TEAS science part 2

contraction of these muscles requires the hydrolysis of ____, and this exothermic reaction releases energy in the form of ____.

ATP, Heat. some heat is also generated as a result of friction between sliding filaments of the muscle

Centrioles

Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another

How does heartburn happen?

Heartburn occurs when acid escapes from your stomach and goes into your Esophagus and travels up. the sphincter relaxes at the wrong time and food backs up

multipolar neuron

A neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of interneurons and motor neuron in the nervous system.

short chain fatty acids, sugars amino acids, water, and electrolytes enter the bloodstream by diffusing into _______ within the villi and traveling to the liver

capillaries

brush border enzymes of the microvilli (as well as pancreatic enzymes) breaks down

carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nuclide acids into smaller components which are then absorbed

these beneficial microbes are nourished by small amounts of cellulose and other carbohydrates, and they release gases such as

carbon dioxide and methane as waste products of fermentation

part of the stomach closest to the esophagus

cardia

what are the 5 parts of the stomach

cardia, fundus, body, antrum, pylorus

Fermentation

Process by which cells release energy in the absence of oxygen

skeletal muscle pump

Rhythmic skeletal muscle contractions force blood in the extremities toward the heart One-way valves in veins prevent backflow of blood

extensive lipid membranes wrap around PNS axons to form layers

Schwann cells

produce the myelin sheaths that insulate PNS neurons and speed up neurotransmission

Schwann cells

how to remember facial is the 7th

after looking around, you make facial expressions and anterior two thirds of the tongue

communicates information to our internal organs

autonomic NS

other part of the PNS that manages involuntary movements and functions

autonomic NS

the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.

autonomic nervous system

rare, terminating on a postsynaptic axon

axoaxonic

terminate on the dendrites of a postsynaptic neuron

axodendritic synapses

a smooth, cable like nerve fiber that is specialized to conduct electrical impulses away from the soma

axon

Astrocytes

axon guidance and synaptic support, and controls the blood brain barrier and blood flow. brain diseases are characterized by the active inflammatory state of the astrocytes

at the end of each axon are highly branched structures Called ______

axon terminals

the cytoplasm of the atom is called_____

axoplasm

terminate on a postsynaptic soma

axosomatic

Brunners glands in the duodenum secrete

bicarbonate- containing fluid (with the help of alkaline pancreatic juice) neutralizes the acidic chyme, providing the optimal pH for enzyme activity

_________ electrical synaptic junctions do not use neurotransmitters

bidirectional

not an enzyme, its a salt that mixes or emulsifies lipids into fatty acids

bile

a cofactor for many enzymes

biotin

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

what is the central nervous system composed of?

brain and spinal cord

information from the body is sent to the brain through ______ and information from the brain is sent to the body through

brain stem

posterior area of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord

brain stem

where do the brain and spinal cord connect?

brain stem

nervous system

brain, spinal cord, nerves

brush border enzymes

break down double sugars into simple sugars and complete protein digestion

while rapid conduction has its benefits, myelinated axons have ____ neuroplasticity than unmyelinated axons; that is, they are more limited In their ability to form new connections with other neurons

less

found in the pancreas

lipase

lipids in the bloodstream are broken down by

lipase and bile salt

what are the three solid organs of the GI tract?

liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

when the food reaches the end of the esophagus, it passes through the _____ and then into ___

lower esophageal sphincter, stomach

pancreatic juice is emptied into the __________, which merges with the common bile duct at the hepatopancreatic ampulla. Juices enter the duodenum at the duodenal papilla.

main pancreatic duct

(comprised of dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) line the cavity and surround the brain and the spinal cord and contain cerebrospinal fluid between the arachnoid mater and Pia mater in the subarachnoid space

meninges

protect and cushion the dorsal cavity

meninges and cerebrospinal fluid

relatively few extensions

microglia

phagocytic- immune defense, digest dead neurons and debris

microglia CNS

tiny folds of the apical cell membrane that increases surface area

microvilli

where are the enzymes embedded in?

microvilli

Lies above the pons and medulla oblongata

midbrain

allows you to incorporate sensory data coming from your eyes and ears with data coming from your body's muscle movements; helping it to adjust your movements based on important info

midbrain

functions like medulla as this super message headquarters between the forebrain (cerebral cortex) and hindbrain (cerebellum and brainstem)

midbrain

important part of vision and hearing

midbrain

integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses t these signals

midbrain

out of the 3 parts of the brain stem, it is not located in the middle

midbrain

sits between the forebrain and the hindbrain

midbrain

Proprioceptors

monitor the position and movement of skeletal muscles and joints. these are tonic

early flight or fight reflex. it is stimulated by a sudden lack of support when the baby feels as though it is falling. this is tested by holding the torso and head of the baby off the exam table and then letting the head and shoulder from quickly several inches. the baby will look startled, extend its arms and legs out, bring them back in and cry

moro, 3 months

efferent

motor

voluntary or involuntary responses that is carried out by effectors such as the contraction of a muscle or the secretion of products by gland cells

motor functions

interneurons process the information and pass the impulse to a

motor neuron

chews and ingests food where the tongue plays its important role by pushing the food into our throat

mouth

what are the hollow organs of the GI tract?

mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestine, and anus

unidirectional

moving in only one direction

the walls of the large intestine is lubricated by _____ which is secreted by ____

mucus, goblet cells

what diseases result from damaged myelin?

multiple sclerosis, the leukodystrophies, and etc

what allows the Para to slow down the heart rate and regulate digestion and relax muscles

muscarinic

the axons of many neurons are heated with a LIPID based coating called

myelin

white matter of the CNS is made mostly of

myelinated axons

exerts control over the motility of the GI tract, increases the tone, rate, intensity, and velocity of contractions

myenteric plexus

located between the circular and longitudinal layers of the muscular externa

myenteric plexus

glia have the ability to divide, what can result from this?

nearly all brain tumors arise from them because Unlike neurons, glial cells have the ability to divide and multiply. If this process occurs too rapidly and without control, a glioma forms.

