Test 3 Learning Objectives

Explain the relationship of antebellum white society with slavery.

-Beginning in the 1830s, southern whites sought to make the line between free and unfree a line between black and white. White southerners' fears of free blacks inciting slave revolts like Turner's, and their reaction to abolitionists' attacks, led slaveholders after 1830 to defend slavery as a positive good rather than a necessary evil. -They held trials of racial identity

Describe the culture and organization of the Cherokee and the rest of the 5 Civilized Tribes.

-Cherokee, Chickasaw, Chocksaw, Creek, and Seminole -Took up some white southern traits: agricultural economy, republican gv't, and slavery -Cherokee was the largest. They combined hunting by men and subsistence farming by women. They shifted to an agrarian society from a matrilineal one, then to a patriarchal one. The shift toward agriculture introduced them to American-style slavery. -Most white Americans, regardless how "civilized" they were, did not want them to incorporate into their society. -Cherokee adopted a strategy of accommodation of white invasion on their lands, to increase their chances of survival -Creek and Seminole resisted

Describe the Women's Rights Movement in the mid 19th century. What did they call for at the Seneca Falls Convention?

-Abolitionism was also a catalyst for the women's rights movement. Some antislavery women defied conventional ideas of their proper sphere by becoming public speakers and demanding an equal role in the leadership of antislavery societies. The battle to participate equally in the antislavery crusade made women abolitionists acutely aware of male dominance and oppression. For them, the same principles that justified the liberation of the slaves also applied to emancipating women from restrictions on their rights as citizens. -They demanded that all women be given the right to vote, and that married women be freed from unjust laws giving husbands control of their property, persons, and children. Rejecting the Cult of Domesticity with its doctrine of separate spheres, these women and their male supporters launched the modern movement for gender equality.

Describe the issues involved in the Missouri Compromise.

-Admitted Missouri to the Union as a slave state and Maine as a free state -It banned slavery in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase territory above the latitude of 36°30', but allowed it under that line

Describe the causes & results of the Nullification Crisis of 1832. Who resolved it. How? What was the underlying fear that South Carolina had about the power of the power of the national government?

-After the Tariff of Abominations passed in 1828, the South Carolina legislature declared the new duties unconstitutional and endorsed a lengthy affirmation—written anonymously by Calhoun—of nullification, or an individual state's right to set aside federal laws. Jackson opposed nullification as a threat to the Union. In his view, federal power should be held in check, but the states were not truly sovereign. It revealed that South Carolinians would not tolerate federal acts that seemed contrary to their interests or interfered with slavery -Calhoun openly took the lead in the movement against the tariff, arguing that states could set aside federal laws -In 1832, a new tariff lowered the rates slightly but retained the principle of protection. Supporters of nullification argued that the new law simply demonstrated that they could expect no relief from Washington. The South Carolina legislature then called a special convention. In November 1832, its members voted to nullify the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 and forbid the collection of customs duties within the state. -There was a fear of northern meddling with slavery and that was the main spur to the growth of a militant doctrine of state sovereignty in the South. At the time of the nullification crisis, the other slave states were less anxious about the future of the "peculiar institution" and did not embrace South Carolina's radical conception of state sovereignty.

Describe the candidates and controversies in the 1824 presidential election.

-Andrew Jackson: lost the election, symbolized the triumph of democracy, he refashioned national politics into a more democratic mold; won plurality of electoral votes, but not majority; when Clay was appointed secretary of state, people who supported Jackson charged that a "corrupt bargain" had cost their favorite the presidency -John Quincy Adams: he won when Clay (who was in fourth) threw his support behind him; he assumed office under a cloud of suspicion -Henry Clay: Adams appointed him secretary of state; there was no evidence that he had bartered votes for the promise of a high office, many believed the charge -William Crawford: he favored a limited gv't

Describe the growth of the early textile industry.

-As late as 1820, 2/3rds of the clothing Americans wore were made entirely in households by female family members. They were producing a growing proportion of it for market rather than direct home consumption. -Under the putting-out system of manufacturing, merchant capitalists provided raw material to people in their own homes, picked up finished or semifinished products, paid the workers, and took charge of distribution. -The first cotton mills made it possible to turn fiber into cloth in a single factory. Later, conditions in the mills worsened and the owners required more work for lower pay and some women became labor activists. -The shift from domestic to factory production also shifted the locus of women's economic activity. It also changed capitalist activity in the region.

Describe the internal slave trade. Where was the greatest demand for slaves? Where did the demand for slaves decline? As the profitability of slavery changed in different areas, how did it affect the public's attitude toward slavery in those areas?

-As slave prices rose (because of high demand in the Lower South) and demand for slaves in the Upper South fell, the "internal" slave trade took off. This interstate slave trade sent 600,000-700,000 slaves in a southwesterly direction between 1815 and 1860. A slave child born in the Upper South in the 1820s had a 30 percent chance of being "sold downriver" by 1860. Such sales not only split families, but made it unlikely that the slaves sold would ever see friends or family again. -The greatest demand for slaves was in the Lower South -The demand for slaves declined in the Upper South -Nevertheless, the declining importance of slave labor in that region meant the peculiar institution had a weaker hold on public loyalty there than in the cotton states. More rapid urban and industrial development than elsewhere in the South accompanied this diversification of agriculture. As a result, Virginians, Marylanders, and Kentuckians were divided on whether their future lay with the Deep South's plantation economy or with the industrializing free-labor system that was flourishing north of their borders.

