TestOut - Chapter 5 (Storage)

RAID 10 (stripe of mirrors) (5.4.2 - Common RAID Levels)

A RAID 10 volume stripes data across mirrored pairs and across multiple disks for data redundancy. If a single disk fails, its data can be recovered using the mirrored information stored on the remaining disks. If two disks in the same mirrored pair fail, all data will be lost because there is no redundancy in the striped sets. - Provides fault tolerance for a single disk failure. - Provides redundancy and performance. - Uses 50% of the total raw capacity of the drives due to mirroring. - Requires a minimum of four disks.

Drive not Recognized by the BIOS/UEFI (HDD/SSD) (5.9.2 - Common Storage Issues)

A modern BIOS/UEFI automatically detects drives and their geometry during POST. In older systems, you had to manually enter the disk geometry and it was very common for a wrong value to be entered. In modern systems, this rarely happens. If the BIOS can't detect the drive, it's usually caused by one of the following. - The power connector is unplugged. - The SATA cable is unplugged. - The drive is malfunctioning.

Ease of adding space (5.7.3 - Storage Spaces Benefits)

Storage spaces eliminate the need for such tasks as repartitioning drives, resizing volumes, and backing up data in order to repartition. When you need more disk space for a storage space, follow these steps: - Install a new storage device to the system. - Add the free space on that device to a storage pool. - Allocate space to an existing storage space.

Digital versatile disc (DVD) (5.3.4 - Optical Media Types)

A DVD is an optical media standard that can be used to store large amounts of different types of data, such as computer data, video, and audio. Most DVD drives can read and write. - A DVD with a single side of data can hold about 4.7 GB. - A DVD-ROM is read-only memory. - DVD-R (recordable) can be recorded only once. It is supported by older drives or older DVD players. - DVD-RW is a rewritable DVD format. -- DVD-RW uses a crystal encoding on the bottom of the DVD disc. -- A DVD-RW DL (dual-layer) employs two recordable dye layers, each capable of storing about 4.7 GB; the total disk capacity is 8.5 GB. --- The outer layer is semi-transparent, allowing the laser to read data from the inner layer. --- Dual-layer discs can hold up to 8.5 GB of data. --- Dual-layer recordable discs cost more than single layer discs. --- Dual-layer DVDs are recorded using Opposite Track Path (OTP). --- Most newer drives can read both single and dual layer discs. However, older drives might not support dual-layer discs. - DVD speeds use a multiple of 1.35 MBps (1x = 1.35 MBps, 2x = 2.7 MBps, etc.) or 11 Mbps (1x = 11 Mbps, 2x = 22 Mbps, etc.).

RAID 5 (striping with distributed parity) (5.4.2 - Common RAID Levels)

A RAID 5 volume combines disk striping across multiple disks with parity for data redundancy. Parity information is stored on each disk. If a single disk fails, its data can be recovered using the parity information stored on the remaining disks. Striping with distributed parity: - Provides fault tolerance for a single disk failure. - Provides an increase in performance for read operations. Write operations are slower with RAID 5 than with other RAID configurations because of the time required to compute and write the parity information. - Requires a minimum of three disks. - Has an overhead of one disk in the set for parity information (1 / n). -- A set with 3 disks has 33% overhead. -- A set with 4 disks has 25% overhead. -- A set with 5 disks has 20% overhead.

Directory (5.5.3 - File System Components)

A directory (also called a folder) is a container in a volume that holds files or other directories. You use it to logically sort and organize data to keep related files grouped together. Most operating systems use a hierarchal filing structure.

Check a drive status (5.7.3 - Drive Use)

A drive status message indicates whether a drive is available. You can use a variety of command tools and applications to check drive status. - Depending on the tool, an available drive might be labeled UP, Okay, Good, or a similar label. - An unavailable status may be labeled DOWN or Bad.

