Test 2

Leadership Around the Globe

- United States is an individualistic, performance-oriented culture, and the leadership theories suitable for this culture may not necessarily be suitable to other cultures GLOBE - study identified similarities and differences in leadership around the world - universal positive characteristics: honesty, decisiveness, being trustworthy, and being fair - universal negative characteristics: being irritable, egocentric, and a loner - visionary and charismatic leaders were found to be the most influential leaders around the world, followed by team-oriented and participative leaders - Traits such as being autonomous, conflict avoidant, status conscious, and ambitious were culturally dependent - leaders who are globally effective (as opposed to being effective only within a specific and single cultural context) tend to have unique competencies; this is a function of personality (extraversion, low neuroticism, high openness to experience), cross-cultural experiences, and cross-cultural competencies (high tolerance for ambiguity, low ethnocentrism)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

(level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization Human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked; as we satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher-order needs

Leadership & Technology

- How managers communicate with their employees, show concern for tasks, inspire, and support employees may look slightly different when it comes through a Zoom call as opposed to face to face interactions, but these interactions continue to matter for employee motivation, effectiveness, and retention - Effective leaders will need to be on the forefront of technological changes, identifying how the changes align with the company mission and vision, and energize employees to embrace and adapt to these changes - Even more important in highly distributed teams

Fiedler's Contingency Theory

- a leader's style is measured by a scale called Least Preferred Coworker scale (LPC) - high LPC score: you have a people-oriented personality, and you can separate your liking of a person from your ability to work with that person - low LPC score: the person you hated working with was also someone you did not like on a personal level, task-oriented * different people can be effective in different situations * placing the right people in the right situation or changing the situation to suit an individual is important to increase a leader's effectiveness * style is assumed to be fixed three conditions creating situational favorableness - leader-subordinate relations - position power - task structure more support for the theory's predictions about when low LPC ("favorable" and "unfavorable") leadership should be used, but there is less support for situations when high LPC (medium favorableness) leadership should be more effective

Situational Leadership

- argues that leaders must use different leadership styles depending on their followers' development level - employee readiness (defined as a combination of their competence and commitment levels) is the key factor determining the proper leadership style - used by 70% of fortune 500 companies Employees at earliest stages of developing are seen as being highly committed but with low competence for the tasks; leaders should be highly directive and less supportive Employee becomes more competent, the leader should engage in more coaching behaviors Supportive behaviors are recommended once the employee is at moderate to high levels of competence Delegating is the approach for leaders dealing with employees who are both highly committed and highly competent

Servant Leadership

- defines the leader's role as serving the needs of others - primary mission of the leader is to develop employees and help them reach their goals - leaders put their employees first, understand their personal needs and desires, empower them, and help them develop in their careers - commitment to a purpose, even when it may not have an immediate payoff for the company but has clear benefits for the community - explicit focus on ethics, community development, and self-sacrifice - servant leaders are effective in developing teams with confidence in their capabilities, who end up performing at higher levels

Tim Cook & Apple

- described as "one of the nicest and most charitable CEOs out there." - Apple began using renewable energy for its operations, stood up to the FBI in defense of user privacy, supported access to education, and advocated for LGBTQ rights - "objective in life is to work for some higher purpose." - believes in diversity of leadership and leadership approaches - values transparency, reads customer emails (he says they serve to humble you), admits when he's wrong, and argues that you can only do a few things that rise to the level of "great." - happiness is in the intersection of doing something you're passionate about and, at the same time, . . . is in the service of other people

Personality

- encompasses the relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns a person has - personality differentiates us from other people, and understanding someone's personality gives us clues about how that person is likely to act and feel in a variety of situations - people have a lot of freedom at work, their personality will become a stronger influence over their behavior

Authentic Leadership

- key advice is "be yourself." - leaders are self-aware; introspective, understand where they are coming from, and have a thorough understanding of their own values and priorities - high levels of personal integrity - potentially influential style, because employees are more likely to trust such a leader and develop higher quality relations with such leaders - working for an authentic leader is likely to lead to greater levels of satisfaction, performance, and overall well-being on the part of employees

Leadership & Ethics

- level of ethical leadership was related to job satisfaction, dedication to the leader, and a willingness to report job-related problems to the leader - Ethical leaders have a positive influence over the level of ethical behaviors displayed in their unit - transformational leaders tend to have higher levels of moral reasoning, even though it is not part of the transformational leadership theory

Downsides to Goal Setting

- may hinder employee performance if lacking certain skills or abilities - may cause a harder time adapting and changing behaviors in response to unforeseen threats - goals focus employee attention on the activities that are measured, may sacrifice other important elements of performance - aggressive pursuit of goals may lead to unethical behaviors

Limitations of Behavioral Approaches

- neglected the environment in which behaviors are demonstrated - researchers hoped that the identified behaviors would predict leadership under all circumstances, proved to be unrealistic - specifying the conditions under which these behaviors are more effective may be a better approach