Explain the role of Free Blacks in the Old South.

-Beginning in the 1830s, all the southern states cracked down on free blacks as well as people of mixed ancestry—or "people of color," as they were known in the law. Laws forced free people of color to register or have white guardians who were responsible for their behavior. Free blacks had to carry papers proving their status. In some states, they needed permission to move from one county to another. Licensing laws excluded blacks from several occupations, and the authorities often prevented them from holding meetings or forming organizations. Vagrancy and apprenticeship laws forced free people of color into economic dependency barely distinguishable from outright slavery. -Although beset by special problems of their own, most free blacks identified with the suffering of the slaves; when they could, they protested against the peculiar institution and worked for its abolition. Many of them had once been slaves themselves or were the children of slaves; often their relatives were still in bondage. They knew that the discrimination from which they suffered was rooted in slavery and the racial attitudes that accompanied it. As long as slavery existed, their own rights were likely to be denied. Even their freedom was at risk; former slaves who could not prove they had been legally freed could be re-enslaved. This threat existed even in the North: Under federal fugitive slave laws, escaped slaves had to be returned to bondage. Even blacks who were born free were not safe. Kidnapping or fraudulent seizure by slave-catchers was always a risk.

Explain how the northern wing of the Second Great Awakening inspired social reform.

-Converts were organized into voluntary associations that sought to stamp out sin and social evil and win the world for Christ. Most of the converts of northern revivalism were middle-class citizens already active in their communities. They were seeking to adjust to the bustling world of the market revolution in ways that would not violate their traditional moral and social values. Their generally optimistic and forward-looking attitudes led to hopes that a wave of conversions would save the nation and the world.

Explain how education was extended in the 19th century.

-Demand for more public education began in the 1820s and early 1830s as a central focus of the workingmen's movements in eastern cities. Hard-pressed artisans viewed free schools open to all as a way to counter the growing gap between rich and poor. Affluent taxpayers, who did not see why they should pay to educate other people's children, opposed the demands. But middle-class reformers seized the initiative, shaped educational reform to fit their own end of social discipline, and provided the momentum for legislative success. Horace Mann of Massachusetts was the most influential educational reformer. As a lawyer and state legislator, Mann worked tirelessly to establish a state board of education and tax support for local schools. In 1837, he persuaded the legislature to enact his proposals, and subsequently became the first secretary of the new board, an office he held with distinction until 1848. He believed teachers and school officials could mold children like clay to a state of perfection. He discouraged corporal punishment except as a last resort, leading to a bitter controversy with Boston schoolmasters who retained a Calvinist sense of original sin and favored a freer use of the rod.

Explain why South Carolina opposed the tariffs of 1828 and 1832.

-During the 1820s, southerners became increasingly fearful of federal encroachment on states' rights. There was a strengthened commitment to slavery and anxiety about the use of federal power to strike at the "peculiar institution." Hoping to keep slavery itself out of the political limelight, South Carolinians seized on another grievance—the protective tariff—as the issue on which to take their stand in favor of states' power to veto federal actions they viewed as contrary to their interests. Tariffs that increased the prices that southern agriculturists paid for manufactured goods and that threatened to undermine their foreign markets by inciting other countries to erect their own protective tariffs hurt the staple-producing and exporting South.

How did Southerners defend the institution of slavery?

-Enslavement was the natural and proper status for people of African descent: Biased scientific and historical evidence supported the claim that blacks were innately inferior to whites and suited only for slavery. -The Bible and Christianity were said to sanction slavery—a position made necessary by the abolitionist appeal to Christian ethics -Efforts were made to show that slavery was consistent with the humanitarian spirit of the nineteenth century: The premise that blacks were naturally dependent led to the notion that they needed "family government" or a special regime equivalent to the asylums for the few whites who were also incapable of caring for themselves. The plantation allegedly provided such an environment, as benevolent masters guided and ruled this race of "perpetual children."

Name the major American slave revolts.

-Gabriel's Army -Vesey conspiracy (never took place) -Nat Turner insurrection -Hundreds of black fugitives fought the U.S. Army in the Second Seminole War alongside the Indians who had given them a haven -Underground Railroad

Discuss the basic beliefs of Chief Justice Marshall. What were the results of his most important decisions?