Failure to Boot (OS not Found) (HDD/ SSD) (5.9.2 - Common Storage Issues)

A failure to boot with an error message that reads OS Not Found (or something to that effect) could be trivial or serious. Common causes include the following: - The disk you're booting doesn't have an operating system installed. This is a very common issue. -- The error frequently occurs when a CD or DVD is in the optical drive at system boot and the BIOS/UEFI is configured to boot from the optical drive first. The error message displays when an operating system can't be found on the optical disc. -- To fix this issue, remove the optical disc from the drive and reboot. -- There are multiple hard disks in the system, but only one has an operating system installed. -- If the boot device setting is inadvertently changed in the BIOS/UEFI, the device will try to boot the system from the wrong hard disk. - The master boot record (MBR) has been overwritten or is corrupt. -- The MBR is the first sector of the hard drive that tells the BIOS where to look for the operating system on the disk. -- If the MBR is damaged or corrupt, the operating system will fail to load. -- To fix this problem in Windows, you have to boot from the installation disc to enter the recovery environment and select the Automatic repair option. -- Alternatively, you can select the Command prompt option and run the bootrec command to rebuild the boot configuration data. You can also run the bootrec command with the following switches: --- /fixmbr—repairs the master boot record. --- /fixboot—repairs the boot sector. --- /rebuildbcd—rebuilds the boot configuration data.

File (5.5.3 - File System Components)

A file is a one-dimensional stream of bits treated as a logical unit. - Files are the most basic component that a file system uses to organize raw bits of data on the storage device itself. - The file name is made up of the directory path plus the file name. - An extension can also be added to the filename to identify the file type and the program used to create, view, and modify the file.

Hard disk drive (HDD) (5.1.2 - Common Storage Devices)

A hard disk is a thick magnetic disk encased in a thicker protective shell. Key facts are: - A hard disk consists of several aluminum platters, each of which requires a read/write head for each side. - All read/write heads are attached to a single access arm to prevent them from moving independently. - Each platter has circular tracks that cut through all the platters in the drive to form cylinders. - The spinning of the platters is referred to as revolutions per minute (RPM). The higher the revolutions per minute, the faster the data can be accessed. Standard hard drives are categorized as follow: - 5400 rpm (inexpensive HDD) - 7200 rpm (good quality HDD) - 10,000 rpm (expensive HDD) - 15,000 rpm (fast HDD) Some advantages of hard disks are: - They have large amounts of storage (starting at 16 GB up to several TB). - The cost per MB is cheap. - There is a wide selection. Some disadvantages of hard disks are: - Many hard disks are internal devices, though you can get external enclosures. - They are prone to failure. - They are vulnerable to physical damage (e.g., when dropped). i: SCSI is a standard for transferring data between devices on internal and external computer buses. Though SCSI devices are most commonly used for tape storage devices and hard disks, they can also be used for devices such as CD-ROM drives, scanners, and printers.

RAID 1 (mirroring) (5.4.2 - Common RAID Levels)

A mirrored volume stores data to two (or more) duplicate disks simultaneously. If one disk fails, data is present on another disk. The system switches immediately from the failed disk to a functioning disk. Mirroring: - Provides fault tolerance for a single disk failure. - Does not increase performance. - Requires a minimum of two disks. - Has overhead. Overhead is 1 / n where n is the number of disks. If data is written twice, half of the disk space is used to store the second copy of the data. - RAID 1 is the most expensive fault tolerant system.

Configure a mount point (5.6.4 - Add Space to Volumes)

A mount point is an empty folder on the existing volume that points to another partition. Data saved to the folder is physically saved on the referenced partition. Key points are: - The volume with the empty folder must be formatted with NTFS. - You can create mount points on basic or dynamic volumes. - The folder on the source volume must be empty. - The target partition must not have a drive letter. Using a mount point is the only way to add space to the system volume using space on a different disk or non-contiguous disk space.