Values

- stable life goals that people have, reflecting what is most important to them - established throughout one's life as a result of the accumulating life experiences and tend to be relatively stable - people are more likely to accept job offers and stay in a company when the company possesses the values people care about - values of a generation also change and evolve in response to the historical context that the generation grows up in - whether individuals will be satisfied at a given job may depend on whether the job provides a way to satisfy their dominant values terminal values - end states people desire in life, such as leading a prosperous life and a world at peace instrumental values - views on acceptable modes of conduct, such as being honest and ethical, and being ambitious

Abusive Leadership

- sustained display of hostile verbal and nonverbal behaviors toward employees - display behaviors such as giving employees the silent treatment, reminding them of their past mistakes, breaking promises, being rude, and lying to employees - shame and anger in employees, and results in outcomes such as leaving one's job, experiencing unhappiness on and off the job, and higher levels of stress - lost productivity, absenteeism, and higher health care costs - some evidence that abusive leadership is a function of a leader's ability to regulate their emotions - new managers may model their leadership styles on abusive leaders already on staff, particularly if these abusive leaders are perceived to be competent and when the new leaders believe that ideal leaders are high in tyranny and low in interpersonal sensitivity

Perception

process with which individuals detect and interpret environmental stimuli; we pay selective attention to some aspects of the environment, and ignore other elements that may be immediately apparent to other people what we see in the environment is a function of what we value, our needs, our fears, and our emotions; possibility to be flat-out wrong because of our personality, values, or emotions

intrinsic motivation

pursuing an activity because it is inherently enjoyable and absent of apparent rewards

Leader Decision Making

Autocratic Decision Making - leaders make the decision alone without necessarily involving employees in the decision-making process - preferred by employees working in large groups where opportunities for member interaction were limited Democratic Decision Making - employees participate in the making of the decision - employees tend to be more satisfied - effects on decision quality or employee productivity are weaker Laissez-Faire Decision Making - leave employees alone to make the decision - leader provides minimum guidance and involvement in the decision - negatively related to employee satisfaction with leaders and leader effectiveness - high levels of ambiguity about job expectations on the part of employees - employees engage in higher levels of conflict

Proactive Personality

refers to a person's inclination to fix what is perceived as wrong, change the status quo, and use initiative to solve problems; initiate meaningful change and remove the obstacles they face along the way; tend to be more successful, higher levels of performance, eager to learn, try to improve their skills

Goal Effectiveness

Feedback - employees should receive feedback on the progress they are making toward goal accomplishment - quantitative figures is useful for feedback purposes Ability - employees need the skills, knowledge, and abilities to reach their goals - likely to feel helpless when lacking abilities to reach a goal (better to set goals about learning in this case) Goal Commitment - degree to which a person is dedicated to reaching the goal - increases when you make goals public (creates accountability to peers) - higher commitment when having supportive and trust-based relationship with managers or reward incentives

two-factor theory

Herzberg concluded that aspects of the work environment that satisfy employees are very different from aspects that dissatisfy them hygiene factors - factors causing worker dissatisfaction; context in which the job was performed, as opposed to the job itself motivators - factors that are intrinsic to the job, such as achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities, advancement, and growth opportunities improving the environment in which the job is performed goes only so far in motivating employees

Bonuses

INDIVIDUAL cash awards given to employees who achieve specific performance objectives motivation resulting from a bonus is generally related to the degree of advanced knowledge regarding bonus specifics TEAM jobs where employees should cooperate with each other and isolating employee performance is more difficult team bonuses tend to be more effective if employees have a reasonable ability to influence their team's performance level

Intelligence

In addition to having a high IQ, effective leaders tend to have high emotional intelligence - high level of self- awareness, motivation, empathy, and social skills Goleman - what differentiates effective leaders from ineffective ones becomes their ability to control their own emotions and understand other people's emotions, their internal motivation, and their social skills

Alternatives to Job Specialization

Job rotation - moving employees from job to job at regular intervals; relieves monotonous aspects of job, reduces employee turnover and stress levels + allows employees to build on their skills and cross-train; increases flexibility, innovation, accountability, and ethical behavior Job enlargement - expanding the tasks performed by employees to add more variety; give employees several different tasks + reduce boredom and monotony, more efficient use of human resources, positively related to employee satisfaction and customer service Job enrichment - allows workers more control over how they perform their own tasks, employees take more responsibility over their jobs + reduced turnover, increased productivity, reduced absences- may cause dissatisfaction (employees who are given additional autonomy and responsibility may expect greater levels of pay or other types of compensation); not all employees desire to have control over how they work Job crafting - contemporary approach; refers to the changes employees make to their own job description- expanding elements that fit personality or reducing scope of job - to meet employee's career and life goals * task crafting: changing the content of the job; relational crafting: changing the quality and amount of interactions involved with other people; cognitive crafting: changing the way the person thinks about the job * approach crafting: making the job more motivating, improvement-focused approach to modifying the job (more positive relationship to performance) avoidance crafting: evading unpleasant aspects of the job, related to work withdrawl

Big Five Personality Traits

Openness - Being curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new idea Conscientiousness - Being organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable Extraversion - Being outgoing, talkative, sociable, and enjoying social situations Agreebleness - Being affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm Neuroticism - Being anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody FOR LEADERSHIP - extraversion has the strongest relationship with both leader emergence and leader effectiveness - conscientious people are more likely to emerge as leaders and be effective in that role - openness to experience—those who demonstrate originality, creativity, and are open to trying new things—tend to emerge as leaders and also be quite effective