-He discouraged different opinions and wanted to find just one single opinion on almost every case. He gave shape to the Constitution and clarified the crucial role of the Court in the American system of government. He placed the protection of individual liberty, especially the right to acquire property, above the attainment of political, social, or economic equality. Ultimately he was a nationalist, believing that the strength, security, and happiness of the American people depended mainly on economic growth and the creation of new wealth. His opinion of the role of the Supreme Court was to interpret and enforce the Constitution in a way that encouraged economic development, especially against state legislatures' efforts to interfere with the constitutionally protected rights of individuals or combinations of individuals to acquire property through productive activity. -To limit state action, he cited the Contracts Clause of the Constitution, which prohibited a state from passing a law "impairing the obligation of contracts." It also strengthened the federal government by sanctioning a broad or loose construction of its constitutional powers and by affirming its supremacy over the states. -In Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), the Court was asked to rule whether the New Hampshire legislature could meddle in the governance of Dartmouth College, a private institution. Marshall made the far-reaching determination that the Constitution's Contracts Clause fully protected any charter a state granted to a private corporation. This decision meant that the kinds of business enterprises state governments were incorporating—such as turnpike or canal companies and textile manufacturers—could hold on indefinitely to any privileges or favors that their original charters had granted. The decision increased the power and independence of business corporations by weakening states' ability to regulate them or withdraw their privileges. The ruling fostered the growth of the modern corporation as a profit-making enterprise with only limited public responsibilities. -The case of McCulloch v. Maryland arose because the state of Maryland had levied a tax on the Baltimore branch of the Bank of the United States, which had been rechartered for 25 years in 1816. He ruled (as a unanimous decision of the court) that the tax was unconstitutional. The two main issues were whether Congress had the right to establish a national bank and whether a state had the power to tax or regulate an agency or institution Congress created. In response to the first question, Marshall set forth his doctrine of "implied powers." Conceding that the Constitution contained no specific authorization to charter a bank, the chief justice argued that such a right could be deduced from more general powers and from an understanding of the "great objects" for which the federal government had been founded. Marshall thus struck a blow for a loose construction of the Constitution and a broad grant of power to the federal government to encourage economic growth and stability. In response to the second question, Marshall held that the bank was indeed such an agency and that giving a state the power to tax it would also give the state the power to destroy it. Marshall argued that the American people "did not design to make their government dependent on the states and his answer gave great new weight to a nationalist constitutional philosophy. -The Gibbons v. Ogden decision of 1824 bolstered Congress's power to regulate interstate commerce. A competing ferry service operating between New York and New Jersey challenged a steamboat monopoly granted by the state of New York. The Court declared the New York grant unconstitutional because it amounted to state interference with Congress's exclusive right to regulate interstate commerce. The Court's ruling went a long way toward freeing from state interference private interests engaged in furthering the transportation revolution. This case showed the dual effect of Marshall's decision making. It broadened the power of the federal government at the expense of the states and encouraged the growth of a national market economy. The Court's actions provide the clearest and most consistent example of the main nationalistic trends of the period—the acknowledgment of the federal government's role in promoting a powerful and prosperous America and the rise of a nationwide capitalist economy.

Describe the nature and results of Nat Turner's rebellion.

-He was a preacher and prophet who believed God had given him a sign that the time was ripe to strike for freedom; a vision of black and white angels wrestling in the sky had convinced him that divine wrath was about to be visited upon the white oppressor. -Him and other people killed 60 white people. It was super short-lived and only lasted about 48 hours when white forces dispersed the rampaging slaves who were then executed (Turner, too). -After this happened, a white journalist released a paper that stated they should have an immediate abolition of slavery instead of a gradual emancipation. Southerners saw Turner and Garrison as two prongs of a revolutionary attack on the southern way of life. Consequently, they launched a massive campaign to quarantine the slaves from exposure to antislavery ideas and attitudes. New laws restricted the ability of slaves to move about, assemble without white supervision, or learn to read and write. The repression after the Nat Turner rebellion succeeded in one sense: between 1831 and the Civil War, no further uprisings resulted in the mass killing of whites.

Describe the most serious problems facing Martin Van Buren's administration.

-He won but immediately faced a catastrophic depression, known as the Panic of 1837 which lasted until the '40s. It was international and reflected complex changes in the world economy that American policymakers could not control. Since Van Buren and his party were committed to a policy of laissez-faire on the federal level, they could do little or nothing to relieve economic distress through subsidies or relief measures. But Van Buren could try to salvage the federal funds deposited in shaky state banks and devise a new system of public finance that would not contribute to future panics by fueling speculation and credit expansion.

Discuss the role of the small slaveholders (those with less than 20 slaves) in the Old South. Who were they and what did they do for a living? Describe their relationships with their slaves.

-In 1860, 88 percent of all slaveholders owned fewer than 20 slaves and of these, most had fewer than ten. Some slaveholders were urban merchants or professional men whose slaves worked as domestic servants; but more typical were farmers who owned one or two slave families to ease the burden of their own labor. Unlike the planters, these farmers left few records. -Masters lived in log cabins or small frame cottages. The people they enslaved lived in lofts or sheds that were even more basic. For better or worse, relations between such owners and their slaves were more intimate than on larger estates. Unlike planters, these farmers often worked in the fields alongside their slaves and sometimes ate at the same table or slept under the same roof. But such closeness did not necessarily result in better treatment. Slave testimony reveals that both the best and the worst of slavery could be found on these farms, depending on the character and disposition of the master.

Describe the Second Great Awakening on the southern frontier. What was the message? How was it spread?

-In the South, Baptists and Presbyterians eventually deemphasized camp meetings in favor of "protracted meetings" in local churches that featured guest preachers holding forth day after day for up to two weeks. Southern evangelical churches, especially Baptist and Methodist, grew rapidly in membership and influence during the first half of the nineteenth century and became the focus of rural life. Although they fostered societies to improve morals—to encourage temperance and discourage dueling, for example—they generally shied away from social reform. The conservatism of a slaveholding society discouraged radical efforts to change the world. -They were Evangelical Protestant revivals. They fostered societies to improve morals—to encourage temperance and discourage dueling, for example—they generally shied away from social reform. -It was spread by bringing religious camp meetings to rural and urban areas alike. Held outdoors, these gatherings allowed huge audiences to share in a highly emotional experience as they expressed their faith. Emotional camp meetings, spontaneous religious gatherings organized usually by Methodists or Baptists but sometimes by Presbyterians, became a regular feature of religious life in the South and lower Midwest. On the frontier, the camp meeting filled social and religious needs. In the sparsely settled southern backcountry, it was difficult to sustain local churches with regular ministers. Methodists sent out circuit riders. Baptists licensed uneducated farmers to preach to their neighbors. But for many people, the only way to get baptized or married or to have a communal religious experience was to attend a camp meeting.