Partition (5.5.3 - File System Components)

A partition is a logical division of a storage device (e.g. a hard disk drive or solid-state drive). Before a drive can be partitioned, it must first be initialized. During this process, a partition style is selected, such as Master Boot Record (MBR) or GUID Partition Table (GPT). A single storage device can contain one or more partitions. A partition can be initially created without being formatted, but in most cases it is formatted to allow an operating system to be installed or to store data. When a partition is formatted, it is given a drive letter to help a user distinguish which partition is being used, such as C:\ or D:\. A partition cannot span to a separate physical storage device. Reasons to partition a hard drive include: - Assigning the boot system to a different partition than application and data files can help many computers run more smoothly and minimize damage in a system crash. - Storing the swap file on its own partition is sometimes necessary or useful. - Creating a separate partition for the operating system can help it run properly. Some operating systems can't run on a large partition. - Assigning log files to be stored on distinct partitions can help minimize the effects of a system crash caused by excessively large log files. - Assigning distinct operating systems to run on separate partitions allows a multiple boot system setup. Unallocated space is space on a partition that has not been assigned to a volume. You cannot store or read data in unallocated space.

Solid state drive (SSD) (5.1.2 - Common Storage Devices)

A solid-state drive is a flash device with a storage capacity similar to a small hard drive. Solid state drives are used as replacements for hard disk drives for storing the operating system, applications, and data files. Some advantages of solid-state drives include: - They are faster than hard drives. - They have no moving parts. - They have lower power consumption than hard drives (good for laptops). - They are less susceptible to physical damage (from dropping) and immune from magnetic fields. - They are smaller and lighter than hard drives. The main disadvantage currently for solid state drives is cost. They are often more expensive than comparable hard drives. However, their advantages make them a good choice, especially for portable devices.

RAID 0 (striping) (5.4.2 - Common RAID Levels)

A stripe set breaks data into units and stores the units across a series of disks by reading and writing to all disks simultaneously. Striping: - Provides an increase in performance. - Does not provide fault tolerance. A failure of one disk in the set means all data is lost. - Requires a minimum of two disks. - Has no overhead because all disk space is available for storing data.

Volume (5.5.3 - File System Components)

A volume is a single accessible storage area within a file system. A volume can encompass a single partition or span multiple partitions depending on how it is configured and the operating system you are using. Volumes are identified by drive letters.

Mean Time Before Failure (MTBF) (5.9.4 - SSD Maintenance)

An SSD storage device has a lifespan called the mean time before failure, which is usually much shorter than standard hard disk drives. Each time a write/erase operation occurs, it consumes some of the finite lifetime of the flash memory chips within the SSD device. - Some applications running on the system can overuse SSD storage devices. For example, audio, graphic, and especially video editing applications commonly require a large number of write/erase operations and can cause SSD storage devices to fail prematurely. - However, these applications also benefit greatly from the increased speed offered by SSD storage devices. - Therefore, if you chose to use SSDs with these types of applications, you should consider configuring an automatic data backup process (such as Windows Backup and Restore or File History) to protect the data stored on the SSD drive on a traditional hard disk drive. Some system builders implement a mix of storage devices in high performance systems so that: - Heavily used information is stored on a standard hard disk drive. For example, the Windows operating system and its applications may be installed on a less expensive but more durable standard hard disk drive. - Only data that requires high performance is stored on SSD storage devices. - Important data on the SSD is automatically backed up on the standard hard disk drive.

Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) (5.1.2 - Common Storage Devices)

An electronic interface allows communication between a motherboard's data paths (or bus) and a computer's hard disks.