Integrity

People who are effective as leaders tend to have a moral compass and demonstrate honesty and integrity Leaders whose integrity is questioned lose their trustworthiness, and they hurt their company's business along the way

Leader Behviors

Task-Oriented Leader Behaviors - structuring the roles of subordinates, providing them with instructions, and behaving in ways that will increase the performance of the group - directives given to employees to get things done and to ensure that organizational goals are met - productivity tends to be a bit higher - more effective in small companies than large - very high levels could cause employee burnout People-Oriented Leader Behaviors - showing concern for employee feelings and treating employees with respect - leaders genuinely care about the well-being of their employees, and they demonstrate their concern in their actions and decisions - employees tend to be more satisfied and react more positively

Self Esteem

The degree to which a person is at peace with oneself and has an overall positive assessment of one's self-worth and capabilities Leaders with high self-esteem support their subordinates more and, when punishment is administered, they punish more effectively

Theory X and Theory Y (leadership & human nature)

Theory X - assumes employees are lazy, do not enjoy working, and will avoid expending energy on work whenever possible - suggests employees need to be forced to work through any number of control mechanisms ranging from threats to actual punishments - managers end up establishing rigid work environments - assumes employees completely lack ambition; managers must take full responsibility for their subordinates' actions Theory Y - employees are not lazy, can enjoy work, and will put effort into furthering organizational goals - managers can assume that employees will act in the best interests of the organization given the chance - managers allow employees autonomy and help them become committed to particular goals - managers adopt a more supportive role, often focusing on maintaining a work environment in which employees can be innovative and prosperous

Transformational-Transactional Leadership

Transformational - lead employees by aligning employee goals with the leader's goals - focusing on the company's well-being rather than on what is best for them as individual employees - charismatic, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration - ex: steve jobs, pepsico, etc. - powerful influence over leader effectiveness, employee - --- satisfaction, and employee and team creativity - increase the intrinsic motivation of their followers, build more effective relationships with employees, increase performance and creativity of their followers, increase team performance, and create higher levels of commitment to organizational change efforts - key factor is trust: the belief that the leader will show integrity, fairness, and predictability in his or her dealings with others Transactional - ensure that employees demonstrate the right behaviors and provide resources in exchange - contingent rewards, active management by exception, passive management by exception - active: let them do their jobs without interference, but at the same time proactively predicting potential problems and preventing them from occurring - passive: leaves employees alone, manager waits until something goes wrong before coming to the rescue

Motivating Environment & Culture

Western countries suggests that empowering employees is an effective method of motivating them; opposite in Mexican and Indian cultures Chinese employees were more motivated when goals were more difficult and less specific (believe performance is determined by effort); the opposite in the US Countries high in power distance and authoritarianism respond negatively to review systems where lower level employees give performance feedback to their managersCollectivist cultures may not be effective in using peer reviews; hesitant to criticize others & fear the damage of relationships

Personality Testing & Employee Selection

a person's behavior depends on the match between the person and the situation personality has a strong influence on job attitudes, its relation to job performance is weaker some companies use personality testing to screen out candidates - certain limitations - companies using personality tests are advised to validate their tests and use them as a supplement to other techniques that have greater validity.

Making an Effective Review System

adequate notice - let employees know what criteria will be used during the review fair hearing - ensuring that there is two-way communication during the review process and the employee's side of the story is heard judgement based on evidence - documenting performance problems and using factual evidence as opposed to personal opinions when rating performance absolute rankings - evaluation solely on the basis of your own performance relative rankings - performance is rated based on how it compares to others (create culture of performance, can lead to lawsuits, creates a competitive environment, damages morale, rating inflation, etc) one-on-one meetings - ensures feedback is provided in a regular and more formal review; both sides meet to discuss positive and negative instances of performance (helps solve performance behavior and encourage change) feedback is most effective if given in a constructive manner - focus on discussing the performance problems and aid employee in resolving these problems (reduce defensiveness, improve view of review program); best face-to-face (build relationships, strengthen organizational culture, express empathy)

Job Characteristics Model - Hackman and Oldham

attempts to design jobs with increased motivational properties; describes five core job dimensions leading to three critical psychological states, resulting in work-related outcomes core job characteristics - skill variety: does the job utilize multiple high-level skills - task identity: degree to which person is in charge of completing an identifiable piece of work from start to finish - task significance: does job substantially affects other people's work, health, or well-being (perform at higher levels or engage in citizenship behaviors) - autonomy: degree to which a person has the freedom to decide how to perform his or her tasks (increases motivation, effectiveness, and proactivity) - feedback: degree to which people learn how effective they are being at work (impact depends on positive/negative, readiness to receive feedback, and manner in which feedback was given) psychological states - meaningfulness: view work as meaningful - responsibility: feel responsible for outcomes - knowledge of results: acquiring knowledge of results(related to positive job satisfaction, internal motivation, higher performance, and lower absenteeism & turnover) outcomes - motivation - performance - satisfaction - absenteeism - turnover MPS = [(Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance) ÷ 3] × Autonomy × Feedback - Motivating Potential Score - predicts potential of job to prompt intrinsic motivation growth need strength - degree to which a person has higher-order needs, such as self-esteem and self-actualization; affects how much people desire these characteristics high: job includes such higher-order needs like self-esteem and self-actualization (respond better to high motivating potential) low: job is expected to pay the bills and satisfy more basic needs

assessing work attitudes in the workplace

attitude surveys - track their work attitudes over time, give employees a chance to voice their concerns, use to make changes in organization pulse surveys - short surveys given to employees frequently, allows for tracking of change in attitudes exit interview - meeting with the departing employee, usually by a member of HR department, may reveal what makes employees dissatisfied at work and give management clues about areas for improvement

