality
Respecting the privacy of both parties and keeping details secret
papillae
Rounded bumps above the tongue's surface that contain the taste buds, the receptors for taste. -replaced every 2 weeks -5 tastes: sweet, salty, bitter, sour, + umami
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who pioneered the study of learning
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages--alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
Estrogens
Sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females that by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promotion sexual receptivity.
psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed that the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapists interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patent to gain self insight
Psychodamic psychology
Sigmund Frued, emphasized unconscious thought + the conflict b/w biological drive + societal demands
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD)
Sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur; sleepers have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams
Narcolepsy
Sleep disorder in which the sufferer cannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times, often as a result of high arousal
Albert Bandura
Social learning theory; Bobo doll experiment
Plato
Socrates' most well known pupil. Founded an academy in Athens.
Sleep
State marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness
negative punishment/omission training
The act of removing a stimulus (i.e. something the animal wants) in order to decrease occurrences of a behavior. For example, a person turns her back and removes her attention from a dog who is jumping on her.
Manifest Content
The actual content of storyline of a dream
Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology
The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces
Mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution; obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
Medulla
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Genes
The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
Endocrine System
The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Basal Metabolic Rate
The body's resting rate of energy expenditure.
Nervous System
The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord
Plasticity
The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Levels of Analysis
The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social- cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
flat affect
The display of little or no emotion—a common negative symptom of schizophrenia.
Sympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
Parasympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Somatic Nervous System
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system
Facial Feedback Effect
The effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness, the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness.
Pituitary Gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
Nature-Nurture Issue
The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
THC
The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
Median
The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
Mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
Testosterone
The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
Dendrites
The neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Axon
The neuron's extension that passes messages through its branching terminal fibers that form junctions with other neurons, muscles, or glands
Brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists.
Relative Deprivation
The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.
Set Point
The point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
Debriefing
The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants.
Dual Processing
The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Natural Selection
The principle that, among he range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Stress
The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
Gender Typing
The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
Psychology
The science of behavior and mental processes
Cognitive Psychology
The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Social Psychology
The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Positive Psychology
The scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
Behavioral Psychology
The scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
Biological Psychology
The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and Psychological Processes
Biological Psychology
The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)
Psychometrics
The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Cannon-Bard Theory
The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.
James-Lange Theory
The theory that we experience emotion because we are aware of our bodily response to an emotionan rousing stimulus.
Lymphocytes
The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.
Empiricism
The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
Behaviorism
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
Lawrence Kohlberg
Theory of Moral Development
Critical Thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assess conclusions.
NREM-3 and NREM-4
Third and fourth stages of sleep; deep sleep characterized by very large delta waves; the fourth stage is the deepest stage of sleep and both stages together last approximately 30 minutes
Law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
diathesis-stress model
View of schizophrenia emphasizing that a combination of bio-genetic disposition and stress causes the disorder.
dopamine
Voluntary movement, learning, and feelings of pleasure
Linguistic Determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
Structuralism
William Wundt. Dealt with the structure of mental life, hoped to analyze experience into basic elements or building blocks
John B. Watson
Working with Rosalie Rayner, Watson championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "Little Albert."
John B. Watson
Working with Rosalie Rayner, championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "Little Albert."
John B. Watson
Working with Rosalie Rayner, he championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "Little Albert."
Wilhelm Wundt
Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany
pons
a bridge in the hindbrain that connects the cerebellum and the brain stem. Sleep + breathing, dreaming
corpus callosum
a broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain.
Theory
a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and to make predictions about future observations
unconditional positive reward
a caring, accepting, non judgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self awareness and self acceptance
sensory adaptation
a change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.
Flashbulb Memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant memory or event
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
hue
a color or shade
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.
conversion disorder
a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found
delusions of grandeur
a false impression of one's own importance.