most reflexes attempt to maintain homeostasis by inhibiting a change in condition; this is called

negative feedback

olfactory receptors

nerve endings that act as the receptors for the sense of smell

what is the main function of the central nervous system?

organize the information to queue a proper response (incorporate the information it is getting and systemize the information so that it can queue a proper response)

Nocireceptors

pain receptors (tonic receptors)

this is caused when the baby palm is stimulated. the baby will make a fist and grasp the object, and the fist will tighten as you try to remove the object

palmar, 6 months

triangular shaped organ with both endocrine and exocrine functions

pancreas

__________ in the pancreas completes carb digestion and produces glucose

pancreatic amylase

increases bowel movements, and urinary output

para

job is to restore everything to a state of relaxation and balance

para

neurotramitter acetylcholine binds to muscarinic receptors allowing the contraction of smooth muscles

para

relaxes the body's muscles and slows heart rate

para

works to conserve homeostasis within the body

parasympathetic

manages the body's function when at rest ('rest and digest')

parasympathetic NS

stimulates digestive activities

parasympathetic nervous system

crucial to the production of hydrochloric acid (HCl) which helps with digestion

parietal cells

has a really big job of having to process the information that it receives within milliseconds

parietal lobe

important for our depth of perception and communicates with other parts of the brain in order to perform other tasks

parietal lobe

responsible for sensory input as well as spatial positioning of the body

parietal lobe

set between the occipital lobe and frontal lobe

parietal lobe

the somatosensory cortex is located inside the ____

parietal lobe

produced in the gastric gland

pepsin

three enzymes that help breakdown protein

pepsin, trypsin, peptidase

produced in small intestine and also helps break down proteins but in this case, for the purpose of recycling amino acids

peptidase

the push and pull that allows food to move from one muscle to another

peristalsis

what mechanical digestion occurs in the small intestine ?

peristalsis moves chyme toward the small intestine and segmentation pushes it back and forth to help mix enzymes into the chyme.

within the inner ear, skeletal muscles, and joints provide information about movement, position, and equilibrium

proprioceptors

Carbohydrates

provide a source of energy

tactile receptors

provide sensations of touch, pressure, and vibration

the small intestine is a long tube that extends from the ___________ to the ____________

pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve

lets food pass from the stomach into the small intestine

pylorus

when food passes the stomach, it enters the duodenum through the

pylorus

shivering is involuntary shuddering, caused by the

rapid contracting and relaxing of skeletal muscles

How is a stimulus detected?

receptors of afferent neurons, and sensory information is sent to interneurons in the spinal cord. then the signal travels along motor neurons to the effectors (the muscles of the arm and hand). before the signal for pain has reached the brain, the hand has already been withdrawn. . while reflexes do not require conscious thought, some have pathways that involve the brain.

a dilated region (superior to the anal canal) called the _________ functions as a storage area for feces before they are eliminated in the process of defecation

rectal ampulla

acts as a holding tank for waste. it stays till u use the rr

rectum

final 12-15 cm of the large intestine

rectum

nearly instantaneous, unconscious, and involuntary response to a stimulus

reflex

a neural pathway that triggers a reflex action

reflex arc

what is the pancreas function as an endocrine gland?

releases insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin into the blood

supra spinal circuits

require input from the brain or brainstem, and are involved in actions such as blinking and gagging reflexes

what is the brains stem an important part of

respiratory, digestive and circulatory functions

Chemoreceptors

respond to chemicals

Photoreceptors

respond to light are tonic receptors too

parasympathetic nervous system

rest and digest

bipolar neuron is rare and associated with

retina and inner ear ( visual and auditory systems)

_______ manages the left side of the body

right half of cerebrum

present even before birth. when the baby is stimulated by a touch to the cheek on either Side, the baby will turn his head to that direction in preparation to suck

rooting, 4 months

pivoting or twisting on the axis (turning the head left or r)

rotation

where does para originate?

sacral portion of the spinal cord

passes through the body from front to back, dividing the body into left and right sides

sagittal plane

what are the three enzymes that help breakdown carbohydrates

salivary amylase

helps break down starches and sugars. takes place in mouth

salivary amylase, lactase, and maltase

since the ions are unable to diffuse through the myelin, the action potential must jump to the next node called ______

saltatory propagation

protect and cushion PNS neurons

satellite cells

surround the soma of neurons within PNS ganglia

satellite cells

neurons of the PERIPHERAL nervous system are myelinated by

schwann cells

exocrine glands

secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body

afferent

sensory

contains sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) and motor neurons (efferent neurons)

sensory NS

responsible for processing sensory data (touch, taste, smell, hearing, vision)

sensory NS

what are the two parts of the somatic nervous system?

sensory nervous system and somatosensory system

carries the impulse along the afferent pathway to the integration center within the CNS

sensory neuron

afferent neurons that deliver impulses to the CNS

sensory neurons

detect changes in the internal and external environment such as pain, pressure, light, or temperature

sensory receptors

many roles- mostly inhibitory. influences sleep, mood, hunger, arousal

serotonin

from the descending colon, waste enters the _________ and this is where waste solidifies

sigmoid colon

lies on the pelvic cavity and becomes the rectum, which opens to the anus

sigmoid colon

the muscular walls of the _____ contract to push feces into the next part of the gastrointestinal system,- the rectum

sigmoid colon

lipid components and water are absorbed into the cells by

simple diffusion

how are proteins imported in an axon?

since there is little to no translation, proteins must be imported from the soma

Diencephalon (interbrain)

sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres

Return of blood to the heart is assisted by a system called the

skeletal muscle pump

used for voluntary actions

skeletal muscles

the muscle system is made of

skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles to produce nearly all body movements

continuous conduction

slow conduction that occurs in nonmyelinated axons

most of the chemical digestion of food occurs in the

small intestine

proteases are released in their inactive form but are activated in the _____

small intestine

amino acids and most sugars are taken into the intestinal cells using cotransport with ____

sodium ions (secondary active transport)

walking, jumping, smiling, eye movements, and the maintenance of posture are all under the control of the _____ nervous system

somatic

part of the PNS that is linked to voluntary bodily movements

somatic ner3vous system

what are the two subsystems to the PNS?

somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

communicates different sensations identified near the vicinity of the body via spinal cord, brainstem, and up to the sensory Cortex located in the parietal lobe

somatosensory NS

allows us to pinpoint the exact locality of a touch perception, and helps to distinguish pain levels and temperature

somatosensory cortex

focuses on the conscious recognition of temperature, pain, touch, pressure, movement, position, vibration

somatosensory nervous system

mnemonic for whether nerves are sensory/motor/both

some say my mother brought my brother some bad beer, my, my.

what are the two types of nerves in the peripheral nervous system

spinal and cranial nerves

administers sensory data directly from the peripheral nervous system to brain

spinal cord

administers sensory data from brain to body

spinal cord

helps to perform slight reflexes

spinal cord

major reflex center that connects afferent and efferent pathways

spinal cord

the baby is on her stomach and is stimulated firmly on one side of her spine in a downward motion. the hips will laterally flex toward the stimulus. this is thought to assist in rolling and crawling

spinal galant reflex, 9 months

pancreatic amylase digests

starch

muscarinic receptors

stimulate smooth muscle and slow the heart rate

chief cells located in the _____, convert _____ to ______, which we already know helps digest protein

stomach, pepsinogen to pepsin

embedded in the connective tissue of the submucosa

submucosal plexus

regulates local secretions, absorption, contraction of submucosal muscle, and blood flow

submucosal plexus

rotating the hand and wrist laterally from the bone. if laying on the back, the palm and wrist would be facing toward the ceiling

supination

the chin of the baby is tipped to his chest. the arms flex, and the legs will extend. present at birth then disappears and returns at 6 months

symmetrical tonic neck reflex, 11 months- 1 year

causes our bodies to become keenly alert, speeds our heart rates, causes muscle contraction and shuts off any function that is not essential for survival

sympathetic

system that gets our body ready for the reaction "flight or fight"

sympathetic

what are the two main divisions within the autonomic nervous system

sympathetic NS, and parasympathetic

inhibits digestive activities

sympathetic nervous system

a communicating junction between two neurons, or between a neuron and an effector (muscle or gland)

synapse

What do axon terminals contain?

synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters

as the material accumulates, the walls of the rectum expand and stretch receptors send signals that cause the rectal muscles to contract, the internal sphincter to relax, and the external sphincter to contract. at this point the decision to eliminate or delay elimination is made

t

t/f: in humans, the rectum curves to conform to the shape of the sacrum and coccyx bone

t

t/f: the ENS can operate independently of the brain and spinal cord, and communicates with the CNS through the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems

t

t/f: the neurotransmitters that are released from axon terminals of the presynaptic cell cross the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic cells.

t

when the impulse reaches the axon terminals, the vesicles that store the neurotransmitters fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing signals into the synaptic cleft before they bind to receptors on the postsynaptic target

t

what are the parts of the midbrain

tectum, tegmentum, ventral tegmentum

responsible for all auditory input, processing and output

temporal

located near your ears and the mainly function in auditory processing.

temporal lobes

taps into other roles such as visual memory, ability to learn language, and emotion association

temporal lobes

the muscles that coordinate voluntary movements are attached to bone by ____, and the bone is moved when the muscle shortens

tendons

skeletal muscles also work with the _____, ____, ____ to support and stabilize the joints

tendons, ligaments, and bone

fifth region of the brain and sits right above the brainstem sandwiched between the midbrain and cerebral cortex

thalamus

helps to control sleep and aids in keeping us awake and alert

thalamus

primary job of ____ is to inform the cerebral cortex of any sensory or motor stimuli

thalamus

how does the NS and endocrine system control the body?

the NS through electrical impulses , and the endocrine through slower- acting, but longer-lasting hormones

Neuroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

what does sensory adaptation refer to?

the change in sensitivity that occurs when receptors are exposed to a prolonged stimulus

two arteries- the medial colic artery and inferior mesenteric artery provide a constant supply of oxygenated bloodd to the ____. the blood flow keeps the intestine healthy and prevents illnesses like intestinal ischemia

transverse colon

passes through the body in a line parallel to the floor, diving the body into top and bottom

transverse plane

largest of the cranial nerves; chewing, face sensation

trigeminal (V) (both sensory and motor)

allows for us to experience feeling in the face

trigeminal nerve

moves the eye up, down, left, right, and diagonally

trochlear (IV) (motor)

t/f: both the central and periphe3ral ne3rvous system enlist the acetylcholine receptors, both nicotinic and muscarinic

tru

acetylcholine binds to nicotinic receptors to trigger the release of norepinephrine, which is produced by the adrenal gland to prepare our body and brain for action

true

many sensory neurons are unipolar

true

synapses can be classified according to the nature of the postsynaptic element and by the mode in which the impulse is transmitted

true

t/f: If a primitive reflex has not integrated and disappeared by a certain age, that is often seen as a sign of a neurological issue or brain damage

true

t/f: all three parts of the brainstem function involuntarily

true

t/f: as the chyme is pushed through the colon 90% of the remaining liquid is absorbed, leaving a mass of indigestible food, water, and bacteria

true

t/f: axons of a very small diameter may be supported by Schwann cells, but are not myelinated by them. these are called non-myelinating Schwann cells.

true

t/f: by the time chyme reaches the large intestine, most of the water (approx. 80%) has already been absorbed by the small intestine

true

t/f: digestive juices coat the food and liquid and break them down so they can continue their journey through the body

true

t/f: electrical synapses are faster, always excitatory and more rare

true

t/f: hormones travel through the bloodstream to target tissues, eliciting responses that are important for growth, development, metabolism, and maintenance of homeostasis

true

t/f: large peripheral veins in the legs and arms have valves that prevent the back flow of blood. when the skeletal muscles around these deep veins contract, the vessel is compressed, and blood is forced through the valves in the direction of the heart.

