TEAS science part 2
contraction of these muscles requires the hydrolysis of ____, and this exothermic reaction releases energy in the form of ____.
ATP, Heat. some heat is also generated as a result of friction between sliding filaments of the muscle
Centrioles
Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another
How does heartburn happen?
Heartburn occurs when acid escapes from your stomach and goes into your Esophagus and travels up. the sphincter relaxes at the wrong time and food backs up
multipolar neuron
A neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of interneurons and motor neuron in the nervous system.
short chain fatty acids, sugars amino acids, water, and electrolytes enter the bloodstream by diffusing into _______ within the villi and traveling to the liver
capillaries
brush border enzymes of the microvilli (as well as pancreatic enzymes) breaks down
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nuclide acids into smaller components which are then absorbed
these beneficial microbes are nourished by small amounts of cellulose and other carbohydrates, and they release gases such as
carbon dioxide and methane as waste products of fermentation
part of the stomach closest to the esophagus
cardia
what are the 5 parts of the stomach
cardia, fundus, body, antrum, pylorus
Fermentation
Process by which cells release energy in the absence of oxygen
skeletal muscle pump
Rhythmic skeletal muscle contractions force blood in the extremities toward the heart One-way valves in veins prevent backflow of blood
extensive lipid membranes wrap around PNS axons to form layers
Schwann cells
produce the myelin sheaths that insulate PNS neurons and speed up neurotransmission
Schwann cells
how to remember facial is the 7th
after looking around, you make facial expressions and anterior two thirds of the tongue
communicates information to our internal organs
autonomic NS
other part of the PNS that manages involuntary movements and functions
autonomic NS
the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.
autonomic nervous system
rare, terminating on a postsynaptic axon
axoaxonic
terminate on the dendrites of a postsynaptic neuron
axodendritic synapses
a smooth, cable like nerve fiber that is specialized to conduct electrical impulses away from the soma
axon
Astrocytes
axon guidance and synaptic support, and controls the blood brain barrier and blood flow. brain diseases are characterized by the active inflammatory state of the astrocytes
at the end of each axon are highly branched structures Called ______
axon terminals
the cytoplasm of the atom is called_____
axoplasm
terminate on a postsynaptic soma
axosomatic
Brunners glands in the duodenum secrete
bicarbonate- containing fluid (with the help of alkaline pancreatic juice) neutralizes the acidic chyme, providing the optimal pH for enzyme activity
_________ electrical synaptic junctions do not use neurotransmitters
bidirectional
not an enzyme, its a salt that mixes or emulsifies lipids into fatty acids
bile
a cofactor for many enzymes
biotin
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
what is the central nervous system composed of?
brain and spinal cord
information from the body is sent to the brain through ______ and information from the brain is sent to the body through
brain stem
posterior area of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord
brain stem
where do the brain and spinal cord connect?
brain stem
nervous system
brain, spinal cord, nerves
brush border enzymes
break down double sugars into simple sugars and complete protein digestion
while rapid conduction has its benefits, myelinated axons have ____ neuroplasticity than unmyelinated axons; that is, they are more limited In their ability to form new connections with other neurons
less
found in the pancreas
lipase
lipids in the bloodstream are broken down by
lipase and bile salt
what are the three solid organs of the GI tract?
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
when the food reaches the end of the esophagus, it passes through the _____ and then into ___
lower esophageal sphincter, stomach
pancreatic juice is emptied into the __________, which merges with the common bile duct at the hepatopancreatic ampulla. Juices enter the duodenum at the duodenal papilla.
main pancreatic duct
(comprised of dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) line the cavity and surround the brain and the spinal cord and contain cerebrospinal fluid between the arachnoid mater and Pia mater in the subarachnoid space
meninges
protect and cushion the dorsal cavity
meninges and cerebrospinal fluid
relatively few extensions
microglia
phagocytic- immune defense, digest dead neurons and debris
microglia CNS
tiny folds of the apical cell membrane that increases surface area
microvilli
where are the enzymes embedded in?
microvilli
Lies above the pons and medulla oblongata
midbrain
allows you to incorporate sensory data coming from your eyes and ears with data coming from your body's muscle movements; helping it to adjust your movements based on important info
midbrain
functions like medulla as this super message headquarters between the forebrain (cerebral cortex) and hindbrain (cerebellum and brainstem)
midbrain
important part of vision and hearing
midbrain
integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses t these signals
midbrain
out of the 3 parts of the brain stem, it is not located in the middle
midbrain
sits between the forebrain and the hindbrain
midbrain
Proprioceptors
monitor the position and movement of skeletal muscles and joints. these are tonic
early flight or fight reflex. it is stimulated by a sudden lack of support when the baby feels as though it is falling. this is tested by holding the torso and head of the baby off the exam table and then letting the head and shoulder from quickly several inches. the baby will look startled, extend its arms and legs out, bring them back in and cry
moro, 3 months
efferent
motor
voluntary or involuntary responses that is carried out by effectors such as the contraction of a muscle or the secretion of products by gland cells
motor functions
interneurons process the information and pass the impulse to a
motor neuron
chews and ingests food where the tongue plays its important role by pushing the food into our throat
mouth
what are the hollow organs of the GI tract?
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestine, and anus
unidirectional
moving in only one direction
the walls of the large intestine is lubricated by _____ which is secreted by ____
mucus, goblet cells
what diseases result from damaged myelin?
multiple sclerosis, the leukodystrophies, and etc
what allows the Para to slow down the heart rate and regulate digestion and relax muscles
muscarinic
the axons of many neurons are heated with a LIPID based coating called
myelin
white matter of the CNS is made mostly of
myelinated axons
exerts control over the motility of the GI tract, increases the tone, rate, intensity, and velocity of contractions
myenteric plexus
located between the circular and longitudinal layers of the muscular externa
myenteric plexus
glia have the ability to divide, what can result from this?
nearly all brain tumors arise from them because Unlike neurons, glial cells have the ability to divide and multiply. If this process occurs too rapidly and without control, a glioma forms.
most reflexes attempt to maintain homeostasis by inhibiting a change in condition; this is called
negative feedback
olfactory receptors
nerve endings that act as the receptors for the sense of smell
what is the main function of the central nervous system?