Zygote
a fertilized egg
operant conditioning
a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence
insight learning
a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution Wolfgang Kohler
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
Relearning
a measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Concepts
a mental group of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Prototypes
a mental image of best example of a category
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
meta-anylsis
a method that allows researchers to combine the results of several different studies on a similar topic in order t establish the strength of an effect
Echoic Memory
a momentary sensory memory or auditory stimuli
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory, or visual stimuli
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
a mood characterized y depression that occurs at the same time every year
Working Memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
a part of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm - in response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
panic disorder
a person experiences recurrent, sudden onsets of intense apprehension or terror, often w/o warning + w/ no specific cause
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)
a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions and marked impassivity beginning in early adulthood.
physical dependence
a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
Sample
a portion of a population to be studied
Testosterone
a potent androgenic hormone produced chiefly by the testes
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
perceptual set
a predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way
Sexual Dysfunction
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning
Higher-order conditioning/Second-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second, often weaker, conditioned stimulus I.e. an animal learning that a tone predicts food might then learn a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.
Schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression
psychological dependence
a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
partial reinforcement
a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time
Learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Longitudinal Research
a research that tests the same group of individuals over an extended period of time
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.
random sampling
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Self Concept
a sense of one's identity and personal worth
dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.
longitudinal study
a special kind of systematic observation, used by correlation research, that involves obtaining the same variable overtime
neuron
a specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell.
dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors occur simultaneously with others.
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
p-value
a statistically significant difference is a difference not likely due to chance
thalamus
a structure deep in the brain that coordinates and controls muscle activity. Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. Final switching station for most incoming messages.
cross-sectional study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Anecdote
a study of one person
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
posthypnotic suggestions
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.
biofeedback
a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.
Hypothesis
a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
variable interval
a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed
fovea
a tiny area in the center of the retina at which vision is the best. Only has cones
Alpha Wave
a tiny wave at the start of the sleep cycle where humans are fully awake
aversive conditioning
a type of counter-conditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
systematic desensitization
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Applications 1. School 2. Sports 3. Work 4. Home 5. Self-improvement
Classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events
Decibel (dB)
a unit used to measure the intensity of a sound or the power level of an electrochemical signal by comparing it with a given level on a logarithmic scale
intimacy
a usually secretive or illicit sexual relationship
interpersonal psychotherapy
a variation of psychodynamic therapy that has virtually treated depression, symptom relief "here and now"
stratified sampling
a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population
insight therapies
a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses
ossicles
a very small bone, especially one of those in the middle ear
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
Algorithms
a way of problem solving in which one tries every available option(even after the right answer is found)
Theory
a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation of observed phenomena
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
postdoctoral training program
allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field
Insight
an "ah ha" moment
amygdala
an almond-shaped structure located inside the brain toward the base: emotion (fear)
Pseudopsychology
an unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behavior
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug induced hallucinations
hypnosis
an altered state of heightened suggestibility
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
an anxiety disorder that develops through exposure to a traumatic event that has overwhelmed the person's ability to cope
virtual reality exposure therapy
an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic stimulation of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking
eclectic approach
an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the clients problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Theory of Mind
an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own
Hypothesis
an educated guess that derives from a theory or prediction that can be tested
Cohort Effect
an effect that different age groups give different reaction results not necessarily due to their age
sampling error
an error that occurs when a sample somehow does not represent the target population
natural selection
an evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to the environment will survive and, importantly produce offspiring
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.
Long-Term Potentiation
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation- believed to be a neural basis for memory and learning
parasymapathetic nervous system
assosiated with routine
alzheimers disease
an irreversible, progressive brain disorder, characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Critical Period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
unconditioned response
an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by unconditioned stimulus -involuntary
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.