Basic (5.5.5 - Disk Partitioning)

Basic disks have the following characteristics: - Use primary and extended partitions. -- Each physical disk can have up to four primary partitions or three primary partitions and one extended partition. -- Logical drives are defined within an extended partition. You can have up to 24 logical partitions on an extended partition. The extended partition can be divided into multiple logical drives. - Require a logical drive in an extended partition before you can format and store data. The logical drive is the storage unit, not the partition. - Are supported by all operating systems. - Support only volumes made up of contiguous disk space. - Store partition information in a portion of the master boot record (MBR) known as the partition table. -- The partition table has room for up to four partition entries. -- When you use an extended partition, one of the four entries points to an extended boot record (EBR). The EBR is located within the extended partition and contains information about the logical drives within the extended partition

Blu-ray disc (BD) (5.3.4 - Optical Media Types)

Blu-ray Disc is a newer optical disc format that is capable of greater storage capacity than DVDs. - Blu-ray was originally developed for high-definition video (and expanded content on movie discs), but can also be used for data storage. - Blu-ray uses a blue laser instead of the red laser used with CDs and DVDs. The blue laser light has a shorter wavelength, which allows data to be packed more tightly on the disc. - A single layer Blu-ray disc holds 25 GB; a double layer disc holds up to 50 GB. Experimental 20 layer discs can hold up to 500 GB. - Blu-ray discs can be read-only (BD-ROM), recordable (BD-R), or rewritable (BD-RE). - A 1x Blu-ray drive reads data at 4.5 MBps. - Most Blu-ray drives include a second read laser for reading CDs and DVDs. Without this additional laser, Blu-ray drives would not be able to read CDs or DVDs. - Blu-ray is intended to eventually replace DVD. - Blu-ray has become the accepted HD video standard; the last movie studio stopped distributing HD DVD movies.

Compact Disc (CD) (5.3.4 - Optical Media Types)

CDs were first developed to store digital music. Later, the CD technology was adapted to store digital computer data. A CD: - Can hold 74 to 80 minutes of audio. - Is 120 millimeters in diameter. - Is 1.2 millimeters thick. CD-ROM stands for compact disc read-only memory. CD-ROMs are identical in appearance to audio CDs. CD-ROMs store and retrieve data in a very similar manner to CDs. CD-ROMs: - Have lands and pits; they use reflective light to interpret the data on the disc. - Hold about 737 MB of data with error correction (847 MB total). - Transfer data at a rate of 150 KBps. -- Drive speeds are measured as multiples of this original speed. -- To calculate an estimate of a - CD-ROM drive transfer rate, multiply its speed by 150 kilobytes (1x = 150 KBps, 2x drive = 300 KBps, 4x drive = 600 KBps, 72x = 10,800 KBps). CD-RW stands for compact disc rewritable. - A CD-RW disc: -- Can be written to. It can be read, erased, and rewritten many times. -- Has a capacity of approximately 650 MB. -- Is a removable hard drive. You can insert the disc into the disc drive on one PC; add and delete data; and eject it. You can insert it into another disc drive on another system with all the data immediately accessible. - A CD-RW drive: -- Can burn (write to) CD-RW discs, read CD-RW discs, erase CD-RW discs, and read a CD-ROM disc. --- CD-RW drive speed rating includes three parameters: a write speed, a rewrite speed, and a CD-RW read speed. --- The parameters are multiples of the original 150 KBps 1x speed defined by the first CD-ROM drives. --- For example, if you have an 8x4x32 CD-RW drive, this means that it can write at 1,200 KBps, it can rewrite to a CD-RW disk at 600 KBps, and it can read at 4,800 KBps. -- Has the bottom surface coated with a photo reactive crystalline coating. A red laser causes a crystal to form which creates the reflective and non-reflective areas on the bottom of the CD-RW disc. -- Has a second, high-power write laser. When this laser hits the bottom of the photo reactive material on the bottom of the CD-RW disc, it causes crystals to form. This is called phase shifting or a phase shifting media. A crystal forming on the bottom of a CD-RW disc is like a land on a CD-ROM disk, it reflects light.