Describe the Abolitionist movement in the north. Who were the most prominent leaders? Where did the movement have its greatest successes?

-Inspired by slave rebellions from Haiti to South Carolina, and by the British abolitionists' increasing radicalism, free blacks in the North began to adopt a more militant stance demanding an immediate end to slavery. Reflecting racial prejudice, they proposed to provide transportation to Africa for free blacks who chose to go, or were emancipated for that purpose, to relieve southern fears that a race war would erupt if freed slaves remained in America. In 1821, the society established the colony of Liberia in West Africa, and in the 1830s, a few thousand African Americans were settled there. -Baptist minister Reverend Nathaniel Paul; David Walker; William Lloyd Garrison; Theodore Dwight Weld; Charles Remond, Sojourner Truth, William Wells Brown, Frances Harper, Robert Purvis, and Henry Highland Garnet -Africa, Haiti, South Carolina, urban North, Canada

Describe the basic tenets of the Monroe Doctrine.

-It declared that the United States opposed further colonization in the Americas or any effort by European nations to extend their political systems outside their own hemisphere. In return, the United States pledged not to involve itself in the internal affairs of Europe or to take part in European wars. The statement envisioned a North and South America composed entirely of independent states—with the United States preeminent among them. Although the Monroe Doctrine made little impression on the great powers of Europe when it was proclaimed, it signified the rise of a new sense of independence and self-confidence in American attitudes toward the Old World. The United States would now go its own way, free of involvement in European conflicts, and would protect its own sphere of influence from European interference.

Describe the rise of the Whig party.

-Its leadership and most of its support came from National Republicans associated with Clay and New England ex-Federalists led by Senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. Whigs opposed the Indian Removal Act and Jackson's high-handed rebuff of the Supreme Court in pursuing his Indian policies.

Describe Jackson's Indian policy and the removal of the 5 Civilized Tribes. How were they removed west? Discuss the role of the states, president and Supreme Court in the removal process.

-Jackson had long favored removing eastern Indians to lands beyond the Mississippi. In his military service on the southern frontier, he had already persuaded and coerced tribal groups to emigrate. Immediately after Jackson's election, Georgia extended its state laws over the Cherokee within its borders (they declared that all Cherokee laws and customs were null and void, made all white people living in the Cherokee Nation subject to Georgia's laws, declared the Cherokee mere tenants at will on their land, and made it a crime for any Cherokee to try to influence another Cherokee to stay in Georgia). State officials also authorized the Georgia militia to use violence against the Cherokee to pressure them to give up their land and move west. Before Jackson's inauguration, Alabama and Mississippi also abolished the sovereignty of the Creeks and Choctaw, and declared state control of the tribes. This legislation defied both the constitutional provisions giving the federal government exclusive jurisdiction over Indian affairs and specific treaties and Jackson endorsed the state actions. In December 1829, he advocated a new and more coercive removal policy. Denying Cherokee autonomy, he asserted the primacy of states' rights over Indian rights and called for the speedy and thorough removal of all eastern Indians to designated areas beyond the Mississippi. Chief John Ross warned his people that "the object of the President is ... to create divisions among ourselves." President Jackson rejected Ross's appeal against Georgia's violation of federal treaty, and in 1830, the president's congressional supporters introduced a bill to implement the removal policy. Despite heated debate, the Indian Removal Act passed with strong support from the South and western border states. -Jackson then concluded the necessary treaties, using the threat of unilateral state action to bludgeon the tribes into submission. By 1833, most of the southeastern tribes except the Cherokee had agreed to evacuate their ancestral homelands. The Cherokee held out until 1838, when military pressure forced them to march to the territory that is now Oklahoma. This trek—known as the Trail of Tears—was made under such harsh conditions that almost 4,000 of approximately 16,000 marchers died on the way. The final chapter of Indian Removal was the Second Seminole War, which lasted from 1834 to 1841. Although the government had convinced a few Seminoles to sign a treaty in 1834 agreeing to removal, most Seminoles renounced it and resisted for years, making the bloody conflict the most expensive Indian war in U.S. history. The removal of the southeastern Indians exposed the prejudiced and greedy side of Jacksonian democracy. -In 1832, Jackson condoned Georgia's defiance of a Supreme Court decision (Worcester v. Georgia) that denied a state's right to jurisdiction over tribal lands. Georgia had arrested and sentenced to four years' hard labor a missionary who violated state law by going on tribal land without Georgia's permission. The Supreme Court declared the law unconstitutional. He would not protect Indians from state action, no matter how violent or coercive, and he put the weight of the federal government behind removal policy.

Describe the events of the Bank War of 1832. How did Jackson attack the bank?