Confounds
any difference between the experimental and control groups, other than the independent variable; makes it impossible to interpret any findings
specific phobia
any kind of anxiety disorder that amounts to an unreasonable or irrational fear related to exposure to specific objects or situations
Sensory cortex
area at front of parietal lobe that registers and processes the senses
forensic psychology
area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system
counseling psychology
area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals
clinical psychology
area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior
sport and exercise psychology
area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
argued against dividing human thought + behavior into discrete structures
Charles Darwin
argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies
reticular formation
arousal-responsible for regulating wakefullness and sleep-wake transitions. W/o it you'd be in a coma
sympathetic nervous system
arouses the body to mobilize it for action, fight or flight
positive correlation
as one variable increases, so does the other
negative correlation
as one variable increases, the other decreases
Negative Correlation
as the value of one variable changes, the other goes in the opposite direction (one goes up, other goes down)
Positive Correlation
as the value of one variable changes, the other goes in the same direction (both goes up)
survey
ask people opionins + beliefs Pros: cheap, easy to ask many, can ask people from anywhere cons: bias, sampling bias, social desirability bias, low responsibilities, response bias
limbic system
associated with emotions and memory
frontal lobe
associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving
Rationalization
attempting to justify an action to oneself and others by "proving" it to be rational (this is why I did it; why it makes sense) (smoker stating that something else will kill him any way so he mine as well smoke)
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined- at the heart of many false memories
direct inner awareness
aware of what's going on inside of you (EX: feelings and emotions)
sensory awareness
awareness of environment
sense of self
awareness of ourselves and our existence
consciousness
awareness of self and environment
nonconscious level
basic biological functions that we do not sense such as your fingernails growing, or your pupils adjusting to light
Mary Calkins
became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association
cerebrum
beefy portion of the brain
Two-Word Stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks 2-word statements
Babbling Stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously mutters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
law of effect
behavior followed by positive outcomes are strengthened + that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened
continuous reinforcement
behavior is reinforced every time it occurs -learning occurs rapidity -reinforcement stops, extinction occurs
respondent behavior
behavior occurring as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant behavior
behavior operates on the environment, producing consequences
abnormal behavior
behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful over a relatively long period of time (statistical distress)
counter conditoining
behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and adverse cxonditoining
exposure therapies
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things that they fear and avoid
Thorndike
behaviorist- Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence
John Broadus Watson
behaviorist; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat and associated his fear with white fur and objects
Operational Definition
being specific about what is being observed; important to specify how we're measuring our variables ahead of time
Skinner
believed we can explain language development with familiar learning principles: association, imitation, and reinforcement
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Projection
blame ones own forbidden desires and wants on others; the unconscious transfer of one's own desires or emotions to another person
Placebo Effect
blind
addiction
body craves a drug to feel normal
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
Plasticity
brain's ability to reorganize itself, higher in younger people to overcompensate for damage
dendrite
branch like extension of the soma that recieves incoming signals from other neurons
Little Albert
ca. 1920; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles: Studies: Little Albert-generalization of fear
Parasympathetic nervous system
calming system (peaceful)
parasympathetic nervous system
calms the body
chronic deprivation
can change your biology, leading to obesity, hypertension and memory impairment
psychological construct
can't be seen or felt but are known because how it affects behavior
Falsifiable
capable of being false
adaptability
capacity to learn new behaviors to cope with changing circumstances
optic nerve
carries visual information from the retina to the brain
sensory neurons/afferent nerves
carry information about the external environment using the 5 senses (ex: hot stove signal)
motor neurons/efferent neurons
carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body (ex: muscles and glands-response)
Critical Period
childhood represents a this for mastering certain aspects of language
Regression
childish, immature behavior
personality disorders
chronic, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns that are thoroughly integrated into an individual's personality
twenty-four hours
circadian rythyms
Cornea
clear membrane just in front of the eye
Belief Perserverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
independent variable
conditions that are altered by the experiment
corpus callosum
connects left and right brain hemispheres
peripheral nervous system PNS
connects the central nervous sytem to the rest of the body
Reliability
consistency of measurement
personality trait
consistent pattern of thought and behavior
aversive conditioning
consists of repeated pairing of a stimulus w/ a very unpleasant stimulus
somatic nervous system
consists of sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the Central Nervous System (CNS)
cell body
contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neurons need for growth + maintenance
Substance Use Disorder
continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial
left hemisphere
controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Cerebellum
coordinates voluntary movement and balance
Overcompensation
covering up a perceived weakness by overemphasizing on some other characteristic or making up for a frustration in one area by gratifying oneself in another (overeating)
Abraham Maslow
created hierarchy of needs
Judith Langlois
dates ?; Field: developmental; Contributions: social development & processing, effects of appearance on behavior, origin of social stereotypes, sex/love/intimacy, facial expression
David Rosenhan
dates?; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a mental health setting; Studies: Hospital experiment-checked into hospital to check diagnosis
punishment
decrease the probability of a response
logitudinal fissure
deep groovein the brain cortex
colorblindness
deficiency of the way you see color
single blind
denoting a test or experiment in which information that may bias the results is concealed from either tester or subject.
double blind
denoting a test or trial, especially of a drug, in which any information that may influence the behavior of the tester or the subject is withheld until after the test.
norepinephrine malfunctions
depress mood
what are the 3 categories of drugs?
depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.