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

based on the expectancy theory of motivation; suggests that employees are motivated when they believe (or expect) that: 1) their effort will lead to high performance 2) their high performance will be rewarded 3) rewards they will receive are valuable to them * leader's main job is to make sure that all three of these conditions exist * leader removes roadblocks along the way and creates an environment that subordinates find motivational IDENTIFIES four leadership styles - all effective based on employee & work environment Directive - lead employees by clarifying role expectations, setting schedules, and making sure that employees know what to do on a given work day; works well when employees are experiencing role ambiguity; less effective when employees have high levels of ability Supportive - treat employees well, care about them on a personal level, and they are encouraging; effective when employees are under a lot of stress or performing boring, repetitive jobs Participative - makes sure that employees are involved in the making of important decisions; more effective when employees have high levels of ability, and when the decisions to be made are personally relevant to them; for employees with high locus of control Achievement-Oriented - set goals for employees and encourage them to reach their goals; challenges employees and focuses their attention on work-related goals; effective when employees have both high levels of ability and high levels of achievement motivation * highlights the importance of a leader's ability to change styles depending on the circumstances

Positive and Negative Affectivity

behavior is also a function of moods positive affectivity - people that experience positive moods more frequently; tend to be happier at work, which spreads to work environment, lower levels of absenteeism negative affectivity - experience negative moods with greater frequency; "glass half empty," more anxiety, less helping and cooperation

Self-Efficacy

belief that one can perform a specific task successfully; good predictor of whether we can actually do it; job specific people with high self-efficacy setting higher goals for themselves and being more committed to these goals, whereas people with low self-efficacy tend to procrastinate hire people who are capable of performing their tasks and train people to increase their self-efficacy, give opportunities for people to test their skills

Managing Bias in Performance Reviews

biases trickle down into the review system and can affect other decisions that are based on performance ratings, such as pay and promotion liking - rater and ratee have an existing relationship; feelings of like or dislike may bias ratings -> help manage biases by recording positive and negative performance incidents throughout the year for each employee leniency - managers give employees ratings higher than warranted (desire to avoid confrontation, have agreeable personality, desire to avoid hurting employee, the desire to motivate employees via high ratings, liking the employee as a person); makes it harder for employees to change their behaviors -> using relative rankings, giving managers suggested distribution (curve), or make managers accountable for the ratings they give stereotypes - regarding the gender, race, age or another characteristic of the person being rated; leads to employee demoralization, loss of review effectiveness, and possibly company lawsuits -> focus on importance of eliminating stereotypes, training managers to accurately observe and evaluate performance

Attributions

causal explanation we give for an observed behavior internal attribution - believe that a behavior is due to the internal characteristics of an actor; low consensus, low distinctiveness, high consistency external attribution - explaining someone's behavior by referring to the situation; high consensus, high distinctiveness, low consistency 3 factors influencing attributions we make - consensus (do people behave the same way?) - distinctiveness (does person act the same across different situations) - consistency (does person behave this way on different occasions in the same situation) self-serving bias - when interpreting our own behavior, we have the tendency to attribute our failures to the situation while attributing our successes to internal causes reaction to other people's behavior depends on the type of attributions we make

Gainsharing

company-wide program in which employees are rewarded for performance gains compared to past performance - reducing labor costs compared to estimates - reducing overall costs compared to past year's figures achieved through employee suggestions and participation in management through employee committees; successful if: - payout formula is generous - employees can truly participate in the management of the company - employees are able to communicate and execute their ideas

reinforcement schedules

continuous schedule - reinforcers follow all instances of positive behavior with a reward, possibly highest performance fixed-interval schedules - providing rewards after a specified amount of time (end of year bonus) fixed-ratio schedules - providing rewards every nth time the right behavior is demonstrated variable ratio - providing reinforcement in a random pattern, durable results

Individual Differences Around the Globe

countries differ in four dimensions - the extent to which they put individuals or groups first (individualism) - whether the society subscribes to equality or hierarchy among people (power distance) - the degree to which the society fears change (uncertainty avoidance) - the extent to which the culture emphasizes acquiring money and being successful (masculinity). personality: cultural variation in dominant personality traits, US has higher levels of extraversion & openness perception: Westerners pay more attention to the individual, while Asians pay more attention to the context biases: in Western cultures, people may overestimate how independent and self-reliant they are; in Asian cultures, people may overestimate how cooperative and loyal to the group they are (depends on desirable traits in one's culture) * being sensitive to cultural differences will increase our managerial effectiveness when managing a diverse group of people