true

t/f: many essential nerves stem from the pons

true

t/f: notably absent in mature neurons are centrioles, as differentiated neurons have lost their ability to divide

true

t/f: reflexes develop in utero and become integrated as we age

true

t/f: saltatory propagation is faster and more efficient than continuous conduction that is seen along the entire length of an unsheathed axon

true

t/f: the nucleus and cytoplasm remain outside the myelin sheath, but are encased in the outer neurilemmal sheath of the Schwann cell

true

t/f: the occipital lobe has to be very quick to process that information so that we are able to respond accordingly

true

t/f: there are many more glial cells than neurons within the nervous tissue

true

t/f: when an action potential is generated at the axon hillock, it propagates along the axon. when it reaches the axon terminals, the neurotransmitters are released to a target cell

true

t/f: you have two temporal lobes. one for both hemispheres.

true

the bacteria also release vitamin K, biotin, thiamin, riboflavin, and vitamin B12

true

the individual cell body attach to dendrites, the dendrites send information to neurons, the axons or nerve fibers then communicate that information to other neurons

true

the transmission of stimuli through afferent neurons to the CNS, and then from the CNS to other parts of body allow for us to perform voluntary body movements as well as moderate involuntary reflex arcs

true

T/F Both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems operate with a chain of two motor neurons.

true, they use a two neuron pathway, consisting f a preganglionic neuron which runs from the CNS to a ganglion and a postglanglionic neuron which innervates the effector

produced in the pancreas

trypsin

the activated protein digesting enzymes include

trypsin, carboxypeptidases A and B, and chymotrypsin

glioma

tumor composed of the glial tissue

somatic and autonomic nervous system

two parts of the peripheral NS somatic - conscious control of muscles autonomic - everything else that doesn't require conscious thought to work

grey matter of the CNS is made mostly of

unmyelinated

control of the peripheral nervous system

vagus nerve (X) (both motor and sensory)

is adhered to the surface of the brain and the spinal cord

vascularized Pia mater

increases blood pressure and decreases blood flow

vasoconstriction

allows more blood flow near the surface of the skin, and heat is lost to the environment

vasodilation

decreases blood pressure and increases blood flow

vasodilation

the vertebrae and spinal cord are contained within the

vertebral cavity

sound

vestibulocochlear (VIII) (sensory)

permits sound to proceed from our ears into our brain and is found in the pons

vestibulocochlear nerve

how does the CNS communicate w the rest of the body

via peripheral nervous system

how do the hollow organs push food through our bodies

via peristalsis

how is the NS and endocrine system linked

via the hypothalamus

required for the synthesis of clotting proteins

vitamin K

are absorbed for use in the body

vitamin K and biotin

the large intestine specializes in the absorption of

vitamin K, biotin, sodium ions, chloride ions, and water

Synaptic activity: transmitter molecules

when an action potential reaches the axon terminal, voltage-gated calcium channels open in response to the depolarization of the membrane. Calcium ions enter, triggering the release of neurotransmitters by EXOcytosis. the neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft, binding to receptors in the target cell and eliciting either an excitatory or an inhibitory response. the neurotransmitters are then recycled back to the presynaptic cell, are degraded by enzymes, or diffuse away from the synaptic cleft to prevent overstimulation

hyperpolarized

when the membrane potential is more negative

how does constipation result

when too much water is absorbed

the tissue through which messages pass between different areas of grey matter within the nervous system

white matter

how to remember olfactory is the first nerve

you smell it (olfactory) before you see it (optic)

how to remember accessory is 11th

you swallow again and move your head and neck to tell others

outer layer that lies next to the bones and folds inward in places in the cavity and separates the brain into diff compartments

enervated, vascularized dura mater

network of neurons buried in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract that controls the function of the digestive system is called the

enteric nervous system

Lipase

enzyme that breaks down fat

Proteases

enzymes that break down proteins

forms the epithelial lining of the ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord

ependyma

circulate cerebrospinal fluid and facilitate exchange of materials between the CFS and interstitial fluid of brain andspinal cord

ependyma CNS

a small flap that covers the windpipe so food doesn't get stuck there

epiglottis

lifting the lateral border of the foot. bring the sole of the foot to face outward

eversion

during inspiration, contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles _____ (expands, relaxes) the thoracic cavity.

expands

increasing the angle between two body parts (straightening the elbow)

extension

near the body surface transmit information about the external environment

exteroceptors

facial expression and anterior two thirds of the tongue

facial (VII) (both)

allows for us to actually make facial expressions

facial nerve

t/f: there are cell bodies and dendrites in white matter

false

t/f: spinal neurons usually innervate structure that are superior to the neck

false, inferior

t/f: the medulla functions voluntarily

false, involuntarily

liver ____ bile salts and the gallbladder _____ it

makes, stores

in the small intestine breaks down disaccharides into single sugars

maltase

respond to changes in pressure or changes

mechanoreceptors

can help by responding in fight or flight situations by switching digestion on or off, causes us to cough or sneeze to get rid of unwanted particles that get into your nasal cavity and also controls vomiting or swallowing in order to dispel anything that may bring harm to you

medulla

has immediate control over numerous autonomic nervous system responses, it aids in the control of regions of the body and it plays a role in motor functions and outward motion

medulla

helps control breathing, and it controls our heart rate

medulla

responds to various heart functions by dilating the blood flow so that there is a higher or lower amount of oxygen circulation

medulla

piece the brain stem that connects the spinal cord to the brain

medulla oblongata

what are the three different parts to the brain stem?

medulla, pons, midbrain

cutaneous touch receptors

meissners corpuscles, merkles disks, pacinian corpuscles, and Ruffini endings are all mechanoreceptors as are the muscle spindles that detect stretching and the receptors of the inner ear that detect vibrations

t/f: unlike Schwann cells, a single oligodendrocyte can't myelinated dozens of axons

false, it can by extending its membrane in multiple directions and wrapping around the axons

t/f: the cerebellum only has one hemisphere

false, it has two

t/f: the medulla is one of the two parts of the brainstem

false, it is one of the three parts of the brainstem

t/f: information Is sent across the cerebrum from the pons to the cerebellum to the medulla

false, it is sent across the pons from the cerebrum to the medulla and the cerebellum

t/f: most neurons have several long axons, but the length can vary, and some neurons have no axon at all

false, most have one long axon (the rest is true)

t/f: there is villi in the large intestine

false, no villi. but there are pouch like sacculations called haustra that are separated by folds called plicae semilunares