Check Disk (Chkdsk) (5.8.5 - Disk Cleanup)

Check Disk (chkdsk) is a utility that verifies the file system integrity of a hard disk. Errors that can be checked and fixed by Check Disk include: - Lost clusters. These are a series of used clusters on the hard disk drive that are not associated with a specific file. - Cross-linked files. This occurs when two files claim the same cluster. Check Disk identifies cross-linked files and corrects the cluster associations. - Orphaned files. These are files that exist on the hard drive but are not associated with a directory in the index. Normally Check Disk can re-associate the file with the correct directory. - A bad sector. This is a portion of the hard disk that cannot be used. Bad sectors are marked so the system doesn't try to use them. Any used bad sectors are redirected to another sector. You can run chkdsk by opening a Windows terminal and typing 'Chkdsk' at the PowerShell prompt. - Use Chkdsk with the /f switch to automatically fix errors without scanning for bad sectors. - Use the /r switch to scan and fix bad sectors and other errors. - Use the /? command for help.

Data loss or corruption (HDD/SSD) (5.9.2 - Common Storage Issues)

Corrupt or lost data on the storage device can indicate the disk or one of its components is failing.

Dynamic (5.5.5 - Disk Partitioning)

Dynamic disks have the following characteristics: - Volumes on dynamic disks are like partitions and logical drives on basic disks. - Dynamic disks support up to 128 volumes. - Dynamic disks support volumes that use noncontiguous disk space. - Simple volumes contain disk space from a single hard disk (either contiguous or noncontiguous space). - Spanned volumes contain disk space from multiple hard disks grouped as a single logical volume. - Dynamic disks store partitioning information in a hidden database on all dynamic disks in the system.

Drive noise (HDD) (5.9.2 - Common Storage Issues)

Excessive or unusual drive noise (such as a clicking or grinding) almost always indicates a failing hard disk. For example, a clicking noise coming from the drive usually indicates one or more failing heads.

Partition size (5.5.3 - Formatting)

File Allocation Table (FAT32): 2 terabytes New Technology File System (NTFS): 256 terabytes

Volume size (5.5.3 - Formatting)

File Allocation Table (FAT32): 2 terabytes New Technology File System (NTFS): 256 terabytes

Number of files allowed (5.5.3 - Formatting)

File Allocation Table (FAT32): 268,435,437 New Technology File System (NTFS): 4,294,967,295

File size (5.5.3 - Formatting)

File Allocation Table (FAT32): 4 gigabytes New Technology File System (NTFS): 16 terabytes

File name length (5.5.3 - Formatting)

File Allocation Table (FAT32): Long File Names (255 characters, spaces) New Technology File System (NTFS): Unicode (255 characters, anything but /)

Flash devices (5.1.2 - Common Storage Devices)

Flash memory cards store information using programmable, non-volatile flash memory. Some of the advantages of flash devices are: - The memory is re-programmable. - They can retain content without power. - They are optimal for use in devices, such as cameras. - They are highly portable. - They have a larger capacity than CDs and DVDs. - They have relatively fast memory access. - They are inexpensive Additional advantages of flash devices are: - Their storage capacity is comparable to the capacity of modern hard disks. - Most new PCs have card readers. - They are versatile to use. Common flash memory cards include: - CompactFlash cards - SD cards - SSD cards - MiniSD cards - MicroSD cards - Hybrid cards (combines SSD and HDD technology) - Memory sticks

Hardware (5.4.4 - Implementing RAID)

Hardware RAID uses a special controller card that includes a RAID processor. - Hardware RAID is the most expensive method. - It provides much better performance and is more reliable than other methods.

Application crash (N/A) (5.9.2 - Common Storage Issues)

If an application you are using crashes, an error has occurred that gives you no choice except to exit the application. Be aware: - Sometimes you can fix the problem by rebooting the computer. - You may need to debug the system. - You can check log files for errors that provide clues about what might have caused the crash.

Crash screens (N/A) (5.9.2 - Common Storage Issues)

If you experience a black screen of death (BSOD) on a Windows machine or spinning pinwheel of death (SPOD) on a MAC, several events may have occurred. You could have a fatal system error that is preventing the system from operating safely, or just one application may have failed. Often, rebooting the computer solves the problem. If that doesn't work, you can: - Attempt to revert the system to a previous state to undo any software or hardware changes that are causing problems. - Scan the computer for viruses. - Roll back drivers, update drivers, update the operating system, update BIOS, or return suspect components to the factory settings. - Repair permissions. - Clear the dyld cache on a Mac.