organize the information to queue a proper response (incorporate the information it is getting and systemize the information so that it can queue a proper response)
Nocireceptors
pain receptors (tonic receptors)
this is caused when the baby palm is stimulated. the baby will make a fist and grasp the object, and the fist will tighten as you try to remove the object
palmar, 6 months
triangular shaped organ with both endocrine and exocrine functions
pancreas
__________ in the pancreas completes carb digestion and produces glucose
pancreatic amylase
increases bowel movements, and urinary output
para
job is to restore everything to a state of relaxation and balance
para
neurotramitter acetylcholine binds to muscarinic receptors allowing the contraction of smooth muscles
para
relaxes the body's muscles and slows heart rate
para
works to conserve homeostasis within the body
parasympathetic
manages the body's function when at rest ('rest and digest')
parasympathetic NS
stimulates digestive activities
parasympathetic nervous system
crucial to the production of hydrochloric acid (HCl) which helps with digestion
parietal cells
has a really big job of having to process the information that it receives within milliseconds
parietal lobe
important for our depth of perception and communicates with other parts of the brain in order to perform other tasks
parietal lobe
responsible for sensory input as well as spatial positioning of the body
parietal lobe
set between the occipital lobe and frontal lobe
parietal lobe
the somatosensory cortex is located inside the ____
parietal lobe
produced in the gastric gland
pepsin
three enzymes that help breakdown protein
pepsin, trypsin, peptidase
produced in small intestine and also helps break down proteins but in this case, for the purpose of recycling amino acids
peptidase
the push and pull that allows food to move from one muscle to another
peristalsis
what mechanical digestion occurs in the small intestine ?
peristalsis moves chyme toward the small intestine and segmentation pushes it back and forth to help mix enzymes into the chyme.
within the inner ear, skeletal muscles, and joints provide information about movement, position, and equilibrium
proprioceptors
Carbohydrates
provide a source of energy
tactile receptors
provide sensations of touch, pressure, and vibration
the small intestine is a long tube that extends from the ___________ to the ____________
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
lets food pass from the stomach into the small intestine
pylorus
when food passes the stomach, it enters the duodenum through the
pylorus
shivering is involuntary shuddering, caused by the
rapid contracting and relaxing of skeletal muscles
How is a stimulus detected?
receptors of afferent neurons, and sensory information is sent to interneurons in the spinal cord. then the signal travels along motor neurons to the effectors (the muscles of the arm and hand). before the signal for pain has reached the brain, the hand has already been withdrawn. . while reflexes do not require conscious thought, some have pathways that involve the brain.
a dilated region (superior to the anal canal) called the _________ functions as a storage area for feces before they are eliminated in the process of defecation
rectal ampulla
acts as a holding tank for waste. it stays till u use the rr
rectum
final 12-15 cm of the large intestine
rectum
nearly instantaneous, unconscious, and involuntary response to a stimulus
reflex
a neural pathway that triggers a reflex action
reflex arc
what is the pancreas function as an endocrine gland?
releases insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin into the blood
supra spinal circuits
require input from the brain or brainstem, and are involved in actions such as blinking and gagging reflexes
what is the brains stem an important part of
respiratory, digestive and circulatory functions
Chemoreceptors
respond to chemicals
Photoreceptors
respond to light are tonic receptors too
parasympathetic nervous system
rest and digest
bipolar neuron is rare and associated with
retina and inner ear ( visual and auditory systems)
_______ manages the left side of the body
right half of cerebrum
present even before birth. when the baby is stimulated by a touch to the cheek on either Side, the baby will turn his head to that direction in preparation to suck
rooting, 4 months
pivoting or twisting on the axis (turning the head left or r)
rotation
where does para originate?
sacral portion of the spinal cord
passes through the body from front to back, dividing the body into left and right sides
sagittal plane
what are the three enzymes that help breakdown carbohydrates
salivary amylase
helps break down starches and sugars. takes place in mouth
salivary amylase, lactase, and maltase
since the ions are unable to diffuse through the myelin, the action potential must jump to the next node called ______
saltatory propagation
protect and cushion PNS neurons
satellite cells
surround the soma of neurons within PNS ganglia
satellite cells
neurons of the PERIPHERAL nervous system are myelinated by
schwann cells
exocrine glands
secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body
afferent
sensory
contains sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) and motor neurons (efferent neurons)
sensory NS
responsible for processing sensory data (touch, taste, smell, hearing, vision)
sensory NS
what are the two parts of the somatic nervous system?
sensory nervous system and somatosensory system
carries the impulse along the afferent pathway to the integration center within the CNS
sensory neuron
afferent neurons that deliver impulses to the CNS
sensory neurons
detect changes in the internal and external environment such as pain, pressure, light, or temperature
sensory receptors
many roles- mostly inhibitory. influences sleep, mood, hunger, arousal
serotonin
from the descending colon, waste enters the _________ and this is where waste solidifies
sigmoid colon
lies on the pelvic cavity and becomes the rectum, which opens to the anus
sigmoid colon
the muscular walls of the _____ contract to push feces into the next part of the gastrointestinal system,- the rectum
sigmoid colon
lipid components and water are absorbed into the cells by
simple diffusion
how are proteins imported in an axon?
since there is little to no translation, proteins must be imported from the soma
Diencephalon (interbrain)
sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
Return of blood to the heart is assisted by a system called the
skeletal muscle pump
used for voluntary actions
skeletal muscles
the muscle system is made of
skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles to produce nearly all body movements
continuous conduction
slow conduction that occurs in nonmyelinated axons
most of the chemical digestion of food occurs in the
small intestine
proteases are released in their inactive form but are activated in the _____
small intestine
amino acids and most sugars are taken into the intestinal cells using cotransport with ____
sodium ions (secondary active transport)
walking, jumping, smiling, eye movements, and the maintenance of posture are all under the control of the _____ nervous system
somatic
part of the PNS that is linked to voluntary bodily movements
somatic ner3vous system
what are the two subsystems to the PNS?
somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
communicates different sensations identified near the vicinity of the body via spinal cord, brainstem, and up to the sensory Cortex located in the parietal lobe
somatosensory NS
allows us to pinpoint the exact locality of a touch perception, and helps to distinguish pain levels and temperature
somatosensory cortex
focuses on the conscious recognition of temperature, pain, touch, pressure, movement, position, vibration
somatosensory nervous system
mnemonic for whether nerves are sensory/motor/both
some say my mother brought my brother some bad beer, my, my.
what are the two types of nerves in the peripheral nervous system
spinal and cranial nerves
administers sensory data directly from the peripheral nervous system to brain
spinal cord
administers sensory data from brain to body
spinal cord
helps to perform slight reflexes
spinal cord
major reflex center that connects afferent and efferent pathways
spinal cord
the baby is on her stomach and is stimulated firmly on one side of her spine in a downward motion. the hips will laterally flex toward the stimulus. this is thought to assist in rolling and crawling
spinal galant reflex, 9 months
pancreatic amylase digests
starch
muscarinic receptors
stimulate smooth muscle and slow the heart rate
chief cells located in the _____, convert _____ to ______, which we already know helps digest protein
stomach, pepsinogen to pepsin
embedded in the connective tissue of the submucosa
submucosal plexus
regulates local secretions, absorption, contraction of submucosal muscle, and blood flow
submucosal plexus
rotating the hand and wrist laterally from the bone. if laying on the back, the palm and wrist would be facing toward the ceiling
supination
the chin of the baby is tipped to his chest. the arms flex, and the legs will extend. present at birth then disappears and returns at 6 months
symmetrical tonic neck reflex, 11 months- 1 year
causes our bodies to become keenly alert, speeds our heart rates, causes muscle contraction and shuts off any function that is not essential for survival
sympathetic
system that gets our body ready for the reaction "flight or fight"
sympathetic
what are the two main divisions within the autonomic nervous system
sympathetic NS, and parasympathetic
inhibits digestive activities
sympathetic nervous system
a communicating junction between two neurons, or between a neuron and an effector (muscle or gland)
synapse
What do axon terminals contain?
synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters
as the material accumulates, the walls of the rectum expand and stretch receptors send signals that cause the rectal muscles to contract, the internal sphincter to relax, and the external sphincter to contract. at this point the decision to eliminate or delay elimination is made
t
t/f: in humans, the rectum curves to conform to the shape of the sacrum and coccyx bone
t
t/f: the ENS can operate independently of the brain and spinal cord, and communicates with the CNS through the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems
t
t/f: the neurotransmitters that are released from axon terminals of the presynaptic cell cross the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic cells.
t
when the impulse reaches the axon terminals, the vesicles that store the neurotransmitters fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing signals into the synaptic cleft before they bind to receptors on the postsynaptic target
t
what are the parts of the midbrain
tectum, tegmentum, ventral tegmentum
responsible for all auditory input, processing and output
temporal
located near your ears and the mainly function in auditory processing.
temporal lobes
taps into other roles such as visual memory, ability to learn language, and emotion association
temporal lobes
the muscles that coordinate voluntary movements are attached to bone by ____, and the bone is moved when the muscle shortens
tendons
skeletal muscles also work with the _____, ____, ____ to support and stabilize the joints
tendons, ligaments, and bone
fifth region of the brain and sits right above the brainstem sandwiched between the midbrain and cerebral cortex
thalamus
helps to control sleep and aids in keeping us awake and alert
thalamus
primary job of ____ is to inform the cerebral cortex of any sensory or motor stimuli
thalamus
how does the NS and endocrine system control the body?
the NS through electrical impulses , and the endocrine through slower- acting, but longer-lasting hormones
Neuroplasticity
the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
what does sensory adaptation refer to?
the change in sensitivity that occurs when receptors are exposed to a prolonged stimulus
two arteries- the medial colic artery and inferior mesenteric artery provide a constant supply of oxygenated bloodd to the ____. the blood flow keeps the intestine healthy and prevents illnesses like intestinal ischemia
transverse colon
passes through the body in a line parallel to the floor, diving the body into top and bottom
transverse plane
largest of the cranial nerves; chewing, face sensation
trigeminal (V) (both sensory and motor)
allows for us to experience feeling in the face
trigeminal nerve
moves the eye up, down, left, right, and diagonally
trochlear (IV) (motor)
t/f: both the central and periphe3ral ne3rvous system enlist the acetylcholine receptors, both nicotinic and muscarinic
tru
acetylcholine binds to nicotinic receptors to trigger the release of norepinephrine, which is produced by the adrenal gland to prepare our body and brain for action
true
many sensory neurons are unipolar
true
synapses can be classified according to the nature of the postsynaptic element and by the mode in which the impulse is transmitted
true
t/f: If a primitive reflex has not integrated and disappeared by a certain age, that is often seen as a sign of a neurological issue or brain damage
true
t/f: all three parts of the brainstem function involuntarily
true
t/f: as the chyme is pushed through the colon 90% of the remaining liquid is absorbed, leaving a mass of indigestible food, water, and bacteria
true
t/f: axons of a very small diameter may be supported by Schwann cells, but are not myelinated by them. these are called non-myelinating Schwann cells.
true
t/f: by the time chyme reaches the large intestine, most of the water (approx. 80%) has already been absorbed by the small intestine
true
t/f: digestive juices coat the food and liquid and break them down so they can continue their journey through the body
true
t/f: electrical synapses are faster, always excitatory and more rare
true
t/f: hormones travel through the bloodstream to target tissues, eliciting responses that are important for growth, development, metabolism, and maintenance of homeostasis
true
t/f: large peripheral veins in the legs and arms have valves that prevent the back flow of blood. when the skeletal muscles around these deep veins contract, the vessel is compressed, and blood is forced through the valves in the direction of the heart.