t/f: all reflexes are mediated by spinal neurons

false, not all

t/f: only enzymes of the small intestine continue the digestion of food so the nutrients are small enough to be absorbed

false, pancreatic enzymes and enzymes of the small intestine

t/f: negative feedback loops are less common than positive

false, positive feedback loops are less common and sometimes harmful because they enhance the stimuli rather than inhibit them

t/f: the muscle behind the food relaxes while the muscle in front of the food contracts, allowing an easy passage

false, the muscle behind the food contracts while the muscle in front of food relaxes

t/f: there are low numbers of mitochondria to support the high metabolic needs of the neuron

false, they are relatively high because it needs to produce more energy (ATP)

t/f: the axons In grey matter are mostly myelinated

false, they are unmyelinated, giving the tissue its grey appearance

t/f: glial cells can conduct impulses

false, they maintain homeostasis, form myelin in the PNS, and provide support and protections for neurons

t/f: most synapses are directional chemical junctions, using neurotransmitters to send messages to the postsynaptic cell

false, unidirectional, the rest is trueu

t/f: the large intestine secretes digestive enzymes

false. it does not secrete digestive enzymes but there are hundreds of species of resident bacteria that can digest certain materials left in chyme

t/f: the large intestine is smaller in diameter than the small intestine, but much longer in length averaging 1.5 meters

false. the large intestine is larger in diameter, but shorter in length

pancreatic lipase digets

fats

major nutrients in the gastrointestinal system includes proteins that help

fight infections and make healthy cells

duodenum

first part of the small intestine

decreases the angle between two body parts (bending the elbow)

flexion

neurilemmal sheath

formed by the cytoplasm and nucleus of the schwann cell that remain on the outside

sigmoid colon

fourth and last, S-shaped segment of the colon, just before the rectum; empties into the rectum

where does the axon emerge from

from a slightly elevated structure called the axon hillock that connects the soma to the axon

front most region of the brain and is the biggest

frontal lobe

responsible for short term and working memory and information processing as well as decision making, planning, and judgment

frontal lobe

split from the parietal and temporal lobe by fissures

frontal lobe

passes through the body from left to right, dividing the body into anterior and posterior

frontal plane

what are the four lobes of the cerebrum?

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath that allow the impulse to jump quickly from one node to the next

a type of cell, in the nervous system, that provides support for the neurons

glial cell

What does white matter consist of?

glial cells and myelinated bundles of axons that form tract to and from the brain

support and protect neurons within the central and peripheral nervous system

glial cells, called neuroglia

swallowing, saliva, and taste

glossopharyngeal (IX) (both)

major excitatory neurotransmitter

glutamate

found in the respiratory and intestinal tracts, secrete mucus

goblet cells

made of rough ER and clusters of free ribosomes that synthesize proteins for use within the cell

granular nissl bodies

unmyelinated axons

gray matter

consists of mostly interneurons but also contains motor neurons and glial cells

grey matter

where can dendrites and cell bodies be found in the spine?

grey matter

sulcus

groove

pouches formed by the contraction of smooth muscle within the muscular layer

haustra

pseudounipolar neurons

have a single short process that branches like a T to form a pair of longer processes. it is a sensory neuron

what do resident gut flora do?

help keep populations of pathogenic bacteria in check

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

works with hypothalamus, promotes wakefulness

histamine

the angle between two joints increases on the horizontal plane

horizontal abduction

the angle between two joints decreases on the horizontal plane

horizontal adduction

speech and swallowing; tongue muscles

hypoglossal (motor ) (XII)

a region in the brain that control the autonomic nervous stem as well as the pituitary Gland

hypothalamus

aids in certain metabolic processes and helps to regulate the autonomic nervous system

hypothalamus

main function is that it connects the nervous system to the endocrine system which allows it to regulate our body's temperature

hypothalamus

nerve impulses send info about the condition of the body to the ________, which regulates the release of hormones from the pituitary

hypothalamus

positioned below the thalamus and is the bottom part of the diencephalon

hypothalamus

the release of other important hormone from the anterior pituitary is also regulated bu the

hypothalamus

_____ produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), but these hormones are stored in and secreted by the _______________

hypothalamus, posterior pituitary

prevents food and other materials from flowing back into the small intestine

ileocecal valve

the large intestine is the portion of the alimentary canal that begins at the _________ and terminates at the ____

ileocecal valve and anus

absorbs nutrients that were not digested by the jejunum like carbohydrates, minerals, and fats

ileum

averages 3.5 meters in length. but is the most narrow In diameter

ileum

primary role is to absorb vitamin B12, bile salts, and any nutrients that were not absorbed by the jejunum

ileum

the longest segment of the small intestine

ileum

Muscular system

important functions Support: Mobility

example of positive feedback loop dangers

in case of a fever, a positive feedback loop is what pushes it to be higher. it causes destabilizing effects so it does not result in homeostasis.

where does the sympathetic nervous system originate

in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord

when the pressure in the thoracic cavity decreases, the pressure in the abdominal cavity _____, squeezing the blood in the inferior vena cava toward the heart

increases

Leukodystrophies

inherited mutations in enzymes necessary for production or maintenance of myelin

inhibitory neurotransmitters

inhibit the next cell from firing

myelin

insulates the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses (increases the rate at which an impulse can travel)

helps bring about the formation of the forebrain

intebrain

during ____, the information is brought to the central nervous system where it is processed and interpreted

integration

entirely restricted to the central nervous system, and act as bridges between sensory and motor neurons

interneurons

of visceral organs and blood vessels proved information about internal stimuli

interoceptors

lifting the medial border of foot. Bring the sole of the foot to face inward

inversion

contraction of smooth muscle is _____, and therefore under ____ (somatic or autonomic) control.

involuntary, autonomic

if the feces are excreted before enough water is absorbed

it leaves as diarrhea

absorbed sugar and amino and fatty acids before it moves on to the final part of the small intestine

jejunum

averages 2.5 meters in length and is characterized by prominent plicae circulares, long villi, and dense microvilli

jejunum

main site of absorption

jejunum

absorption of water and food molecules occurs mostly in the ___________

jejunum and ileum of the small intestine

minerals perform several functions such as

keeping bones strong with calcium or providing an adequate supply of iron that helps transport oxygen in our blood