Motivation & Culture

countries that are high in performance orientation (United States and Canada) - managers higher in need for achievement countries high in humane orientation ( Thailand and Philippines) - higher need for affiliation countries high in power distance (Asian and Middle Eastern cultures) - higher levels of need for power people in different cultures may react differently to perceived unfairness

Vroom & Yetton Normative Decision Model

decision-making tool to help leaders determine how much involvement they should seek when making decisions based on - decision significance - importance of commitment - leader expertise - likelihood of commitment - goal alignment - group expertise - team competence decisions are then to: decide - leader makes the decision alone using available information facilitate - leader shares information about the problem with group members collectively, acts as a facilitator; leader sets parameters of decision delegate - leader lets the team make the decision consult individually - leader obtains additional information from individual members before making the decision alone consult in a group - leader shares the problem with the entire group and asks for their opinion. The leader makes the final decision alone * research supports the model, allows for more effective decisions compared to leaders not using the model

Self-Esteem

degree to which a person has overall positive feelings about oneself high self-esteem - view themselves in a positive light, are confident, and respect themselves; higher levels of satisfaction with one's job and higher levels of performance on the job as well as higher levels of creativity at work low self-esteem - experience high levels of self-doubt and question their self-worth; attracted to large companies, sensitive to social feedback, and create negative self-evaluations

Person-Job Fit

degree to which a person's skill, knowledge, abilities, and other characteristics match the job demands tends to be the first thing recruiters look for; person-job fit is related to a number of positive work attitudes such as satisfaction with the work environment, identification with the organization, job satisfaction, and work behaviors such as job performance overqualification - employee has more skills, education, and experience than the job requires; lack of alternatives, to gain entry into a new field, or not realizing that the job is actually below their skill level; related to negative job attitudes, greater tendency to look for another job, and higher likelihood of counterproductive behaviors (unless employees have some control over work environment & surrounded by other highly qualified people)

Person-Organization Fit

degree to which a person's values, personality, goals, and other characteristics match those of the organization when people fit into their organization, they tend to be more satisfied with their job, more committed to their company, and less likely to experience burnout, and they actually remain longer in their company some studies have found a positive relationship between person-organization fit and job performance, but this finding was not present in all studies, so it seems that fitting with a company's culture will only sometimes predict job performance

job performance

degree to which an employee successfully fulfills the factors included in the job description include the quality and quantity of work performed by the employee, the accuracy and speed with which the job is performed, and the overall effectiveness of the person performing the job

Locus of Control

degree to which people feel accountable for their own behaviors high internal locus of control - believe that they control their own destiny and what happens to them is their own doing; greater control over one's own life, more likely to act in ways that increase their success high external locus of control - things happen to them because of other people, luck, or a powerful being; related to a higher rate of depression, believe there is less of a connection between how one lives and their health

counterproductive work behaviors - cwb

different ways in which employees harm their organizations, intentional ex: abusing others, production deviance, theft, sabotage, withdrawal behaviors management is not always in a position to observe and notice these behaviors predictors may be employee personality & attitudes like job satisfaction and organizational commitment

dimensions of organizational justice

distributive justice - degree to which the outcomes received from the organization are perceived to be fair procedural justice - degree to which fair decision-making procedures are used to arrive at a decision (achieved by advance notice, voice in decision making, consistency in treatment, explanations to employees) interactional justice - degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions; expect to be treated with dignity by our peers, supervisors, and customers

Management by Objectives (MBO)

ensures goal alignment; individual goals to support team goals and team goals to support company goals 1) set company-wide goals derived from corporate strategy 2) determine team and department-level goals 3) collaboratively set individual-level goals that are aligned with corporate strategy 4) develop an action plan 5) periodically review performance & revise goals * key factor - involvement by top level management

Individual Differences & Technology

machine learning algorithms can make better judgments about one's behaviors, including substance use, political affiliation, and overall health, than their Facebook friends important implications for privacy and fairness if such technology is adopted in employee selection and assessment companies are increasingly interested in measuring personality along with skills when hiring employees; technologies need to ensure that the criteria AI is focusing on are job related and are fair, and does not harm the level of diversity in the organization

expectancy theory

expectancy (effort) -> instrumentality (performance) -> valence (rewards) expectancy - whether the person believes that high levels of effort will lead to outcomes of interest (performance or success) instrumentality - degree to which the person believes that performance is related to subsequent outcomes (rewards) valence - anticipated satisfaction that will result from an outcome (concern for value of reward) e - can be influenced by clear path to performance and unrestrictive environment, provide positive feedback and encouragement i - connect pay and other rewards to performance using bonuses, award systems, or merit pay, carefully publicize possible rewards for employees v - managers should find what their employees value, make rewards fair and give employees a choice

Self-Monitoring

extent to which a person is capable of altering his or her actions and appearance in social situations; understand what the situation demands and act accordingly; high in self-monitoring means more sensitive to the types of behaviors the social environment expects from them and typically more successful, higher performers, and better able to influence others

turnover

refers to an employee leaving an organization, may be voluntary or involuntary high turnover has potentially harmful consequences for the organization, particularly for customer service, quality and service performance, and workplace safety employees leave due to poor performance, unhappy work attitudes, role conflict & role ambiguity, how long we have been at an organization, being low in conscientious, agreeability, and emotional stability