true
t/f: many essential nerves stem from the pons
true
t/f: notably absent in mature neurons are centrioles, as differentiated neurons have lost their ability to divide
true
t/f: reflexes develop in utero and become integrated as we age
true
t/f: saltatory propagation is faster and more efficient than continuous conduction that is seen along the entire length of an unsheathed axon
true
t/f: the nucleus and cytoplasm remain outside the myelin sheath, but are encased in the outer neurilemmal sheath of the Schwann cell
true
t/f: the occipital lobe has to be very quick to process that information so that we are able to respond accordingly
true
t/f: there are many more glial cells than neurons within the nervous tissue
true
t/f: when an action potential is generated at the axon hillock, it propagates along the axon. when it reaches the axon terminals, the neurotransmitters are released to a target cell
true
t/f: you have two temporal lobes. one for both hemispheres.
true
the bacteria also release vitamin K, biotin, thiamin, riboflavin, and vitamin B12
true
the individual cell body attach to dendrites, the dendrites send information to neurons, the axons or nerve fibers then communicate that information to other neurons
true
the transmission of stimuli through afferent neurons to the CNS, and then from the CNS to other parts of body allow for us to perform voluntary body movements as well as moderate involuntary reflex arcs
true
T/F Both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems operate with a chain of two motor neurons.
true, they use a two neuron pathway, consisting f a preganglionic neuron which runs from the CNS to a ganglion and a postglanglionic neuron which innervates the effector
produced in the pancreas
trypsin
the activated protein digesting enzymes include
trypsin, carboxypeptidases A and B, and chymotrypsin
glioma
tumor composed of the glial tissue
somatic and autonomic nervous system
two parts of the peripheral NS somatic - conscious control of muscles autonomic - everything else that doesn't require conscious thought to work
grey matter of the CNS is made mostly of
unmyelinated
control of the peripheral nervous system
vagus nerve (X) (both motor and sensory)
is adhered to the surface of the brain and the spinal cord
vascularized Pia mater
increases blood pressure and decreases blood flow
vasoconstriction
allows more blood flow near the surface of the skin, and heat is lost to the environment
vasodilation
decreases blood pressure and increases blood flow
vasodilation
the vertebrae and spinal cord are contained within the
vertebral cavity
sound
vestibulocochlear (VIII) (sensory)
permits sound to proceed from our ears into our brain and is found in the pons
vestibulocochlear nerve
how does the CNS communicate w the rest of the body
via peripheral nervous system
how do the hollow organs push food through our bodies
via peristalsis
how is the NS and endocrine system linked
via the hypothalamus
required for the synthesis of clotting proteins
vitamin K
are absorbed for use in the body
vitamin K and biotin
the large intestine specializes in the absorption of
vitamin K, biotin, sodium ions, chloride ions, and water
Synaptic activity: transmitter molecules
when an action potential reaches the axon terminal, voltage-gated calcium channels open in response to the depolarization of the membrane. Calcium ions enter, triggering the release of neurotransmitters by EXOcytosis. the neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft, binding to receptors in the target cell and eliciting either an excitatory or an inhibitory response. the neurotransmitters are then recycled back to the presynaptic cell, are degraded by enzymes, or diffuse away from the synaptic cleft to prevent overstimulation
hyperpolarized
when the membrane potential is more negative
how does constipation result
when too much water is absorbed
the tissue through which messages pass between different areas of grey matter within the nervous system
white matter
how to remember olfactory is the first nerve
you smell it (olfactory) before you see it (optic)
how to remember accessory is 11th
you swallow again and move your head and neck to tell others
outer layer that lies next to the bones and folds inward in places in the cavity and separates the brain into diff compartments
enervated, vascularized dura mater
network of neurons buried in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract that controls the function of the digestive system is called the
enteric nervous system
Lipase
enzyme that breaks down fat
Proteases
enzymes that break down proteins
forms the epithelial lining of the ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord
ependyma
circulate cerebrospinal fluid and facilitate exchange of materials between the CFS and interstitial fluid of brain andspinal cord
ependyma CNS
a small flap that covers the windpipe so food doesn't get stuck there
epiglottis
lifting the lateral border of the foot. bring the sole of the foot to face outward
eversion
during inspiration, contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles _____ (expands, relaxes) the thoracic cavity.
expands
increasing the angle between two body parts (straightening the elbow)
extension
near the body surface transmit information about the external environment
exteroceptors
facial expression and anterior two thirds of the tongue
facial (VII) (both)
allows for us to actually make facial expressions
facial nerve
t/f: there are cell bodies and dendrites in white matter
false
t/f: spinal neurons usually innervate structure that are superior to the neck
false, inferior
t/f: the medulla functions voluntarily
false, involuntarily
liver ____ bile salts and the gallbladder _____ it
makes, stores
in the small intestine breaks down disaccharides into single sugars
maltase
respond to changes in pressure or changes
mechanoreceptors
can help by responding in fight or flight situations by switching digestion on or off, causes us to cough or sneeze to get rid of unwanted particles that get into your nasal cavity and also controls vomiting or swallowing in order to dispel anything that may bring harm to you
medulla
has immediate control over numerous autonomic nervous system responses, it aids in the control of regions of the body and it plays a role in motor functions and outward motion
medulla
helps control breathing, and it controls our heart rate
medulla
responds to various heart functions by dilating the blood flow so that there is a higher or lower amount of oxygen circulation
medulla
piece the brain stem that connects the spinal cord to the brain
medulla oblongata
what are the three different parts to the brain stem?