RAID stops working, but has the appropriate driver loaded (5.9.2 - RAID Troubleshooting)

If you have the appropriate driver and RAID stops working, possible issues are: - The RAID controller board may have failed. To fix, install a new RAID controller board, rebuild the array, and then restore the data from backup. - One or more drives in the array have failed. -- In a RAID 0 configuration, the data is striped across all the drives in the array. --- The loss of a disk means all its data stripes are lost. --- To fix, replace the failed disk, rebuild the array, and then restore data from backup. -- RAID levels that include redundancy (such RAID 1, RAID 5, RAID 1+0, and RAID 0+1) can tolerate disk failures better than other RAID levels. Usually, you can: --- Replace the failed disk. --- Wait for the data to be automatically restored from the other disks in the array using mirroring or parity.

Not Initialized Unknown (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Indicates a disk without a valid master boot record or a missing or corrupt partition table. To correct the problem, initialize the disk. If the partition table is invalid, use third party tools to try to recover the partition table.

Unreadable (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Indicates a hardware failure, I/O errors, or other corruption. Can also be caused by a delay in reading the disk in Disk Management. Try rescanning the disk to see if the status changes. If it doesn't, troubleshoot the hardware or disk.

Online (Errors) (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Indicates that I/O errors are detected on a dynamic disk. To correct the problem, try reactivating the disk.

Unavailable (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Indicates that errors occurred on physical or dynamic disks.

Healthy or Online (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Indicates the disk is turned on and can be accessed. The volume on the disk is valid and has no errors.

Input/output operations per second (IOPS) (HDD/SSD) (5.9.2 - Common Storage Issues)

Input/output operations per second(IOPS)HDD/SSDIOPS is the measurement of how many input/output operation can be performed per second. - A decreasing IOPS value (fewer input/output operations are occurring) can indicate that a disk or one of its components is failing. - In Windows, IOPS can be measured using the Performance Monitor app.

Foreign (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Is shown for a foreign disk. A foreign disk is a dynamic disk that was created in one system and moved to another system. When you first add the disk to a different system, the partition information for the disk must be updated to reflect all dynamic disks in the current system. Import the disk to make it available in the new system.

Failed (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Is shown for a volume that cannot be started, such as when the disk is damaged or the file system is corrupt. Make sure the disk is on and try reactivating the volume. If that doesn't work, then you likely have data loss.

No Media (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Is shown for an optical or removable media drive that does not contain a valid disc. This disk status applies only to CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, or removable disks.

Formatting (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Is shown for volumes during the formatting process. After formatting is complete, the status for the volume changes to Healthy.

Missing or Offline (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Is shown when a dynamic disk has failed, been removed, or turned off. If the disk is turned off, turn it on, and reactivate the disk. If the disk no longer exists, delete the disk from Disk Management.

Unallocated (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Is shown when portions of a disk have not been assigned to a partition or a volume.

Initializing (5.5.13 - Disk and Volume Statuses)

Is shown while a disk is being converted from a basic disk to a dynamic disk. After the conversion, the status for the volume changes to Healthy.

Non-Volatile Memory Express (NVMe) (5.1.2 - Common Storage Devices)

NVMe is a memory storage device designed to allow access to non-volatile storage media through a PCI express (PCIe) bus. NVMe is designed to work well with the low latency and internal parallelism of solid-state storage devices. By allowing host hardware and software to utilize the level of parallelism possible in modern SSDs, NVMe reduces I/O overhead and improves functionality. NVMe devices come in three forms. The most common are standard-sized PCI Express expansion cards and 2.5-inch form-factor devices that provide a four-lane PCI Express interface through the U.2 connector. There are also storage devices that use SATA Express and the M.2 specification, which support NVMe as the logical device interface.