Peyer's patches

large collections of lymphoid tissue found in the submucosa of the small intestine. common in the ileum but can be found throughout the small intestine

takes food, breaks it down even further and turns it into waste

large intestine

how to remember hypoglossal is the last

lastly, you talk and swallow with tongue muscles.

what is the fissure that separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe called? (it is deeper)

lateral sulcus

____ manages the right side of the body

left half of cerebrum

division of the PNS that brings info to the CNS

afferent (sensory)

_____ transit stimuli to the CNS, as opposed to transmitting from the CNS. ______ in response to (above), transmit signals from the CNS to the rest of the body

afferent, and efferent

Integrative function

The ability of the nervous system to analyze and interpret sensory information to allow for proper decision making, which produces the appropriate response.

sensory function

The ability of the nervous system to sense changes in either the internal or external environment

the axon often splits into ____ that allow one neuron to interact with more than one cell

collaterals

the middle portion of the large intestine is the ____ which can be further subdivided into the ______ and _____ and ________ and ______

colon, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon

Commissures

connect corresponding gray areas of the two hemispheres

smooth muscles in the walls of the cutaneous arterioles ______ (contract or dilate) involuntarily to reduce the blood flow near the surface of the skin. this minimizes heat loss to the environment

contract

blood pressure is regulated by

contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle within the vessel wall

peripheral circulatory assistance

contraction of skeletal muscle helps squeeze blood and lymph through their respective vessels, aiding circulation

how to remember vagus is 10th

controls the peripheral NS when you move around because you have swallowed

even though there is a groove that distinctly separates the two halves of the cerebrum, there is a bundle of neural fibers, called the ________ that connects the two halves and allows them to work together

corpus callosum

the meninges extend from the ______ cavity to close the ______ cavity

cranial to the vertebral

what are the three regions of the small intestine?

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

what is a beneficial form of positive feedback?

during childbirth. When the cervix Is stretched by the descending fetus, impulses are sent to the pituitary, which sends command to increase uterine contractions. the more the fetus is pushed, the more the cervix stretches.

what is found in the spinal cord?

(nerves) nervous tissue

what is the pancreas role in digestion?

the production and secretion of digestive juices

what are the four main roles of the nervous system?

- collect information internally and externally -process and derive meaning from the info collected - forward information to the appropriate party - dispatch the info to the appropriate part of the brain

how many pairs of cranial nerves is there?

12

the spinal cord consists of _____ pairs of spinal nerves; because each of these nerves include motor and sensory axons, they are referred to as __________

31, mixed nerves

how many primitive reflexes are there in a newborn?

7

Histamine

A chemical that is responsible for the symptoms of an allergy

multiple sclerosis

A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech

oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

Microglia

Act as phagocytes, eating damaged cells and bacteria, act as the brains immune system

saltatory propagation

Action potential along myelinated axon Faster and uses less energy than continuous propagation Myelin insulates axon, prevents continuous propagation Local current "jumps" from node to node Depolarization occurs only at nodes

controls involuntary movements such as contraction of smooth and cardiac muscles and glandular secretions

Autonomic NS (PNS)

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.

integrates sensory information

CNS

the ___ within the nucleus encodes the information for the many proteins that are needed for the neuron to function.

DNA

two main nucleic acids

DNA and RNA

Pepsin

Enzyme that breaks down proteins in the stomach

major inhibitory neurotransmitter

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

endocrine glands

Glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream

what does the axoplasm lack?

Golgi bodies, nissl bodies, and ribosomes found in dendritic cytoplasm

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Hormone produced by the neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus that stimulates water reabsorption from kidney tubule cells into the blood and vasoconstriction of arterioles.

Peristalsis

Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.

resident flora

Microbes that normally reside below the skin surface or within the body

uninsulated gaps between myelinated portions of the axon that increase the rate of conduction

Nodes of Ranvier

nemonic for cranial nerves

Oh oh oh to touch and feel a(stands for auditory= vestibularcochlear) girls vagina ah heaven

made up of nerves and ganglia

PNS

sends info to and from CNS, allowing it to communicate with the rest of the body

PNS

medulla oblongata

Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion.

lymphatic tissues found in the ileum of the small intestine that protects the gastrointestinal tract from pathogens

Peyer's patches

What is mechanical digestion?

Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces

controls voluntary movements such as the contraction of skeletal muscles

Somatic NS (PNS)

the impulses travels along the efferent pathway to the effector -

the responding muscle or gland

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Small Intestine

The part of the digestive system in which most chemical digestion takes place.

extends across the abdominal cavity

transverse colon

nervous tissue

Tissue that senses stimuli and transmits signals.

Schwann cells

Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.

Oligodendrocytes

Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.

how does vasoconstriction increase blood pressure?

Vasoconstriction reduces the volume or space inside affected blood vessels. When blood vessel volume is lowered, blood flow is also reduced. At the same time, the resistance or force of blood flow is raised. This causes higher blood pressure.

the process of fermentation takes place in the

transverse colon

what is the spinal cord

a column of nerve fibers that connects the brain to the rest of the body

depolarized

a condition in which the inside of a cell membrane is more positively charged than the outside

peptidase

a digestive enzyme that hydrolyzes peptide bonds

intestinal ischemia

a diminished blood flow to the intestines that is characterized by abdominal pain, forceful bowel movements, and blood in the stool

Myelin

a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds the transmission of nerve impulses