medulla, pons, midbrain
cutaneous touch receptors
meissners corpuscles, merkles disks, pacinian corpuscles, and Ruffini endings are all mechanoreceptors as are the muscle spindles that detect stretching and the receptors of the inner ear that detect vibrations
t/f: unlike Schwann cells, a single oligodendrocyte can't myelinated dozens of axons
false, it can by extending its membrane in multiple directions and wrapping around the axons
t/f: the cerebellum only has one hemisphere
false, it has two
t/f: the medulla is one of the two parts of the brainstem
false, it is one of the three parts of the brainstem
t/f: information Is sent across the cerebrum from the pons to the cerebellum to the medulla
false, it is sent across the pons from the cerebrum to the medulla and the cerebellum
t/f: most neurons have several long axons, but the length can vary, and some neurons have no axon at all
false, most have one long axon (the rest is true)
t/f: there is villi in the large intestine
false, no villi. but there are pouch like sacculations called haustra that are separated by folds called plicae semilunares
t/f: all reflexes are mediated by spinal neurons
false, not all
t/f: only enzymes of the small intestine continue the digestion of food so the nutrients are small enough to be absorbed
false, pancreatic enzymes and enzymes of the small intestine
t/f: negative feedback loops are less common than positive
false, positive feedback loops are less common and sometimes harmful because they enhance the stimuli rather than inhibit them
t/f: the muscle behind the food relaxes while the muscle in front of the food contracts, allowing an easy passage
false, the muscle behind the food contracts while the muscle in front of food relaxes
t/f: there are low numbers of mitochondria to support the high metabolic needs of the neuron
false, they are relatively high because it needs to produce more energy (ATP)
t/f: the axons In grey matter are mostly myelinated
false, they are unmyelinated, giving the tissue its grey appearance
t/f: glial cells can conduct impulses
false, they maintain homeostasis, form myelin in the PNS, and provide support and protections for neurons
t/f: most synapses are directional chemical junctions, using neurotransmitters to send messages to the postsynaptic cell
false, unidirectional, the rest is trueu
t/f: the large intestine secretes digestive enzymes
false. it does not secrete digestive enzymes but there are hundreds of species of resident bacteria that can digest certain materials left in chyme
t/f: the large intestine is smaller in diameter than the small intestine, but much longer in length averaging 1.5 meters
false. the large intestine is larger in diameter, but shorter in length
pancreatic lipase digets
fats
major nutrients in the gastrointestinal system includes proteins that help
fight infections and make healthy cells
duodenum
first part of the small intestine
decreases the angle between two body parts (bending the elbow)
flexion
neurilemmal sheath
formed by the cytoplasm and nucleus of the schwann cell that remain on the outside
sigmoid colon
fourth and last, S-shaped segment of the colon, just before the rectum; empties into the rectum
where does the axon emerge from
from a slightly elevated structure called the axon hillock that connects the soma to the axon
front most region of the brain and is the biggest
frontal lobe
responsible for short term and working memory and information processing as well as decision making, planning, and judgment
frontal lobe
split from the parietal and temporal lobe by fissures
frontal lobe
passes through the body from left to right, dividing the body into anterior and posterior
frontal plane
what are the four lobes of the cerebrum?
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
Nodes of Ranvier
gaps in the myelin sheath that allow the impulse to jump quickly from one node to the next
a type of cell, in the nervous system, that provides support for the neurons
glial cell
What does white matter consist of?
glial cells and myelinated bundles of axons that form tract to and from the brain
support and protect neurons within the central and peripheral nervous system
glial cells, called neuroglia
swallowing, saliva, and taste
glossopharyngeal (IX) (both)
major excitatory neurotransmitter
glutamate
found in the respiratory and intestinal tracts, secrete mucus
goblet cells
made of rough ER and clusters of free ribosomes that synthesize proteins for use within the cell
granular nissl bodies
unmyelinated axons
gray matter
consists of mostly interneurons but also contains motor neurons and glial cells
grey matter
where can dendrites and cell bodies be found in the spine?
grey matter
sulcus
groove
pouches formed by the contraction of smooth muscle within the muscular layer
haustra
pseudounipolar neurons
have a single short process that branches like a T to form a pair of longer processes. it is a sensory neuron
what do resident gut flora do?
help keep populations of pathogenic bacteria in check
Norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal
works with hypothalamus, promotes wakefulness
histamine
the angle between two joints increases on the horizontal plane
horizontal abduction
the angle between two joints decreases on the horizontal plane
horizontal adduction
speech and swallowing; tongue muscles
hypoglossal (motor ) (XII)
a region in the brain that control the autonomic nervous stem as well as the pituitary Gland
hypothalamus
aids in certain metabolic processes and helps to regulate the autonomic nervous system
hypothalamus
main function is that it connects the nervous system to the endocrine system which allows it to regulate our body's temperature
hypothalamus
nerve impulses send info about the condition of the body to the ________, which regulates the release of hormones from the pituitary
hypothalamus
positioned below the thalamus and is the bottom part of the diencephalon
hypothalamus
the release of other important hormone from the anterior pituitary is also regulated bu the
hypothalamus
_____ produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), but these hormones are stored in and secreted by the _______________
hypothalamus, posterior pituitary
prevents food and other materials from flowing back into the small intestine
ileocecal valve
the large intestine is the portion of the alimentary canal that begins at the _________ and terminates at the ____
ileocecal valve and anus
absorbs nutrients that were not digested by the jejunum like carbohydrates, minerals, and fats
ileum
averages 3.5 meters in length. but is the most narrow In diameter
ileum
primary role is to absorb vitamin B12, bile salts, and any nutrients that were not absorbed by the jejunum
ileum
the longest segment of the small intestine
ileum
Muscular system
important functions Support: Mobility
example of positive feedback loop dangers
in case of a fever, a positive feedback loop is what pushes it to be higher. it causes destabilizing effects so it does not result in homeostasis.
where does the sympathetic nervous system originate
in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord
when the pressure in the thoracic cavity decreases, the pressure in the abdominal cavity _____, squeezing the blood in the inferior vena cava toward the heart
increases
Leukodystrophies
inherited mutations in enzymes necessary for production or maintenance of myelin
inhibitory neurotransmitters
inhibit the next cell from firing
myelin
insulates the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses (increases the rate at which an impulse can travel)
helps bring about the formation of the forebrain
intebrain
during ____, the information is brought to the central nervous system where it is processed and interpreted
integration
entirely restricted to the central nervous system, and act as bridges between sensory and motor neurons
interneurons
of visceral organs and blood vessels proved information about internal stimuli
interoceptors
lifting the medial border of foot. Bring the sole of the foot to face inward
inversion
contraction of smooth muscle is _____, and therefore under ____ (somatic or autonomic) control.