Big Five Personality Traits

five dimensions that explain a lot of the variation in our personalities; unique configuration of how high a person rates on some traits and how low on others Openness - degree to which a person is curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas; highly adaptable to change and new jobs, more likely to start their own business, more likely to acquire higher levels of education Conscientiousness - degree to which a person is organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable; conscientiousness is the trait most desired by recruiters, and highly conscientious applicants tend to succeed in interviews; higher levels of motivation to perform, lower levels of turnover, lower levels of absenteeism, and higher levels of safety performance at work; higher unemployment, the well-being of is much more negatively affected Extraversion - degree to which a person is outgoing, talkative, sociable, and enjoys socializing; advantages are due to their higher enthusiasm, positive emotions, assertiveness, and dominance, whereas their sociability actually has fewer benefits, and sensation seeking is a downside; effective as managers and they demonstrate inspirational leadership Agreeableness - degree to which a person is affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm; consistently related to prosocial behaviors, or showing generosity, cooperation, and support for others, regarded as highly ethical leaders; people who are disagreeable are shown to quit their jobs unexpectedly, perhaps in response to a conflict with a boss or a peer Neuroticism - degree to which a person is anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody; only dimension where scoring high is undesirable; overlap with perfectionistic tendencies, lower levels of satisfaction, more stress, negative correlation with job satisfaction, greater levels of burnout, less confidence

major predictors of job performance

general mental ability - reasoning abilities, verbal and numerical skills, analytical skills, and overall intelligence level seem to be important across most situations perceptions of organizational justice and interpersonal relationships - when individuals believe they are treated well, they want to reciprocate, and work more effectively stress - attention and energies are diverted to dealing with stress, performance suffers; role ambiguity and experiencing conflicting role demands are related to lower performance work attitudes - particularly job satisfaction and job engagement, are also correlates of job performance; weak or strong depending on nature of work and nature of employee personality traits - most strongly conscientiousness, emotional intelligence, and proactive personality; self-reported personality measures may not reflect the reality

Stock Option

gives an employee the right, but not the obligation, to purchase company stocks at a predetermined price - align company and employee interests by making employees owners -> employees tend to sell the stock instead of holding onto it- popular in start-up companies that find it difficult to offer competitive salaries to employees stock option use has declined in recent years - more expensive for companies to offer options (have to report as expense) - less attractive or motivational for employees when the stock market is going down

Merit Pay

giving employees a permanent pay raise truly based on past performance; uses an objective performance appraisal system - employees come to expect pay increases - should NOT be considered cost-of-living adjustment -> creates a sense of entitlement on the part of employees

Motivating Environment & Ethics

goal setting may lead to unethical behaviors on the part of employees when goal accomplishment is rewarded, and rewards are desirable -> employees will have two basic options: work hard to reach goals or cheat for the small percentage of unethical workers, goal setting and incentives act as motivation to behave unethically-> reward ethical behavior within the company (related to lower levels of unethical behaviors) create multiple levels of goals and distribute rewards corresponding to goal that was achieved; enforce ethical code of conduct and withhold rewards for unethical behaviors

Visual Perception

goes beyond physical information available to us first we extrapolate from the information available to us we do not perceive objects in isolation (depends on contrast between focus of attention and remainder of environment) may lead to inaccurate inferences about the people around us

job embeddedness

hard or undesirable for people to leave because they have strong ties to the place high job embeddedness reduces the likelihood of turnover, and serves as a buffer for the factors that would ordinarily push individuals to leave their jobs

environmental factors

having the resources, information, and support one needs to perform well are critical to determine performance

ability

having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job is sometimes the key determinant of effectiveness

Social Perception

how we perceive others will shape our behavior, which in turn will shape the behavior of the person we are interacting with stereotypes - generalizations based on perceived group characteristics; positive, negative, or neutral; natural tendency to categorize the information around them to make sense of their environment, discriminatory when we generalize from a group to a particular individual self-fulfilling prophecy - people automatically behave as if an established stereotype is accurate, which leads to reactive behavior from the other party that confirms the stereotype selective perception - we pay selective attention to parts of the environment while ignoring other parts; we see what we want to see and ignore information that may seem out of place; may perpetuate stereotypes because we are less likely to notice events that go against our beliefs first impressions - people have a tendency to use irrelevant information such as baby-faceness, similarity to familiar faces, fitness, or youthfulness to arrive at impressions relating to the person's competence, warmth, or power; once formed, first impressions are resilient to contrary information

Self-Perception

humans are prone to errors and biases when perceiving themselves, depending on their personality self-enhancement bias - tendency to overestimate their performance and capabilities and see themselves in a more positive light than others see them self-effacement bias - tendency to underestimate performance and capabilities and see events in a way that puts us in a more negative light; more likely in individuals with low self-esteem false consensus error - individuals overestimate how similar they are to other people; individuals assume that whatever quirks they have are shared by a larger number of people than in reality; this may lead to a high level of unethical or even illegal behaviors

acquired-needs theory

individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences - achievement, affiliation, and power Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - presenting research subjects with an ambiguous picture and asking them to write a story based on it themes of success or brilliant ideas - high need for achievement analyzing plans to be with family or friends - high need for affiliation getting work done by influencing others or making an impact - high need for power