Nodes of Ranvier contain

a high density of voltage gated sodium and potassium channels

classical conditioning

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

Neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

bipolar neuron

a neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma

unipolar neuron

a neuron with one process extending from its cell body

movement toward the midline/ to the body (bringing the arm to the body)

adduction

what does a reflex arc begin with

a receptor

thoracic pump

a venous return mechanism that squeezes blood to the heart when we breathe

moves the eye up, down, left, right, and diagonally

abducens (VI) (motor)

permits the eye to move and look horizontally, found in the pons

abducens nerve

moving away from midline. think of someone being abducted (moving arm away from body)

abduction

excitatory

accelerates neuron's firing speed

swallowing and movement of the back of the head and neck

accessory (XI) (motor)

overall function of the SNS is largely due to the neurotransmitter

acetylcholine

stimulates skeletal muscle

acetylcholine (ACh)

the core of each microvillus consists of ______ filaments that extend out from the cytoplasm

actin

Trypsin

an enzyme from the pancreas that digests proteins in the small intestine

what is the spinal cord made of?

an exterior layer of white matter that surrounds the interior core of grey matter

Primitive reflexes

an involuntary reaction to a stimulus

Effector

an organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus.

the ____ is the last portion of the rectum and it ends with an involuntary internal sphincter and a voluntary external sphincter

anal canal

when thermoreceptors detect a rise in temp, the _____ hypothalamus tells the smooth muscles that surround cutaneous arterioles to ____.

anterior, relax

efferent fibers exit on the ______ aspect (the anterior grey horn) through the posterior root

anterior/ventral

lower portion of the stomach where food and liquid mix w digestive juices

antrum

from the rectum, the waste exits through the final stop called the

anus

may serve as a reservoir for beneficial species of bacteria, though it is often infected with harmful microbes

appendix

the site of a blind- ended tube called

appendix

the middle layer, ______, contains connective tissue but not nerves or blood vessels

arachnoid mater

where are nerves and ganglia located?

around and outside of the brain and spinal cord

also contract, causing hairs to stand on end in an attempt to trap warm air.

arrector pili muscles

what is an example of an interaction between the NS and endocrine?

as a baby begins to nurse, the stimulus sends an impulse to the hypothalamus, causing the pituitary to release oxytocin into the blood. the hormone targets the mammary gland, inducing it to release milk

beginning of the large intestine and has two important parts- the cecum and the colic or the ileocecal valve. the valve is at the end of the ascending colon and separates the cecum from the small intestine

ascending colon

right side of the body

ascending colon

what are the four parts to the large intestine

ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon

the most abundant cell found in neural tissue

astrocytes

anchor neurons and facilitate exchange of materials between capillaries and neurons uptake excess ions and neurotransmitters.

astrocytes CNS

this is known as the fencing reflex. when the baby is on his back and his head is turned to one side, the arm and leg extend in the direction that the baby is facing and the other arm and leg flex

asymmetrical tonic neck reflex, 3 months

What does feces consist of?

bacteria, water, undigested material, epithelial cells, and bile (which accounts for the brown coloration)

how is the maintenance of body temperature a negative feedback ?

bc as body temperature changes, thermoreceptors send information to the hypothalamus. if body temperature is too high, a command is sent to dilate blood vessels and release sweat. if the temp is too low, the body shivers and blood vessels constrict.

why is white matter white?

because of the fatty substance (myelin) that surrounds the nerve fibers. Myelin acts as an electrical insulation. it allows the messages to pass quickly from place to place

why can diseases result from damaged myelin?

because, without the proper insulation, the neurons of affected individuals cannot effectively conduct an impulse so nerve impulses slow or even stop.

Where is the pancreas located?

below the stomach and extends from the duodenum to the spleen

the first portion of the large intestine is a pouch called ___ and it receives chyme from the small intestine

cecum

contains the organelles that are responsible for the metabolic activities of the neuron

cell body, or soma

Glia

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Neuroglia

cells that support and protect neurons

consists of the brain and spinal cord

central nervous system

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

what is the fissure that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe?

central sulcus

plays a role in processing and storing of implicit memories; memories develiped during classical conditioning and learning techniques

cerebellum

sits right behind the upper portion of the brain stem

cerebellum

the region of the brain that coordinates movement and where various features of motor learning take place. allows for balance, coordination, speech and posture, and muscle memory

cerebellum

what are the six different regions of the brain?

cerebellum, cerebrum, medulla, brainstem, thalamus, and hypothalamus

a thin layer of grey matter covering the cerebrum

cerebral cortex

separated into a left and right hemisphere by a trench like line called the longitudinal fissure

cerebrum

sits at the top portion of the cranial cavity

cerebrum

what does the forebrain include?

cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus

essential for problem solving, speech and articulation, and its accountable for personality traits

cerebrum: frontal lobe

sits in the back part of cortex

cerebrum: occipital lobe

what are the 5 regions of the spinal cord?

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

such as olfactory and taste receptors detect the presence of chemicals

chemoreceptors

Ganglia

clusters of cell bodies (neuron somas) in the PNS

the increased volume results in a ____ (increase or decrease) in pressure, which is transmitted to the right atrium. this drop in pressure helps the blood to return to the heart.

decrease

depolarizing the membrane

decreasing the charge difference between the fluids on the outside and the inside of the neuron; happens when the neuron becomes activated and therefore creates a more positively charged neuron; next the potassium channels open and positively charged potassium ions move out to allow the neuron to return to a negative charge

relatively short, branched extensions of the cell body that receive incoming chemical signals (neurotransmitters) from other neurons

dendrites

scapula movement, inferior movement (shoulder shrug)

depression

food is moved from the small intestine to the large and made its way to the transverse colon. the next stop is the

descending colon

left side of body

descending colon

point at which feces starts to become solid

descending colon

stores food before its emptied into the rectum

descending colon

area where the vertebrate neural tube is located

diencephalon

Nucleases

digest nucleic acids

trypsin and pepsin both help

digest protein in food

the Gi tract is also called

digestive tract or alimentary canal

associated with mood, attention, reward system, and movement

dopamine

ankle flexion (moving the toes toward the shin)

dorsiflexion

25 cm, C-shaped, shortest segment with the widest diameter

duodenum

most of the chemical digestion of food occurs here and it does not play a large role in absorption, with the exception of iron

duodenum

receives chyme from stomach and neutralizing digestive juices from the pancreas

duodenum,

small intestine sections

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

once the sensory information has been processed, _____ neurons (motor neurons) transmit the impulse away from the CNS to activate muscles and glands

effector

division that delive3rs messages from the CNS to muscles or glands

efferent (motor)

scapula movement, superior movement (shoulder shrug)

elevation

Acetylcholine

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

what system does the nervous system work close to?