Sensation
detect physical energy from the environment and encode it as neutral signals. Transforming stimuli like light or sound into neural energy that is converted to an action potential.
John B. Watson
developed behaviorism ( the study of observable behavior)
Mary Cover Jones
developed the technique of counterconditioning
Joseph Wolpe
developed the technique of systematic desensitization
physiological function
develops the brain and neural pathways
membrane potential
difference in charge across the neutal membrane
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
Control Group
does not receive the manipulation
Experimenter Expectancy Effect
double-blind
freud
dreams reflect unconscious wishes and dreams, uses symbols to represent real motives, emotions, etc
Attrition Rates
dropouts/people lost over the course of the study
antagonist
drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitters
agonist
drug that mimics or strengthens ffects of neurotransmitters
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body function
active listening
empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Roger's client centered therapy
barbiturates
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram- "go car"- using mostly nouns and verbs
Action Potential
electrical signal that moves down the neuron's axon
right hemisphere
emotion, artsy
Gestalt Psychology
emphasized the study of thinking, learning, pieces make a whole
Cognitive View
emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing, How we interpret, process and remember environmental events. John Piaget (1896-1980)
acetylcholine functions
enables muscle action, learning, memory
Effortful Processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
humanistic
every person has the potential to become self actualized
Population
everyone in a particular group
conditioned stimulus
ex: bell ringing a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired w/ the unconditioned stimulus
conditoned response
ex: getting up b/c the bell rings a learned response to the conditioned stimulus after the conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing
correlational study
examines how two variables are related. Does NOT imply causation
Sociocultural View
examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior Ex: America v. China
Prefrontal Lobotomy
example of what happens when we rely on our subjective impressions; brain damage before and after the surgery remained the same
histrionic personality disorder
excessive emotionality and attention seeking
Norepinephrine
excites heart rate, sleep, control, alertness
Sympathetic nervous system
excites; scared--> s
outliers
extreme values that don't appear to belong with the rest of the data
confounding variable
factors other than the independent variable that may cause a result
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment.
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
Malingering
faking bad (worse than reality)
Positive Impression Management
faking good (better than reality)
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
Identification
feeling better about oneself by identifying with a successful person or their positive attributes
cochlea
fluid-filled structure that is coiled up like a snail. The fluid inside the cochlea passes vibrations in tiny hairs connected to auditory nerves
behaviorism
focus on observing and controlling behavior
psychoanalytic theory
focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior
functionalism
focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment
signal detection theory
focuses on decision making about stimuli under conditions of uncertainty. The detection stimuli depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical/psychological state of the individual. Also on individual + contextual variations like fatigue, exceptions + urgency of the moment
selective attention
focusing on a specific aspect of experiments while ignoring others
hypothalamus
forebrain structure that reguklates the sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homestaic processes. Serves as the interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system
Empirical Approach
gaining knowledge through observation. Events, collection of data and logical reasoning
depressed immune system
get sick quicker
auditory nerves
hair cells are receptor sites
frequency theory
hair cells fire at different rates/ frequencies in the cochlea -especially for the lower tones
place theory
hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea Low frequency (low pitch)- travel farther high frequency (high pitch)- travel shorter
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
Amplitude
height of the wave of light which determines brightness
norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal
Hypothalamus
helps maintain homeostasis (balance) within body; controls the circadian rhythm
unconscious/subconscious level
hidden info, unknown motivations, too painful or socially acceptable
frontal
higher order thinking (what makes us human)
pons
hindbrain structure that connect the brain and soinal cord; involved in regulating brai activity during sleep
cerebellum
hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movemment , motor skills, and is thought to be important in processing some types of memory
medulla
hindbrian structure tha controls automate dprocesses like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate
Encoding
how info. gets in. The process by which info. gets into the memory storage
retrieval
how info. gets out
Orexin
hunger-triggering homrone secreted by hypothalamus
john b. watson
ignored mental processes and defined psychology as scientific study of observable behavior
computorized tomogtaphy ct scan
imaging technique in which a computor coordinated and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area
aphasia
impairment of language
Wernicke's area
impairs understanding. Speak in meaningless words w/ no comprehension
Formal Operational Stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Control Group
in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Unconditioned stimulus/US
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally & automatically- triggers a response
Conditioned stimulus/CS
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association w/ an unconditioned stimulus/US, comes to trigger a conditioned response
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish btwn a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that don't signal an unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response/UR
in classical conditioning, unlearned, naturally occurring response to unconditioned stimulus/US, i.e. salivation when food is in mouth
Case Study
in depth study of rare cases (does not tell cause and effect); ex: Phineas Gage, H.M., Little Albert
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.