involuntary, autonomic
if the feces are excreted before enough water is absorbed
it leaves as diarrhea
absorbed sugar and amino and fatty acids before it moves on to the final part of the small intestine
jejunum
averages 2.5 meters in length and is characterized by prominent plicae circulares, long villi, and dense microvilli
jejunum
main site of absorption
jejunum
absorption of water and food molecules occurs mostly in the ___________
jejunum and ileum of the small intestine
minerals perform several functions such as
keeping bones strong with calcium or providing an adequate supply of iron that helps transport oxygen in our blood
Peyer's patches
large collections of lymphoid tissue found in the submucosa of the small intestine. common in the ileum but can be found throughout the small intestine
takes food, breaks it down even further and turns it into waste
large intestine
how to remember hypoglossal is the last
lastly, you talk and swallow with tongue muscles.
what is the fissure that separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe called? (it is deeper)
lateral sulcus
____ manages the right side of the body
left half of cerebrum
division of the PNS that brings info to the CNS
afferent (sensory)
_____ transit stimuli to the CNS, as opposed to transmitting from the CNS. ______ in response to (above), transmit signals from the CNS to the rest of the body
afferent, and efferent
Integrative function
The ability of the nervous system to analyze and interpret sensory information to allow for proper decision making, which produces the appropriate response.
sensory function
The ability of the nervous system to sense changes in either the internal or external environment
the axon often splits into ____ that allow one neuron to interact with more than one cell
collaterals
the middle portion of the large intestine is the ____ which can be further subdivided into the ______ and _____ and ________ and ______
colon, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon
Commissures
connect corresponding gray areas of the two hemispheres
smooth muscles in the walls of the cutaneous arterioles ______ (contract or dilate) involuntarily to reduce the blood flow near the surface of the skin. this minimizes heat loss to the environment
contract
blood pressure is regulated by
contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle within the vessel wall
peripheral circulatory assistance
contraction of skeletal muscle helps squeeze blood and lymph through their respective vessels, aiding circulation
how to remember vagus is 10th
controls the peripheral NS when you move around because you have swallowed
even though there is a groove that distinctly separates the two halves of the cerebrum, there is a bundle of neural fibers, called the ________ that connects the two halves and allows them to work together
corpus callosum
the meninges extend from the ______ cavity to close the ______ cavity
cranial to the vertebral
what are the three regions of the small intestine?
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
what is a beneficial form of positive feedback?
during childbirth. When the cervix Is stretched by the descending fetus, impulses are sent to the pituitary, which sends command to increase uterine contractions. the more the fetus is pushed, the more the cervix stretches.
what is found in the spinal cord?
(nerves) nervous tissue
what is the pancreas role in digestion?
the production and secretion of digestive juices
what are the four main roles of the nervous system?
- collect information internally and externally -process and derive meaning from the info collected - forward information to the appropriate party - dispatch the info to the appropriate part of the brain
how many pairs of cranial nerves is there?
12
the spinal cord consists of _____ pairs of spinal nerves; because each of these nerves include motor and sensory axons, they are referred to as __________
31, mixed nerves
how many primitive reflexes are there in a newborn?
7
Histamine
A chemical that is responsible for the symptoms of an allergy
multiple sclerosis
A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech
oxytocin
A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.
Microglia
Act as phagocytes, eating damaged cells and bacteria, act as the brains immune system
saltatory propagation
Action potential along myelinated axon Faster and uses less energy than continuous propagation Myelin insulates axon, prevents continuous propagation Local current "jumps" from node to node Depolarization occurs only at nodes
controls involuntary movements such as contraction of smooth and cardiac muscles and glandular secretions
Autonomic NS (PNS)
Dendrites
Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.
integrates sensory information
CNS
the ___ within the nucleus encodes the information for the many proteins that are needed for the neuron to function.
DNA
two main nucleic acids
DNA and RNA
Pepsin
Enzyme that breaks down proteins in the stomach
major inhibitory neurotransmitter
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
endocrine glands
Glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream
what does the axoplasm lack?
Golgi bodies, nissl bodies, and ribosomes found in dendritic cytoplasm
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Hormone produced by the neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus that stimulates water reabsorption from kidney tubule cells into the blood and vasoconstriction of arterioles.
Peristalsis
Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.
resident flora
Microbes that normally reside below the skin surface or within the body
uninsulated gaps between myelinated portions of the axon that increase the rate of conduction
Nodes of Ranvier
nemonic for cranial nerves
Oh oh oh to touch and feel a(stands for auditory= vestibularcochlear) girls vagina ah heaven
made up of nerves and ganglia
PNS
sends info to and from CNS, allowing it to communicate with the rest of the body
PNS
medulla oblongata
Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion.
lymphatic tissues found in the ileum of the small intestine that protects the gastrointestinal tract from pathogens
Peyer's patches
What is mechanical digestion?
Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces
controls voluntary movements such as the contraction of skeletal muscles
Somatic NS (PNS)
the impulses travels along the efferent pathway to the effector -
the responding muscle or gland
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Small Intestine
The part of the digestive system in which most chemical digestion takes place.
extends across the abdominal cavity
transverse colon
nervous tissue
Tissue that senses stimuli and transmits signals.
Schwann cells
Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
Oligodendrocytes
Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.
how does vasoconstriction increase blood pressure?
Vasoconstriction reduces the volume or space inside affected blood vessels. When blood vessel volume is lowered, blood flow is also reduced. At the same time, the resistance or force of blood flow is raised. This causes higher blood pressure.
the process of fermentation takes place in the
transverse colon
what is the spinal cord
a column of nerve fibers that connects the brain to the rest of the body
depolarized
a condition in which the inside of a cell membrane is more positively charged than the outside
peptidase
a digestive enzyme that hydrolyzes peptide bonds
intestinal ischemia
a diminished blood flow to the intestines that is characterized by abdominal pain, forceful bowel movements, and blood in the stool
Myelin
a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds the transmission of nerve impulses
Nodes of Ranvier contain
a high density of voltage gated sodium and potassium channels
classical conditioning
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
Neurons
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
bipolar neuron
a neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma
unipolar neuron
a neuron with one process extending from its cell body
movement toward the midline/ to the body (bringing the arm to the body)
adduction
what does a reflex arc begin with
a receptor
thoracic pump
a venous return mechanism that squeezes blood to the heart when we breathe
moves the eye up, down, left, right, and diagonally
abducens (VI) (motor)
permits the eye to move and look horizontally, found in the pons
abducens nerve
moving away from midline. think of someone being abducted (moving arm away from body)
abduction
excitatory
accelerates neuron's firing speed
swallowing and movement of the back of the head and neck
accessory (XI) (motor)
overall function of the SNS is largely due to the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine
stimulates skeletal muscle
acetylcholine (ACh)
the core of each microvillus consists of ______ filaments that extend out from the cytoplasm
actin
Trypsin
an enzyme from the pancreas that digests proteins in the small intestine
what is the spinal cord made of?