endocrine

the nervous system is closely integrated with the

endocrine system

bundles of nerve fibers also known as axons

nerves

controls every process within body

nervous system

responsible for coordinating and controlling all of the activities of the body

nervous system

responsible for the integration of body systems

nervous system

what is the first body system to respond to changes in the environment?

nervous system

__________ contains most of the organelles that are characteristic of animal cells (cytoskeleton, rough and smooth ER, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria)

neuronal cytoplasma

responsible for carrying out the sensory, integrative, and motor functions of the nervous system.

neurons

what is the nervous system composed of?

neurons and neuroglia cells that support them

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

sensory neurons

neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

How are impulses transmitted across the synaptic cleft?

neurotransmitters

main receptors in muscles for motor neuron to muscle correspondence, that manage the contraction of muscles

nicotinic receptors

detect pain

nociceptors

influences mood and sleep patterns

norepinephrine (NE)

two enzymes associated w nucleic acids

nuclease and nucleosidase

responsible for visual input, processing, and output; specifically nerves from eyes enter directly into this lobe

occipital

moves the eye up, down, left, right, and diagonally; adjusts the pupil and lens of the eye

oculomotor (III) (motor)

eye movement is controlled by 3 cranial nerves

oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens

smell

olfactory nerve (I) (sensory)

extensions wrap around axons of CNS neurons

oligodendrocytes

produce myelin sheaths that insults CNS neurons and speed up neurotransmission

oligodendrocytes

responsible for sheathing the neurons of the central nervous system

oligodendrocytes

how to remember glossopharyngeal is 9th

once sound is made, swallowing, saliva, and taste happens

how to remember trochlear is the four nerve

once the eye adjusts, you keep moving the eye

how to remember abducens is the 6th

once you can chew and feel a face sensation, you move your eyes again

how to remember vestibulocochlear is 8th

once you make facial expressions, you make sound with the facial expressions

how to remember oculomotor is the third nerve

once you see it (optic), you move the eyes and adjusts the pupils and lens

how to remember trigeminal is the fifth nerve

once you smell and see it, you can eat it by chewing or have a face sensation

sight

optic nerve (II) (sensory)

what are the two groups that adaptation rates can be classified as?

phasic and tonic

quickly adapt to a constant stimulus, meaning that action potential decease over time and eventually stop

phasic receptors

what explains the loss of sensation of clothes against skin or the smell of odor dissapearing when the source is still present?

phasic receptors

such as rod and cone cells of the eye respond to light

photoreceptors

"master gland" that controls other glands of the endocrine system

pituitary

___________ go on to control other endocrine glands and body functions

pituitary hormones

ankle extension (moving the toes toward the ground/ pointing the toes)

plantar flexion.

the bottom of the foot is stroked firmly moving from the heel to the toes. the big toe bends back toward the foot, and the toes splay out

plantar/ babinski reflex , 2 years

Aids in communication between brain sections, like the cerebrum and cerebellum

pons

functions as a message headquarters for many other parts of the brain

pons

helps in the duties of the medulla, and it is linked to managing our sleep cycles

pons

right above the medulla and beneath the midbrain

pons

if the core body temp drops, the shivering reflex is triggered by the

posterior hypothalamus

when the thermorecptors detect a drop in temp, impulses are sent to the __________, which then sends signals to the effectors.

posterior hypothalamus

afferent fibers enter into the _______ aspect of the spinal cord (a region called the posterior grey horn) through the anterior root

posterior/dorsal

What does a synapse consist of?

presynaptic membrane, synaptic cleft, postsynaptic membrane

motor function

primarily to stimulate muscle contraction

Integration center (CNS)

processes info and directs motor output

the somatosensory cortex is crucial for

processing the information from touch

rotating the hand and wrist medially from the bone. if laying on the back, the hand would have the palm to the floor

pronation

smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal tract contracts rhythmically to

propel food along the gastrointestinal tract (peristalsis)

the thalamus, along with the hypothalamus, epithalamus, sub thalamus, is a part of

the diencephalon (inter brain)

where do the cell bodies of afferent (sensory) neurons reside

the dorsal root ganglia, just outside the spinal cord

what are the dura mater two laters?

the endosteal lines the cranial bones; the meningeal layer, which lines the endosteal layer within the cranium, limes the vertebral cavity

What is the GI tract?

the entrance and exit point of our food

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

oculo refers to

the eye or sense of vision. so oculomotor= eye motor functions (and sensory) meaning moving the eyes and pupils and lens

the term large intestine refers to

the larger diameter, not the total length

what is an example of negative feedback?

the maintenance of body temperature.

what are the rapid responses of the nervous system essential for?

the maintenance of homeostasis, heart rate, breathing, regulation of temperature, movement, sensations, memory, emotion, language, etc.

Enteric Nervous System

the nervous system of the digestive tract

main function is to process visual information from the eyes and relay that information

the occipital lobe

nuclease and nucleosides are produced in

the pancreas

what does the frontal lobe contain?

the primary motor cortex

initiates electrical signals and impulses that initiate body movement

the primary motor cortex (M1)

one of the main components of the brain included in the body's motor functions

the primary motor cortex (M1)

What is a receptor?

the site or organ that receives the stimulus

ENS is divided into two main parts:

the submucosal and myenteric plexuses

what is the body structure that the spinal cord is encased in?

the vertebrae which protects and supports it

sense both absolute tempe3rature and changes in temp

thermoreceptors

why don't bidirectional electrical synaptic junctions not use neurotransmitters?

they are linked by gap junctions that allow the flow of ions between cells.

what do the channels in nodes of ranvier do?

they open to allow the passage of these ions, depolarizing the membrane

what is the primary function of the PNS

to link the central nervous system to the body's organs and appendages; thus acting as the primary messenger between the brain, spinal cords, and everything else in the body

adapt slowly, constantly alerting the CNS of the stimulus with action potentials

tonic receptors

as food leaves the ascending colon and enters the ____ where fermentation further breaks down the food by removing water and nutrients

transverse colon