Grammar
in language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
discriminative stimulus
in operant condition, a stimulus eliciting a response after association with reinforcement, in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement
Operant chamber/Skinner box
in operant conditioning research, this contains a bar/key an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
interpretation
in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events to promote insight
resistance
in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety- late materials
transference
in psychoanalysis, the patent's transfer to the analysts of emotions linked with other relationships (such a love or hatred for a parent)
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memory
Embodied Cognition
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements
Accommodation
in the theories of Jean Piaget: the modification of internal representations in order to accommodate a changing knowledge of reality
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.
insomnia
inability to sleep, racing thoughts
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory on an event
Reinforcement
increase the probability of a response
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, i.e. food.
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, i.e. shock. Is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. This is not a punishment
z-score
indicates how many standard deviations an element is from the mean
Temperament
individuals characteritc manner of behavior or reaction assumed to have a strong genetic basis
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
individuals show 1+ symptoms: inattention, hyperactivity or impulsive
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental process. Based on experience or expectations. Begin w/ a framework of what is happening and apply to incoming information
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.
representative sample
is drawn from a population of interest and has demographics and characteristics that match those of the population in as many ways as possible.
Representativeness Heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
Wernicke's Area
language and comprehension
forebrain
largest part of the brain, contains the celebral cortex, thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures
learned helplessness
learned helplessness the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past the organism has learned that it has no control over negative outcomes
hippocampus
learning and memory
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it a change in behavior due to experience acquired without conscious effort, for example, a student using a quote in an exam essay that the student had never tried to memorize, though he had encountered it in studying
observational learning
learning that takes place when a person observes and imitates another's behavior Albert Bandura + Modeling 1961- Bobo Doll experiment Modeling-learning that occurs when a person observes + imitates behavior
Seligman
learning; Positive Psychology; learned helplessness theory of depression; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness
Broca's area
left hemisphere damage-impairs speaking-struggle to find words but can sing a familiar song
motor cortex
left hemisphere section controls movement of the right side of the body and right hemisphere section controls movement of left side of the body
hemisphere
left of right of the brain
William James
legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text
William James and Mary Calkins
legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He mentored Calkins, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association
retina
light-sensitive surface that records electro-magnetic energy and converts it to neural impulses for processing in the brain
DSM-V
lists +describes a wide range of disorders by category (diagnostic + statistical manual of mental disorders)
right skew
mean is greater than median
left skew
mean is less than median
measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode
Validity
measure of something being measured (if valid, also reliable)
dependent variable
measure the results of the experiment
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare-processed in the hipppocampus
twenty-eight day cycles
menstrual cycle (for females)
Imagery
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Heuristics
mental shortcuts or rules of thumb
selective attention
more aware
polygenic
multiple genes affecting a given trait
NREM sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
Facts
observable realities
observational study
observations are conducted in a way that doesn't change the response of the variable being measured
hypochondriasis
occurs w/ the idea of having a serious but undiagnosed medical condition
information-processing
organizing/sorting out the day and fixing them to memory
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Serial Position Effect
our tendency to recall better the last and first items in a list
cerebral cortex
outside of the brain, control an information-processing center of the brain
mania
overexcited, unrealistically optimistic state
dopamine malfunctions
oversupply: schizophrenia, undersupply: tremors and Parkinson's disease
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.