Equity theory

individuals are motivated by a sense of fairness in their interactions; we compare our inputs and outcomes with other people's inputs and outcomes referent - comparison person inputs - contributions people feel they are making to the environment outcomes - perceived rewards someone can receive from the situation inequity creates tension and drives us to actions that will reduce perceived inequity

Specific Management & Job Specialization

job specialization - breaking down jobs into their simplest components and assigning them to employees so that each person would perform a select number of tasks in a repetitive manner + reduces the skill requirements of the job, decreases the effort and cost of staffing, tends to allow for shorter trainings - jobs are boring and repetitive, higher absenteeism, counterproductive behaviors (being late) "Taylorism" provide training and specific instructions to dramatically reduce the number of laborers required to handle each job; minimize waste by identifying the most efficient method to perform the job; ignored employee social motives while paving the way for automation and standardization

Performance Management

methods, policies, and procedures to support and improve employee performance performance review - employee performance is measured and then communicated to the employee; used to make decisions on distributing pay raises, making promotion decisions, and initiating terminations performance reviews tend to be viewed as more effective when companies tie them to reward decisions and to terminate lower performers rater - typically supervisor, introducing more perspectives (peers, customers, subordinates) may provide richer feedback to employees in question (called 360-degree-feedback, not used in decisions but instead considered a feedback tool) ** organizations may benefit from using only supervisor ratings and available objective performance metrics in reward decisions and using feedback from other sources for developmental purposes

ERG Theory

modification of hierarchy of needs; proposed that basic human needs may be grouped under three categories, namely, existence, relatedness, and growth existence - physiological & safety relatedness - social needs growth - esteem & self actualization does not rank needs in any particular order and explicitly recognizes that more than one need may operate at a given time

Employee Recognition Awards

motivate employees through awards, plaques, or other symbolic methods of recognition by conveying sincere appreciation for employee contributions creates effective incentive systems on a small budget while downplaying the importance of large bonuses; sometimes peers are involved in nominating coworkers; give employees choice in rewards to increase incentive

factors of job performance

motivation, ability, and environment

attitude

our opinions, beliefs, and feelings about aspects of our environment attitudes are more strongly related to intentions to behave in a certain way, rather than actual behaviors behavior is also strongly influenced by situational constraints job satisfaction - feelings people have toward their job, most important work attitude organizational commitment - emotional attachment people have toward the company they work for (high degree of satisfaction overlap) job engagement - investment of one's mental, emotional, and physical energies into work; reflects employees' enthusiasm, involvement, and satisfaction with their work, and it has implications for workplace behavior

reactions to unfairness

outlined by equity theory - distort perceptions of referent - increase referent's inputs - reduce own input, reducing quality - increase own outcomes in raise or unethically - change reference to someone worse off - leave the situation by quitting job - seek legal action or file complaint if inequity is legally protected

Reinforcement theory

pavlov (behavioral) and skinner (operant) conditioning behavior is a function of its outcomes; consequences following your good deed were favorable, and therefore you are more likely to demonstrate similar behaviors in the future

extrinsic motivation

performing an activity because it is related to desirable outcomes such as financial rewards, status, or approval from others

factors contributing to job attitudes

personality - people with positive affective disposition tend to be more satisfied with their jobs and more committed to their companies; people who have positive core self-evaluations tend to have more positive job attitudes; agreeableness has the strongest relationship to organizational commitment person-environment fit - abilities of individuals match those of the job demands and company values, they tend to be more satisfied with the job and more committed to the company; both person-organization and person-job fit job characteristics - variety of complex skills, having empowerment at work, receiving feedback on the job, and performing a significant task are related to satisfaction and commitment; people expect their jobs to help them build new skills and improve as an employee psychological contract - unwritten understanding about what the employee will bring to the work environment and what the company will provide in exchange; breach occurs when people do not get what they expect, leading to low job satisfaction and commitment. organizational justice - fairness of company policies and procedures, treatment from supervisors, and pay and other rewards they receive from the company work relationships - relationship with our manager, how considerate the manager is, and whether we build a trust-based relationship with our manager are critically important to our job attitudes; perceived organizational support is the degree to which employees feel that the organization cares about their well-being stress - working under time pressure and having a high degree of responsibility are stressful, but they can also be perceived as challenges and tend to be related to high levels of satisfaction work-life balance - family-supportive workplace policies and supervisory family support are related to more positive job attitudes

equity sensitivity

personality trait that explains different reactions to inequity expect to maintain equitable relationships, and they experience distress when they feel they are over-rewarded or under-rewarded benevolents - those who give without wanting to receive much in return entitleds - those who expect to receive substantial compensation for relatively little input