-Jackson had strong reservations about banking and paper money in general—in part because of his own brushes with bankruptcy after accepting promissory notes that depreciated in value. He also harbored suspicions that branches of the Bank of the United States had illicitly supported Adams in 1828. In 1829 and 1830, Jackson called on Congress to curb the bank's power. Nicholas Biddle, the president of the bank, began to worry about its charter, which was to come up for renewal in 1836. He sought recharter by Congress in 1832, four years ahead of schedule. The bill to recharter was introduced in early 1832. Despite Jackson's opposition, it easily passed. The Bank of the United States counterattacked by calling in outstanding loans and instituting a policy of credit contraction that helped bring on a recession. Biddle hoped to show that weakening the bank would hurt the economy. -Jackson used his presidential power to fight and ultimately destroy the second Bank of the U.S. He resolved to attack the bank directly by removing federal deposits from Biddle's vaults. To remove the deposits from the bank, Jackson had to overcome resistance in his own cabinet. When one secretary of the treasury refused to support the policy, he was shifted to another cabinet post. Jackson vetoed the bill to recharter and after repeating his opinion that the bank was unconstitutional, notwithstanding a ruling by the Supreme Court, he argued that it violated the fundamental rights of the people in a democratic society. He then called people to fight the bank.

Describe the basic aspects of the "Spoils System."

-Jackson's presidency commenced with his open endorsement of the rotation of officeholders. Although he did not actually replace many more federal officeholders with his supporters than his predecessors had, he was the first president to defend this practice openly as a legitimate democratic doctrine.

Explain the rise of the Cotton Kingdom in the South. Discuss the profitability issue concerning slavery.

-Many planters worked the land until it was exhausted and then took their slaves west to richer soils, leaving depressed and ravaged areas behind them. Fluctuations in markets and prices also ruined planters. Depressions, including a wave of bankruptcies, followed boom periods. But during the rising output and high prices of the 1850s, the planters began to imagine they were immune to economic disasters. -By 1830, 1 million people were growing cotton in the South, most of them enslaved. The South was also the epicenter of transatlantic trade networks in which cotton flowed from the United States to Europe, and capital flowed from Europe to the United States, much of it secured by mortgages on slaves.

Describe the daily life of an average slave.

-On large plantations in the Cotton Belt, most slaves worked in "gangs" under an overseer. White overseers, sometimes helped by black "drivers," enforced a workday from sunup to sundown, six days a week. There was never a slack season: cotton cultivation required year-round labor. Enslaved women and children also worked in the fields. Parents often brought babies and young children to the fields, where older children could care for them and mothers could nurse them during brief breaks. Older children worked in "trash gangs," weeding and yard cleaning. Life on the sugar plantations of Louisiana was much harsher: Slaves had to work into the night during harvest season, and mortality rates were high. -In the low country of South Carolina and Georgia, enslaved people who cultivated rice worked under a "task system" that gave them more control over the pace of labor. With less supervision, they could complete their tasks within an eight-hour day. Slaves on small farms often worked side by side with their masters rather than in slave gangs, although such intimacy did not necessarily affect power relationships. While about three-quarters were field workers, the enslaved performed many other kinds of labor. They dug ditches, built houses, worked on boats and in mills (often hired out by their masters for a year), and worked in the house—cooking, cleaning, and gardening. Some slaves, especially women, also worked within the slave community as preachers, caretakers of children, and healers. A few slaves, about 5 percent, worked in industry in the South, including in mills, iron works, and railroad building. Slaves in cities did a wider range of jobs than plantation slaves, and in general enjoyed more autonomy. They worked in restaurants and saloons, in hotels, and as skilled tradesmen. Some urban slaves even lived apart from their masters and hired out their own time, returning part of their wages to their owners. -Most enslaved people also kept gardens or small farm plots for themselves to supplement their diets. They fished, hunted, and trapped animals. Many slaves also worked "overtime" for their own masters on Sundays or holidays in exchange for money or goods, or hired out their overtime hours to others. This "underground economy" suggests slaves' overpowering desire to provide for their families, sometimes even earning enough to purchase their freedom.

Describe the sociological relationships of the slave family.

-On large plantations with relatively stable slave populations, most slave children lived in two-parent households, and many marriages lasted for 20 to 30 years. The death or sale of one of the partners broke up more marriages than voluntary dissolutions did. On such plantations with stable populations, mothers, fathers, and children were bonded closely, and parents shared child-rearing responsibilities (within the limits masters allowed). Masters and churches encouraged marital fidelity: Stable unions produced more offspring, and adultery and divorce were considered sinful. -In areas where most slaves lived on farms or small plantations, and especially in the Upper South where slaves were often sold or hired out, a different pattern seems to have prevailed. Under these circumstances, slaves' spouses frequently resided on other plantations or farms, often some distance away, and ties between husbands and wives were looser and more fragile. Female-headed families were the norm, and mothers, assisted in most cases by female relatives and friends, took responsibility for child rearing. Mother-centered families with weak conjugal ties were a natural response to the absence of fathers and the prospect of their being moved or sold beyond visiting distance. Where sale or relocation could break up unions at any time, it did not pay to invest all of one's emotions in a conjugal relationship. But whether the basic family form was nuclear or matrifocal (female-headed), it created infinitely precious ties for its members. The threat of breaking up a family through sale was a disciplinary tool that gave masters great power over their slaves. -Kinship and mutual obligation extended beyond the primary family. Slaves often knew their grandparents, uncles, aunts, and even cousins through direct contact or family lore. The names that slaves gave to their children or took for themselves revealed a sense of family continuity over three or four generations. Infants were frequently named after grandparents, and those slaves who took surnames often chose that of an ancestor's owner rather than the family name of a current master. Family ties were not limited to blood relations. When sales broke up families, individuals who found themselves on plantations far from home were likely to be "adopted" into new kinship networks. New families quickly absorbed orphans or children without responsible parents.