Bandura
pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
blind spot
place where optic nerve leaves the retina. No rods or cones
excitatory neurotransmitters
pre-synaptic neurons conduct the action potential to release a neurotransmitter and they affect the post-synaptic neurons
biomedical approach
prescribes medications or procedures that act directly on the person's psychology
Reaction Formation
preventing oneself from expressing unacceptable feelings by expressing the opposite (having a bad day presenting yourself as happy)
Functionalism
probes the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaption to the environment
counterconditioning
procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response
Random Selection
procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate
activation synthesis
random neurons firing and brain trying to make sense by creating a story (making sense of neural static)
response (participant) bias
range of tendencies to respond inaccuracy or falsely to questions
measures of variability
range, standard deviation, variance
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dream commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except of minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
Ratings Data
rating the behavior of others
variable ratio
ratio schedule. Timetable in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times. Unpredictable. Ex: Ways slot machines are set up
spontaneous recovery
reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
temporal lobe
receives auditory information
parietal
receives sensory input for touch/body position
Experimental Group
receives the manipulation
occipital
receives visual information
rods
receptors in the retina that are sensitive to light. Not useful for color vision. Night vision. Out number cones 20-1
cones
receptors that we use for color perception. Light sensitive. Day-light
level of processing
refers to a continuum from shallow to intermediate to deep, deeper processing produces better memory
shaping
refers to rewarding approximations of a desired behavior
applied research
refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. It is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness + develop innovative technologies.
altered states of consciousness
refers to states in which a person's sense of self changes
plasticity
refers to the brain's special physical capacity for change
inattentional blindness
refers to the failure to detect unexpected events when our attention is engaged by a task. More likely to occur when the task is difficult
elaboration
refers to the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding
cognitive development
reflects awake cognitive abilities
Denial
refusing to perceive reality
fixed interval
reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed Ex: running for election
Partial/Intermittent reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
behavior modification
reinforcing desired behaviors, and withholding reinforcement for undesired behaviors
Continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs When first teaching a new behavior, rewarding the behavior each time is best.
Procedural Memory
related to implicit memory- motor skills, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument
selfreference
relating material to your own experience -processing information deemed important or relevant more deeply, making it easier to recall
progressive relaxation
relaxing one muscle group after another, until you achieve a blissful state of complete relaxation and comfort
Correlational Design
research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated; depicted in a scatter plot; correlations have predictive value; CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION
experiment
research method that best establishes cause and effect relationships
group matching
researchers attempt to categorize the subjects (by age, health status, gender, ect.) and ensure that the control group has members similar to those in the experimental group
hypothalamus
reward center, hunger, thirst, sexual arousal
saturation
richness of visual stimuli
Fantasy
satisfying frustrated desires by imagining a scenario in which they come true
after image
sensations that remain after stimulus is removed
Hallucinations
sensory experiences that occur in the absence of real stimuli
Thalamus
sensory switch board, processes every sense other than smell
Isolation
separating feelings and emotions of an event into compartments so they are never thought about in relation to one another
gene
sequence of dna that controls or partially controls a pysical characteristic
endocrine system
series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones
visual acuity
sharpness of vision
Heuristics
short-cut; a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve efficiently
Morphemes
smallest unit of language that carries meaning
operational definition
states the exact procedure used to represent a concept or how a variable is going to be measured + observed in a particular study
Brainstem
stem-like area that includes much of the hindbrain and the midbrain (medulla + pons) Controls automatic survival functions. Alertness, breathing, heart beat, blood pressure
sleep Apnea
stop breathing while asleep
terminal button
store chemicals called neurotransmitters
amygdala
structure in the limbic sytem involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories
hippocampus
structure in the temperal lobe assosiated with learning and memory
parietal lobe
structures at the top and toward the rear of the head. Receives sensory input for touch and body position
temporal lobe
structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing and memory
occipital lobe
structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimuli
Roger Sperry
studied split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions
cross-sectional study
study different groups of people at the same time (different age groups)
cognitive psychology
study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions
humanist
study of current environmental influences and the importance of satisfying the need for love and acceptance Happiness is defined by the distance between our "self-concept" and "ideal self" self actualization
epigenetics
study of gene-environment interactions, such as same genotype leads to different phenotype
Repression
suppress things unconsciously (remains unconscious)
Cerebral cortex
surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities
Self-Report Measures and Surveys
surveys and questionnaires; advantages: -easy to administer -subtle information disadvantages: -may not have insight -may not be honest
basic research
systematic study directed toward greater knowledge or understanding of the fundamental aspects of phenomena and of observable facts without specific applications towards processes or products in mind.