Piece Rate Systems

piece rate incentives - payment to employees made on the basis of their individual output; increases worker productivity agriculture - pay based on how much workers pick white-collar - check proofing in banks incentivises employees to work fast, but increases errors made -> reward employee performance minus errors technology can aid in correctly measuring and observing individual output

four reinforcement interventions

positive reinforcement - method of increasing the desired behavior (desired behavior is met with positive consequences) negative reinforcement - used to increase the desired behavior (removal of unpleasant outcomes once desired behavior is demonstrated) extinction - decrease the frequency of negative behaviors; removal of rewards following negative behavior punishment - method of reducing the frequency of undesirable behaviors; presenting negative consequences following unwanted behaviors (warnings)

Performance Incentives

reward systems that tie pay to performance + companies using pay-for-performance systems actually achieve higher productivity, profits, and customer service (employees try harder and increase effort; systems also encourage less productive workers to quit) - may create a risk-averse environment that diminishes creativity, neglects behaviors like helping team members or being a good corporate citizen

Sales Commissions

rewarding sales employees with a percentage of sales volume or profits generated - should be designed carefully to be consistent with company objectives - can cause neglect of customers who have a low probability of making a purchase - valuing only sales volume as opposed to profitability may cause employees to apply excessive discounts or neglect customers requiring extra attention

Profit Sharing

sharing a percentage of company profits with all employees - company-wide incentives - not very effective in tying employee pay to individual effort - more effective in creating loyalty and commitment to the company

Stages of organizational behavior modification

systematic application of reinforcement theory to modify employee behaviors in the workplace 1) identify behavior to be modified 2) measure the baseline level 3) analyze its antecedents & outcomes 4) intervene 5) evaluate & maintain OB Mod was an effective way of increasing performance, especially in manufacturing and service organizations

motivation

the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior

Motivation & Ethics

the desire to fit in and belong may motivate employees to engage in unethical actions as a way to gain status and belonging in a group the perceived likelihood of punishment and severity of punishment are a major influence of ethical behavior important to examine the rewards and punishments that follow unethical behavior and remove rewards following unethical behavior

Goal Setting Theory

the mere presence of a goal does not motivate individuals effective goals are SMART Specific Measurable Aggressive/attainable Realistic/relevant Time-bound why they work 1) goal tells you what to focus on, should be aligned with company goals 2) goals energize people and tell them not to stop until the goal is accomplished 3) having a goal provides a challenge & allows for sense of accomplishment 4) SMART goals urge people to think outside the box and rethink how they are working difficult goals motivate people to work faster or longer, if this does not work, they require people to rethink the way they work

Empowerment

the removal of conditions that make a person powerless; changes from management may give employee the ability to make decisions and perform their jobs more effectively; environment where employees thrive, feel motivated, and have discretion to make decisions about the content and context of their jobs Structural empowerment - aspects of the work environment that give employees discretion, autonomy, and the ability to do their jobs effectively (decision authority, leadership style, organizational structure, access to information, organizational climate) Felt empowerment - related to employee innovativeness, managerial effectiveness, employee commitment to the organization, customer satisfaction, job performance, and behaviors that benefit the company (work is meaningful, feeling confident that one can perform the job, having discretion and autonomy at work, ability to influence how the company operates)

LMX Theory

the type of relationship leaders have with their followers (members of the organization) is the key to understanding how leaders influence employees high quality LMX - leader forms a trust-based relationship with the member; like each other, help each other when needed, and respect each other - the leader and the member are each ready to go above and beyond their job descriptions to promote the other's ability to succeed low quality LMX - leader and the member have lower levels of trust, liking, and respect toward each other - the leader and member do not go beyond their formal job descriptions in their exchanges - member does the job, the leader provides rewards and punishments, and the relationship does not involve high levels of loyalty or obligation toward each other

absenteeism

unscheduled absences from work, companies struggle to find replacement workers at the last minute creating a strong attendance culture to combat absenteeism may create the opposite problem of presenteeism - employees showing up when they are sick sometimes caused by heath problems, work-life balance, poor work attitudes

Individual Differences & Ethics

values and personality influence how ethically we behave (interact with situational factors); we tend to overestimate how ethical we are response to unethical actions of others influences the types of attributions we make; if we attribute responsibility to the person in question, we are more likely to punish that person

organizational citizenship behaviors - ocb

voluntary behaviors employees perform to help others and benefit the organization, contributing to the smooth operation of business organizational justice and interpersonal relationships - good relationship with their manager and are supported, treated fairly, attached to peers, and trust the people at work, they are more likely to engage in citizenship behaviors personality - conscientious and agreeable tend to perform citizenship behaviors more often than others job attitudes - happier at work, those who are more committed to their companies, and those who have overall positive attitudes toward their work situation tend to perform citizenship behaviors more often age - people who are older are better citizens, as we get older we have more experiences to share

Motivating Environment & Technology

working from home often allows employees to be more autonomous: fewer opportunities for close supervision, employees evaluated based on the outcomes of work as opposed to the process (reduces amount of feedback) electronic monitoring: electronic surveillance of employees - track employee performance - reduce legal liability - protect employer's trade secrets - potential privacy concerns; harmful effects on a sense of autonomy, trust in the organization, and fairness gamification & incentives: employees may engage in self-competition, compete against their peers, or teams may compete with each other - approaches are more engaging - provide immediate feedback - increase participation