How did America attempt to improve the transportation networks in the early 1800s?

-President James Madison called for federal funding of "internal improvements." The first great federal transportation project was building the National Road between Cumberland, Maryland, on the Potomac and Wheeling, Virginia, on the Ohio (1811-1818). -The toll roads failed to meet the demand for low-cost transportation over long distances -Even the National Road could not offer the low freight costs required for the long-distance hauling of wheat, flour, and the other bulky agricultural products of the Ohio Valley -The U.S.'s natural system of river transportation was the most significant reason for the rapid economic development -Flat-boat trade was one-way -Steamboats were created and it reduced costs, moved goods and people faster, and allowed two-way commerce on the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. They were very unsafe, though. It did not provide an economical way to ship western farm produce directly east to ports engaged in transatlantic trade or to the growing urban market of the seaboard states. The solution was to build a system of canals. They were a great economic success, providing a vital service to those who used them, and contributed to the new nation's economic development, despite rarely turning a profit for most investors. -Railroads were now competing for the same traffic.

Describe the Second Great Awakening in the North. Who were the most prominent advocates. What was the spark that started the movement? What were the main messages?

-Reformist tendencies were more evident in the distinctive revivalism that originated in New England and western New York. Northern evangelists were mostly Congregationalists and Presbyterians, influenced by New England Puritan traditions. Their greatest successes were not in rural or frontier areas but in small- to medium-sized towns and cities. Their revivals could be stirring affairs but were less extravagantly emotional than the camp meetings of the South. The northern brand of evangelism led to the formation of societies devoted to redeeming the human race in general and American society in particular. -Reverend Timothy Dwight, who became president of Yale College in 1795; the first great practitioner of the new evangelical Calvinism was Lyman Beecher, one of Dwight's pupils. Just before and after the War of 1812, Beecher promoted revivals in the Congregational churches of New England. He induced thousands—in his home church in Litchfield, Connecticut, and in other churches that offered him their pulpits—to acknowledge their sinfulness and surrender to God; Charles G. Finney, who practiced a moral radical form of revivalism -American Protestantism was in ferment during the early nineteenth century. Denominations turned to revivalism to strengthen religious values and increase church membership. Mobilization of the faithful into associations to spread the gospel and reform American morals often followed spiritual renewals. -The reform movement in New England began as an effort to defend Calvinism against the liberal views of religion fostered by the Enlightenment; sought to make society more perfect through the Sunday-school movement, the temperance movement, prison- and school-reform movements, and the abolitionist movement

Who were the large planters in the South? Describe their role in the economy, culture and politics of the Old South.

-Robert Allston of Chicora Wood -Another sign of gentility was the tendency of planters' sons to avoid "trade" as a primary or secondary career in favor of law or the military. -A few of the richest and most secure plantation families did aspire to live like a traditional landed aristocracy, and visiting English nobility accepted them as equals. -Although many wealthy planters were too busy tending to their plantations to become openly involved in politics, they held more than their share of high offices and often exerted a decisive influence on public policy.

Explain the role of short staple cotton in the southern economy.

-Short-staple cotton differed from the long-staple variety in two important ways: Its bolls contained seeds that were much more difficult to extract by hand, and it could be grown almost anywhere south of Virginia and Kentucky—the main requirement was a guarantee of 200 frost-free days. Unlike rice and sugar, cotton could be grown on small farms and plantations. By 1830, 1 million people were growing cotton in the South, most of them enslaved.

Describe how the U.S. acquired Florida.

-Spanish claimed Florida -General Andrew Jackson crossed into east FL in pursuit of the Seminole NA and occupied it (First Seminole War) -Secretary John Adams said if Spain wanted to avoid further conflict, they had to give them the rest of FL -Spain signed the Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819 and gave up FL -US assumed $5 million of financial claims of American citizens against Spain

Describe origins and end of the Canal Age.

-Steamboats did not provide an economical way to ship western farm produce directly east to ports engaged in transatlantic trade or to the growing urban market of the seaboard states. The solution was to build a system of canals. They were a great economic success, providing a vital service to those who used them, and contributed to the new nation's economic development, despite rarely turning a profit for most investors. They ended when it was apparent that most waterways were unprofitable.

Discuss the formation of the Democratic Party. Who did they initially want to elect as president?

-The Democratic Party was founded to promote the cause of a particular presidential candidate that revealed a central characteristic of the emerging two-party system. In response to John Quincy Adams winning the presidency, NY senator Martin van Buren helped build the Democratic Party to back Jackson, who defeated Adams easily in 1828. -They initially wanted to elect Andrew Jackson as president

Describe the South's reaction to the abolitionist movement.

-The South helped the antislavery cause in the North by responding hysterically and repressively to abolitionist agitation. In 1836, southern congressmen forced adoption of a gag rule requiring that abolitionist petitions be tabled without being read; the post office refused to deliver antislavery literature in the slave states.

Describe the rise of the 2nd two party system and the presidential campaign of 1840. Who were the parties in this election? What were the main issues?