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
takes messages to and from the body's internal organs, monitoring such processes like breathing, heart rate, and digestion
Hertz (Hz)
the SI unit of frequency, equal to one cycle per second.
Statistical Learning
the ability for organisms to extract statistical regularities from the world around them to learn about the environment
Receptive Language
the ability to comprehend speech
cocktail party phenomenon
the ability to concentrate on one voice in a noisy place
stereoscopic vision
the ability to determine an object's depth based on that object's projections to each eye
shiftable attention
the ability to have your attention shift from one sensory perception to another. Ex: texting in class
sustained attention
the ability to main attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time ex: focusing on notes while studying
Creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
Productive Language
the ability to produce words
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
Role
the actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person or group
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.
90 minutes
the amount of time that it takes for humans to cycle through the 4 distinct stages of sleep
sensory cortex
the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes touch and body sensations
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
delusions of persecution
the belief that people are out to get you
normal curve
the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of the temperature and wakefulness) that occurs on 24- hour cycle
Primary Sex Characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
nervous system
the body's electrochemical communication circuitry
brain plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
forbrain
the brain's largest division and its most forward part. Controls thought and reason
action potential
the brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.
Rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
medulla oblongata
the continuation of the spinal cord within the skull, forming the lowest part of the brainstem and containing control centers for the heart and lungs.
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same does of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effects
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus/US doesn't follow a conditioned stimulus/CS Occurs in operant conditioning when a response in no longer reinforced
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
Retroactive Interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Proactive Interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic versions of this vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.
Wavelength
the distance from the peak of one wavelength to the peak of the next. Shorter blue/purple. Longer Red + yellow
optic chiasm
the division of optic nerve fibers in the brain dividing information b/w the left + right occipital lobe
Deja Vu
the eerie sense that I've experienced this before"- cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
Semantic Encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
Visual Encoding
the encoding of picture images
Acoustic Encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Stranger Anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
menarche
the first occurrence of menstruation in a woman
Sensorimotor Stage
the first stage in Piaget's theory, during which the child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
Fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective
negative reinforcement
the frequency of a behavior increases b/c it is followed by the removal of something unpleasant Ex: Lever turns off electric shock
positive reinforcement
the frequency of a behavior. Increase b/c it is followed by something good Ex: Giving a dog a treat after a trick
Sample
the group of people who take part in the investigation
aerial perspective
the haziness that surrounds objects that are farther away from the viewer, causing the distance to be perceived as greater
conscious level
the here and now
learned helpnessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
Sensory Memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Infantile Amnesia
the implicit reactions and skills we learned during infancy reach far into our future, yet as adults we recall nothing(explicitly) of our first 3 years
all or nothing principle
the impulse occurs completely or not at all and it moves all the way down the axon without losing any of its intensity
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
statistical significance
the likelihood that a relationship between two or more variables is caused by something other than random chance
olfactory bulb
the lining the roof of the nasal cavity, containing receptors for small. Connects to the Limbic System (Emotion + Memory)
Amnesia
the loss of memory
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. Also called the just noticeable difference (jnd).
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. below we cannot detect. Above we can detect.
Axon
the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).
response rate
the number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
figure/ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
glial cells (glia)
the other type of cell in the nervous system. Provides support, nutritional benefits, and other functions in the nervous system. Keep neurons running smoothly.
cerebral cortex
the outer layer of the brain responsible for complex mental functions
autokinetic illusion
the perception that a stationary object is actually moving
pitch
the perceptual interpretation of the frequency of sound
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
Puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye and no receptor cells are located there.
Debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance dcreases.
Conservation
the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount).
spontaneous recovery
the process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
accomodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
Perception
the process of selecting, organizing and interpreting our sensations
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
Parallel Processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Cognition
the psychological result of perception and learning and reasoning
brightness
the quality or state of giving out or reflecting light.
frequency
the rate at which something occurs or is repeated over a particular period of time or in a given sample
Long-Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system- includes knowledge skills and experience
Storage
the retention of encoded information over time
memory
the retention of information or experience over time. An active system that revives, stores, organizes, alters + recovers information.
Syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
Psychology
the scientific study of behavioral and mental processes
Preoperational Stage
the second stage in Piaget's theory, marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language
successive approximations
the sequence of new response classes that emerge during the shaping process as the result of differential reinforcement; each successive response class is closer in form to the terminal behavior than the response class it replaces
Semantics
the set or rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
Y Chromosome
the sex chromosome that is carried by men
X chromosome
the sex chromosome that is present in both sexes: singly in males and doubly in females
One-Word Stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
anonymity
the state of being unknown
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.
kinesthesis
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation ( created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).
Spacing Effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice
texture gradient
the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases
generalization
the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. Learning not tied to specific response.
instinctive drift
the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
Observer Bias
the tendency of the observer to unconsciously skew observations to fit the research goal/expectations
Mental Set
the tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct- t overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
size constancy
the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance
shape constancy
the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina
brightness constancy
the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change
Mood-Congruent Memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
Concrete Operational Stage
the third of Piaget's stages, when a child understands conversation but still is incapable of abstract thought
hammer, anvil, stirrup
the three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear
menopause
the time in a woman's life in which the menstrual cycle ends
Adolescence
the time period between the beginning of puberty and adulthood
transduction
the translation of incoming stimuli into neural signals. Light activates the neurons in the retina. 126 million receptor cells
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
Theta Wave
the type of wave found in NREM-2
axon terminal
the very end of a branch of a nerve's axon, a long slender nerve fiber that conducts electrical signals to a nerve synapse
visible light
the wavelengths that are visible to most human eyes
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements
cerebrum
the whole top part of the brain
psychodynamic therapy
therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences
behavior therapy
therapy that applies leaning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
corpus callosum
thick band of neural fibers connecting the brains 2 hemispheres
secondary reinforcer
things we have learned to value ex: Getting an A and test, Paycheck
Imagination
thinking in images
synapse (synaptic gap/space)
tiny spaces b/w neurons and the gap b/w neurons that the synapses create is referred to as the synaptic gap
Introspection
to look inward
timbre
tone saturation
oval window
transmits sound waves to the cochlea
psychotherapy
treatment involving psychological techniques;consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
Dendrites
treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it toward the neuron's cell body
meditation
tries to narrow consciousness to put stress outside of one's self
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
Tend and Befriend Response
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)
Inborn Universal Grammar
underlying human grammar- all human languages therefore have the same grammatical building blocks
structuralism
understanding the conscious experience through introspection
Serotonin malfunctions
undersupply: depression
histogram
used for descriptive statistics
soundwaves
vibrations processed by the auditory system
sound
vibrations that travel through the air or another medium and can be heard when they reach a person's pr animal's ear
genetic environmental correlation
view of gene-environment interaction thataaserts our genes affectour environment, and our environment influences our expression of genes
Levels of processing model
we remember things we spend more cognitive time and energy processing. repetition- shallow processing stories + questions- deeper processing
State-Dependent Memory
what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state
undifferentiated schizophrenia
when a person exhibits behaviors which fit into 2+ other types of schizophrenia
threshold
when electrical chemical level reaches the certain level of intensity
Illusory Correlation
when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists
hawthorne effect
when people know that they are being observed, they change their behavior to what they think the observe expects or to make themselves look good
naturalistic observation
when you describe an individual in its natural setting (describe NOT explain behavior) ex: measuring expressions
storage
where info. goes in- encompasses how memory is retained
Sublimation
where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable behavior
seizure prevention
why might you have your corpus callosum severed?