Defragmentation (5.9.4 - SSD Maintenance)

On an SSD storage device, fragmentation is much less of an issue than for standard hard disk drives. File systems such as NTFS still fragment files when writing them to the drive in order to optimize storage space. However, an SSD storage device doesn't have read-write heads, so no repositioning must occur to read heavily fragmented files. As a result, fragmented files can be read as quickly as contiguous files. When working with SSD drives, do not defragment them as you do standard hard disk drives. SSDs wear out over time. Each cell in a flash memory bank has a finite lifetime and can be written to and erased only a certain number of times before it fails. Running defragmentation utilities causes unnecessary write/erase operations to occur. To disable defragmentation: 1. Open the Settings app. 2. In the Find a setting field, type 'Defragment' and then select the Defragment and optimize your drives option. This opens the Optimize Drives app. 3. Under Scheduled optimization, select Change settings, clear the Run on a schedule option, and select OK.

TRIM (5.9.4 - SSD Maintenance)

One method for extending an SSD device's life is to enable TRIM functionality. TRIM configures the operating system to communicate with an SSD device and to tell it the blocks of data on the device that are no longer required and can be wiped clean. This prevents the SSD device from storing unnecessary data and being overused. Later versions of Windows should automatically detect the presence of an SSD device and enable TRIM. You can verify this by opening Windows Terminal and entering 'fsutil behavior query DisableDeleteNotify'. This command will return either a 0 or a 1. A value of 0 indicates that TRIM is enabled, but a value of 1 indicates that it is not. If it is disabled, you can manually enable TRIM on an SSD drive by entering 'fsutil behavior set DisableDeleteNotify 0'.

Operating system (5.4.4 - Implementing RAID)

Operating system RAID uses RAID features within the operating system. - Like software RAID, the system CPU is used for RAID operations. - Performance is typically better than software RAID because of integration with the operating system.

Optical disc (5.1.2 - Common Storage Devices)

Optical discs (such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs) are a storage medium that uses lasers for both reading and writing information. Optical discs store information through pits in their reflective coating. As the disc spins, the optical drive sends laser optics to the disk and receives the stored information through the deflected output. Some advantages of optical discs are: - They are great for music and video (they play in audio or video devices that aren't computers). - They are portable and universal. - They are cheap. - You can buy discs that are recordable. - They have a long shelf life and are relatively sturdy. - Blu-ray discs can store a large amount of data (25 GB or more, depending upon the format). Some disadvantages of optical discs are: - They are slower than hard disks. - They have a small capacity (650 MB for CDs, 4.7 GB for DVDs). - There are some compatibility issues between disc formats and readers.

SATA1 (5.2.3 - SATA Revisions)

SATA1 is the original SATA standard. It provided for 1.5 Gbps (150 MBps) data transfer.

Software (5.4.4 - Implementing RAID)

Software RAID uses a driver and the system CPU for controlling RAID operations. This is the slowest form of RAID. - Some RAID controller cards support RAID configuration, but without the onboard RAID processor. These solutions are classified as software RAID (sometimes called fake RAID) even though you install a controller card to provide RAID capabilities. - Many motherboards include built-in (onboard) support for RAID. RAID implemented in this way is typically software/driver RAID.

Data resiliency (5.7.3 - Storage Spaces Benefits)

Storage spaces can include data resiliency. Choosing an option that provides resiliency requires you to allocate space for redundant information. The options for storage spaces data include: - Simple, which does not provide redundancy. -- This option adds space from the storage pool to the storage space. -- When you select the Simple option, all the data in the storage space is lost if one of the drives fails. - Two-way mirror requires at least two storage devices. -- The data is written to two devices. -- Two-way mirror requires twice as much device space as the amount of storage allocated to the storage space. -- This option protects you from a single storage device failure. - Three-way mirror requires at least five storage devices. -- The data is written to three storage devices. -- This option provides redundancy for the data if two storage devices fail at one time. - Parity provides resiliency by writing parity information across the physical disks using bitwise arithmetic. It requires at least three drives to protect you from a single drive failure and at least seven drives to protect you from two drive failures. -- This option uses parity information to reconstruct data if one of the storage devices fails. -- Parity uses less space for redundancy than the mirror options, but performance is not as good as the mirror options if a device failure occurs. -- Parity spaces are best for archival data and streaming media, like music and videos. -- Parity requires only 50 percent more redundancy space than storage space.