an exterior layer of white matter that surrounds the interior core of grey matter
Primitive reflexes
an involuntary reaction to a stimulus
Effector
an organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus.
the ____ is the last portion of the rectum and it ends with an involuntary internal sphincter and a voluntary external sphincter
anal canal
when thermoreceptors detect a rise in temp, the _____ hypothalamus tells the smooth muscles that surround cutaneous arterioles to ____.
anterior, relax
efferent fibers exit on the ______ aspect (the anterior grey horn) through the posterior root
anterior/ventral
lower portion of the stomach where food and liquid mix w digestive juices
antrum
from the rectum, the waste exits through the final stop called the
anus
may serve as a reservoir for beneficial species of bacteria, though it is often infected with harmful microbes
appendix
the site of a blind- ended tube called
appendix
the middle layer, ______, contains connective tissue but not nerves or blood vessels
arachnoid mater
where are nerves and ganglia located?
around and outside of the brain and spinal cord
also contract, causing hairs to stand on end in an attempt to trap warm air.
arrector pili muscles
what is an example of an interaction between the NS and endocrine?
as a baby begins to nurse, the stimulus sends an impulse to the hypothalamus, causing the pituitary to release oxytocin into the blood. the hormone targets the mammary gland, inducing it to release milk
beginning of the large intestine and has two important parts- the cecum and the colic or the ileocecal valve. the valve is at the end of the ascending colon and separates the cecum from the small intestine
ascending colon
right side of the body
ascending colon
what are the four parts to the large intestine
ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon
the most abundant cell found in neural tissue
astrocytes
anchor neurons and facilitate exchange of materials between capillaries and neurons uptake excess ions and neurotransmitters.
astrocytes CNS
this is known as the fencing reflex. when the baby is on his back and his head is turned to one side, the arm and leg extend in the direction that the baby is facing and the other arm and leg flex
asymmetrical tonic neck reflex, 3 months
What does feces consist of?
bacteria, water, undigested material, epithelial cells, and bile (which accounts for the brown coloration)
how is the maintenance of body temperature a negative feedback ?
bc as body temperature changes, thermoreceptors send information to the hypothalamus. if body temperature is too high, a command is sent to dilate blood vessels and release sweat. if the temp is too low, the body shivers and blood vessels constrict.
why is white matter white?
because of the fatty substance (myelin) that surrounds the nerve fibers. Myelin acts as an electrical insulation. it allows the messages to pass quickly from place to place
why can diseases result from damaged myelin?
because, without the proper insulation, the neurons of affected individuals cannot effectively conduct an impulse so nerve impulses slow or even stop.
Where is the pancreas located?
below the stomach and extends from the duodenum to the spleen
the first portion of the large intestine is a pouch called ___ and it receives chyme from the small intestine
cecum
contains the organelles that are responsible for the metabolic activities of the neuron
cell body, or soma
Glia
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
Neuroglia
cells that support and protect neurons
consists of the brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
what is the fissure that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe?
central sulcus
plays a role in processing and storing of implicit memories; memories develiped during classical conditioning and learning techniques
cerebellum
sits right behind the upper portion of the brain stem
cerebellum
the region of the brain that coordinates movement and where various features of motor learning take place. allows for balance, coordination, speech and posture, and muscle memory
cerebellum
what are the six different regions of the brain?
cerebellum, cerebrum, medulla, brainstem, thalamus, and hypothalamus
a thin layer of grey matter covering the cerebrum
cerebral cortex
separated into a left and right hemisphere by a trench like line called the longitudinal fissure
cerebrum
sits at the top portion of the cranial cavity
cerebrum
what does the forebrain include?
cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus
essential for problem solving, speech and articulation, and its accountable for personality traits
cerebrum: frontal lobe
sits in the back part of cortex
cerebrum: occipital lobe
what are the 5 regions of the spinal cord?
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
such as olfactory and taste receptors detect the presence of chemicals
chemoreceptors
Ganglia
clusters of cell bodies (neuron somas) in the PNS
the increased volume results in a ____ (increase or decrease) in pressure, which is transmitted to the right atrium. this drop in pressure helps the blood to return to the heart.
decrease
depolarizing the membrane
decreasing the charge difference between the fluids on the outside and the inside of the neuron; happens when the neuron becomes activated and therefore creates a more positively charged neuron; next the potassium channels open and positively charged potassium ions move out to allow the neuron to return to a negative charge
relatively short, branched extensions of the cell body that receive incoming chemical signals (neurotransmitters) from other neurons
dendrites
scapula movement, inferior movement (shoulder shrug)
depression
food is moved from the small intestine to the large and made its way to the transverse colon. the next stop is the
descending colon
left side of body
descending colon
point at which feces starts to become solid
descending colon
stores food before its emptied into the rectum
descending colon
area where the vertebrate neural tube is located
diencephalon
Nucleases
digest nucleic acids
trypsin and pepsin both help
digest protein in food
the Gi tract is also called
digestive tract or alimentary canal
associated with mood, attention, reward system, and movement
dopamine
ankle flexion (moving the toes toward the shin)
dorsiflexion
25 cm, C-shaped, shortest segment with the widest diameter
duodenum
most of the chemical digestion of food occurs here and it does not play a large role in absorption, with the exception of iron
duodenum
receives chyme from stomach and neutralizing digestive juices from the pancreas
duodenum,
small intestine sections
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
once the sensory information has been processed, _____ neurons (motor neurons) transmit the impulse away from the CNS to activate muscles and glands
effector
division that delive3rs messages from the CNS to muscles or glands
efferent (motor)
scapula movement, superior movement (shoulder shrug)
elevation
Acetylcholine
enables muscle action, learning, and memory
what system does the nervous system work close to?