-The Whigs had the chance to offer alternative policies that promised to restore prosperity after Buren's presidency. The Jacksonian era saw the rise of a vigorous two-party system. During the 1840s, the two national parties competed on fairly equal terms for the support of the electorate. Allegiance to one party or the other became a source of personal identity for many Americans and increased their interest and participation in politics. -They were the Democrats and Whigs and they vied for the votes of white male citizens. They fostered loyalty and identification through election rallies, partisan newspapers, get-out-the-vote efforts, and patronage jobs. The parties offered voters a real choice of programs and ideologies. -Whigs stood for: a "positive liberal state"—which meant the government had the right and duty to subsidize or protect enterprises that could contribute to general prosperity and economic growth. In the Whig camp were industrialists who wanted tariff protection, merchants who favored internal improvements to stimulate commerce, and farmers and planters who had adapted to a market economy. A person who went to an evangelical Protestant church was likely to be a Whig. The Whigs enjoyed strong support among old-stock Protestants in smaller cities, towns, and prosperous rural areas devoted to market farming. In general, the Whigs welcomed a market economy but wanted to restrain the individualism and disorder it created by enforcing cultural and moral values derived from the Puritan tradition. Whigs stood for a loose construction of the Constitution and federal support for business and economic development. -Democrats normally advocated a "negative liberal state" in which the government kept its hands off the economy. Democrats appealed mainly to smaller farmers, workers, declining gentry, and emerging entrepreneurs who were excluded from the established commercial groups that would benefit most from Whig programs. The person who attended a ritualized service—Catholic, Lutheran, or Episcopalian—or did not go to church at all was probably a Democrat. The Democrats were the favored party of immigrants, Catholics, freethinkers, backwoods farmers, and all those who enjoyed traditional amusements that the new breed of moral reformers condemned. One thing all these groups had in common was a desire to be left alone, free to think and behave as they liked. Democrats defended strict construction, states' rights, and laissez-faire. The Democrats were the party of white male equality and personal liberty.

Describe the origins of the American market economy. What factors made it possible?

-The desire to reduce the cost and increase the speed of shipping heavy freight over great distances laid the groundwork for a new economic system -Improved transport increased farm income and stimulated commercial agriculture -Most manufactured articles were produced at home. Easier and cheaper access to distant markets decisively changed this pattern. The rise in productivity was partly due to technological advances. The availability of good land and the revolution in marketing were the most important spurs to profitable commercial farming. Transportation facilities made distant markets available and plugged farmers into a commercial network that provided credit and relieved them of the need to do their own selling. -The emerging exchange network encouraged movement away from diversified farming and toward regional concentration on staple crops

Describe the ramifications of the creation of a democratic culture.

-The gap between rich and poor increased -There was a decline of distinctive modes of dress for upper and lower classes -The rise of industrialization was also creating a permanent class of low-paid, unorganized wage earners -In rural areas, there was a significant division between successful commercial farmers and smallholders, or tenants who subsisted on marginal land, as well as enormous inequality of status between southern planters and their black slaves -Changes in the organization and status of the learned professions also showed that traditional forms of privilege and elitism were under attack -Under Jacksonian pressure, state legislatures abolished the licensing requirements for physicians that local medical societies had administered. As a result, quacks and folk healers could compete freely with established medical doctors. -Local bar associations continued to set the qualifications for practicing attorneys, but in many places, they admitted persons with little or no formal training and the most rudimentary knowledge of the law. The clergy responded to the new democratic spirit by developing a more popular and emotional style of preaching to please its public. -The popular press was increasingly important as a source of information and opinion -It found expression in new forms of literature and art for a mass audience. -A rise in literacy and a revolution in printing technology made a mass market for popular literature possible -In the theater, melodrama became the dominant genre

What was the most important political breakthrough in the 1820s and 1830s?

-The major breakthrough in American political thought during the 1820s and 1830s was the idea of a "loyal opposition"—ready to capitalize politically on the mistakes or excesses of the "ins" without denying their right to act the same way when they became the "outs." Changes in the method of nominating and electing a president fostered the growth of a national two-party system. -Most states had removed the last barriers to voting for all white males -The proportion of public officials who were elected rather than appointed also increased

How did slaves express their discontent?

-The normal way of expressing discontent was through indirect or passive resistance. Many slaves worked slowly and inefficiently, not because they were naturally lazy (as whites supposed) but as a gesture of protest or alienation. Others feigned illness or injury. Stealing provisions—a common activity—was another way to flout authority. According to the code of ethics prevailing in the slave quarters, theft from the master simply enabled slaves to obtain a larger share of the fruits of their own labors. -Many slaves committed acts of sabotage. Tools and agricultural implements were deliberately broken, animals were willfully neglected or mistreated, and barns or other outbuildings were set afire. Often masters could not identify the culprits because slaves did not readily inform on one another. The ultimate act of clandestine resistance was poisoning the master's food. Some slaves, especially the "conjure" men and women who practiced a combination of folk medicine and witchcraft, knew how to mix rare, virtually untraceable poisons, and many plantation whites became suddenly and mysteriously ill. Whole families died from obscure "diseases" that did not infect the slave quarters.

Discuss the development and consequences of the "Cult of Domesticity" or "Cult of True Womanhood."