endocrine
the nervous system is closely integrated with the
endocrine system
bundles of nerve fibers also known as axons
nerves
controls every process within body
nervous system
responsible for coordinating and controlling all of the activities of the body
nervous system
responsible for the integration of body systems
nervous system
what is the first body system to respond to changes in the environment?
nervous system
__________ contains most of the organelles that are characteristic of animal cells (cytoskeleton, rough and smooth ER, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria)
neuronal cytoplasma
responsible for carrying out the sensory, integrative, and motor functions of the nervous system.
neurons
what is the nervous system composed of?
neurons and neuroglia cells that support them
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
sensory neurons
neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord
Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
How are impulses transmitted across the synaptic cleft?
neurotransmitters
main receptors in muscles for motor neuron to muscle correspondence, that manage the contraction of muscles
nicotinic receptors
detect pain
nociceptors
influences mood and sleep patterns
norepinephrine (NE)
two enzymes associated w nucleic acids
nuclease and nucleosidase
responsible for visual input, processing, and output; specifically nerves from eyes enter directly into this lobe
occipital
moves the eye up, down, left, right, and diagonally; adjusts the pupil and lens of the eye
oculomotor (III) (motor)
eye movement is controlled by 3 cranial nerves
oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens
smell
olfactory nerve (I) (sensory)
extensions wrap around axons of CNS neurons
oligodendrocytes
produce myelin sheaths that insults CNS neurons and speed up neurotransmission
oligodendrocytes
responsible for sheathing the neurons of the central nervous system
oligodendrocytes
how to remember glossopharyngeal is 9th
once sound is made, swallowing, saliva, and taste happens
how to remember trochlear is the four nerve
once the eye adjusts, you keep moving the eye
how to remember abducens is the 6th
once you can chew and feel a face sensation, you move your eyes again
how to remember vestibulocochlear is 8th
once you make facial expressions, you make sound with the facial expressions
how to remember oculomotor is the third nerve
once you see it (optic), you move the eyes and adjusts the pupils and lens
how to remember trigeminal is the fifth nerve
once you smell and see it, you can eat it by chewing or have a face sensation
sight
optic nerve (II) (sensory)
what are the two groups that adaptation rates can be classified as?
phasic and tonic
quickly adapt to a constant stimulus, meaning that action potential decease over time and eventually stop
phasic receptors
what explains the loss of sensation of clothes against skin or the smell of odor dissapearing when the source is still present?
phasic receptors
such as rod and cone cells of the eye respond to light
photoreceptors
"master gland" that controls other glands of the endocrine system
pituitary
___________ go on to control other endocrine glands and body functions
pituitary hormones
ankle extension (moving the toes toward the ground/ pointing the toes)
plantar flexion.
the bottom of the foot is stroked firmly moving from the heel to the toes. the big toe bends back toward the foot, and the toes splay out
plantar/ babinski reflex , 2 years
Aids in communication between brain sections, like the cerebrum and cerebellum
pons
functions as a message headquarters for many other parts of the brain
pons
helps in the duties of the medulla, and it is linked to managing our sleep cycles
pons
right above the medulla and beneath the midbrain
pons
if the core body temp drops, the shivering reflex is triggered by the
posterior hypothalamus
when the thermorecptors detect a drop in temp, impulses are sent to the __________, which then sends signals to the effectors.
posterior hypothalamus
afferent fibers enter into the _______ aspect of the spinal cord (a region called the posterior grey horn) through the anterior root
posterior/dorsal
What does a synapse consist of?
presynaptic membrane, synaptic cleft, postsynaptic membrane
motor function
primarily to stimulate muscle contraction
Integration center (CNS)
processes info and directs motor output
the somatosensory cortex is crucial for
processing the information from touch
rotating the hand and wrist medially from the bone. if laying on the back, the hand would have the palm to the floor
pronation
smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal tract contracts rhythmically to
propel food along the gastrointestinal tract (peristalsis)
the thalamus, along with the hypothalamus, epithalamus, sub thalamus, is a part of
the diencephalon (inter brain)
where do the cell bodies of afferent (sensory) neurons reside
the dorsal root ganglia, just outside the spinal cord
what are the dura mater two laters?
the endosteal lines the cranial bones; the meningeal layer, which lines the endosteal layer within the cranium, limes the vertebral cavity
What is the GI tract?
the entrance and exit point of our food
Axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
oculo refers to
the eye or sense of vision. so oculomotor= eye motor functions (and sensory) meaning moving the eyes and pupils and lens
the term large intestine refers to
the larger diameter, not the total length
what is an example of negative feedback?
the maintenance of body temperature.
what are the rapid responses of the nervous system essential for?
the maintenance of homeostasis, heart rate, breathing, regulation of temperature, movement, sensations, memory, emotion, language, etc.
Enteric Nervous System
the nervous system of the digestive tract
main function is to process visual information from the eyes and relay that information
the occipital lobe
nuclease and nucleosides are produced in
the pancreas
what does the frontal lobe contain?
the primary motor cortex
initiates electrical signals and impulses that initiate body movement
the primary motor cortex (M1)
one of the main components of the brain included in the body's motor functions
the primary motor cortex (M1)
What is a receptor?
the site or organ that receives the stimulus
ENS is divided into two main parts:
the submucosal and myenteric plexuses
what is the body structure that the spinal cord is encased in?
the vertebrae which protects and supports it
sense both absolute tempe3rature and changes in temp
thermoreceptors
why don't bidirectional electrical synaptic junctions not use neurotransmitters?
they are linked by gap junctions that allow the flow of ions between cells.
what do the channels in nodes of ranvier do?
they open to allow the passage of these ions, depolarizing the membrane
what is the primary function of the PNS
to link the central nervous system to the body's organs and appendages; thus acting as the primary messenger between the brain, spinal cords, and everything else in the body
adapt slowly, constantly alerting the CNS of the stimulus with action potentials
tonic receptors
as food leaves the ascending colon and enters the ____ where fermentation further breaks down the food by removing water and nutrients
transverse colon