-The notion that women belonged in the home while the public sphere belonged to men has been called the ideology of "separate spheres." For most men, a woman's place was in the home and on a pedestal. The ideal wife and mother was "an angel in the house," a model of piety and virtue who exerted a wholesome moral and religious influence over men and children. There was a growing division between the working lives of middle-class men and women. In the eighteenth century and earlier, most economic activity had been centered in and near the home, and husbands and wives often worked together in a common enterprise. By the mid-nineteenth century, however, this way of life was declining, especially in the Northeast. In towns and cities, factories and counting houses severed the home from the workplace. Men went forth every morning to their places of labor, leaving their wives at home to tend the house and the children. Married women were increasingly deprived of a productive economic role. The Cult of Domesticity made a virtue of the fact that men were solely responsible for running the world and building the economy. A new conception of gender roles justified and glorified this pattern. -Many women used domestic ideology to fashion a role for themselves in the public sphere. The evangelical movement encouraged women's roles as the keepers of moral virtue. The revivals not only gave women a role in converting men, but also endowed Christ with stereotypical feminine characteristics. In urban areas, unmarried working-class women often lived on their own and toiled as household servants, in the sweatshops of the garment industry, or in factories. Barely able to support themselves and at the mercy of male sexual predators, they were in no position to identify with the middle-class ideal of elevated, protected womanhood. For some, the relatively well-paid and gregarious life of the successful prostitute seemed an attractive alternative to loneliness and privation. For middle-class women whose husbands or fathers earned a good income, freedom from industrial or farm labor offered tangible benefits. They had the leisure to read the new literature directed primarily at housewives, participate in female-dominated charities, and cultivate deep friendships with other women. The result was a feminine subculture emphasizing "sisterhood," or "sorority." This growing sense of solidarity with other women, and of the importance of sexual identity, could transcend the private home and even the barriers of social class. Beginning in the 1820s, urban middle- and upper-class women organized societies for the relief and rehabilitation of poor or "fallen" women. Their aim was not economic and political equality with men, but the elevation of all women to true womanhood.

Describe the economic and social characteristics of the yeoman whites in the Old South. What did they do for a living? Describe their relationship with the institution of slavery. Describe their relationship with other Southern whites. Who did they support politically?

-Yeoman women, much more than their wealthy counterparts, participated in every dimension of household labor. They grew vegetables and chickens, made handicrafts and clothing, and even labored in the fields. The poorest women even worked for wages in small businesses or on nearby farms. They also raised much larger families than their wealthier neighbors because children were a valuable labor pool for the family farm. -More lower-class women also lived outside of male-headed households. Despite the pressures of respectability, there was more acceptance and sympathy in less affluent communities for women who bore illegitimate children or were abandoned by their husbands. Working women created a broader definition of "proper households" and held families together in precarious conditions. In part, their anxieties were economic; freed slaves would compete with them for land or jobs. -They mostly grew subsistence crops, mainly corn. They did raise some of the South's cotton and tobacco, but the difficulty of marketing severely limited their production. Their main source of cash was livestock, especially hogs. Hogs could be walked to market over long distances, and massive droves from the backcountry to urban markets were commonplace. But southern livestock was of poor quality and did not bring high prices or big profits. -Although they did not benefit directly from the peculiar institution, most yeomen and other non-slaveholders fiercely opposed abolitionism. Even if they did not aspire to own slaves, white farmers often viewed black servitude as providing a guarantee of their own liberty and independence. A society that gave them the right to vote and the chance to be self-sufficient on their own land encouraged the feeling that they were fundamentally equal to the largest slaveholders. Although they had no natural love of planters and slavery, they believed—or could be induced to believe—that abolition would threaten their liberty and independence. -They disdained "cotton snobs" and rich planters. In state and local politics, they sometimes voted against planter interests on issues involving representation, banking, and internal improvements. -Most yeomen were staunch Jacksonians who resented aristocratic pretensions and feared concentrations of power and wealth in the hands of the few

Identify the 5 factors which contributed to the development of the "cotton kingdom" in the South.

1. The great demand generated by the rise of textile manufacturing in England and, to a lesser extent, in New England. 2. The cotton gin. Invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, this simple device cut the labor costs involved in cleaning the seeds from short-staple cotton, thus making it an easily marketable commodity. 3. The large expanse of prime agricultural land in the Southeast that white settlers claimed as they pushed Indian tribes out. 4. Slavery, which provided a flexible system of forced labor—permitted operations on a scale impossible for the family labor system of the agricultural North. 5. The South's splendid natural transportation system—its great network of navigable rivers extending deep into the interior from the cotton ports of Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, and, of course, New Orleans. The South had less need than other agricultural regions for artificial internal improvements such as canals and good roads. Planters could simply establish themselves on or near a river and ship their crops to market via natural waterways.

Name the president of the Second National Bank.

Andrew Jackson

What was the "Corrupt Bargain" of 1824.

In his position as Speaker of the House, Henry Clay offered the White House to whichever man was willing to appoint him Secretary of State, which became known as the corrupt bargain. Andrew Jackson refused, but John Quincy Adams took advantage of the proposal.

Name the president associated with the Era of Good Feelings.

James Monroe

Name the leader of the southern states' rights movement.

John C. Calhoun

Who invented the steam boat?

Robert Fulton

Name the major cash crop in southern Louisiana.

Sugar

Name the major cash crop in coastal South Carolina & Georgia.

Tobacco, rice, and long-staple cotto