Disk Cleanup app (5.8.5 - Disk Cleanup)

The Disk Cleanup app helps manage disks by locating and disposing of files that can be safely removed from the disk. It: - Empties the Recycle Bin. - Deletes temporary files such as those used by a web browser or for application installation. - Deletes installation log files. - Deletes offline files. - Compresses old files. To run Disk Cleanup, type 'disk cleanup' in the Windows search box. Then select the Disk Cleanup app from the Best match list.

Optimize Drives app (5.8.5 - Disk Cleanup)

The Optimize Drives app optimizes the performance of a hard drive by joining fragments of files that are in different locations on the hard drive. - To improve defragmentation, disable programs such as screensavers and virus software that run in the background. Any disk access (whether reading from or writing to the disk) while Disk Defragmenter is running slows down the defragmentation process. - The more information that is on the drive, the more time it will take to defragment the drive. It is important to not defragment or optimize a solid-state drive (SSD). Although files can become fragmented on an SSD, it is not important to defragment them because the seek time is about 0.1ms. To run Optimize Drives, type 'Defrag' in the Windows search box. Select the Defragment and Optimize Drives app from the Best match list. You can also run this app as follows: 1. Open File Explorer and select This PC. 2. Right-click the drive you want to defragment and select Properties. 3. From the Tools tab, under Optimize and defragment drive, select Optimize.

eSATAp (5.2.3 - SATA Revisions)

The Power over eSATA or Power eSATA (eSATAp) standard is meant to replace eSATA. - eSATAp combines the functionality of an eSATA and a USB port for a source of power in a single connector. - Both SATA data and device power are integrated in a single cable. - The eSATAp connector and port are neither an L-shaped or rectangular.

eSATA (5.2.3 - SATA Revisions)

The external SATA (eSATA) standards are a subset of other standards specifically for externally connected devices. - eSATA devices use a special SATA data cable with a locking clip to prevent the cable from being accidently disconnected. - Because power is not supplied through the SATA data cable, eSATA devices require an external power connector or power source. - eSATA has a rectangular connector.

Slow performance (SSD) (5.9.2 - Common Storage Issues)

The more an SSD is used, the slower the read/write speed will be. - Make sure the file system is optimized for an SSD. Because SSDs store data differently than HDDs, they require special techniques (such as wear leveling support) to extend the life of the drive. - Update the SSD's firmware. Newer firmware versions fix bugs and optimize how the SSD stores data. - Run a manufacturer-specific SSD software utility. Most SSD manufacturers have specialized utilities that can check for errors and optimize an SSD's performance. - Check the speed of the SATA connection. Older SATA versions have slower transfer speeds than newer SATA versions. If performance is too slow, consider upgrading components to the latest SATA version. - When the SSD is too full, performance decreases significantly. If this happens, try enabling features such as TRIM support in the operating system (OS). - While features such as TRIM help to an extent, the best way to maintain high performance is keeping an SSD below 90% capacity.

SATA3 (5.2.3 - SATA Revisions)

The third generation of SATA devices supports up to 6 Gbps (600 MBps). - This standard mainly addresses solid state drives with SATA (hard disk drives are not capable of sending data at this rate). SATA 3.5 is the latest revision. - The standard includes new connectors for solid state devices and thin optical drives. - Device transmit emphasis for Gen 3 PHY brings SATA in line with other features of I/O measurement solutions. - Xbox One S features SATA III connections.-

Thin Provisioning (5.7.3 - Storage Spaces Benefits)

Thin provisioning (also called overbooking) allows you to allocate larger storage spaces than the disk space available in the pool. - Thin provisioning is based on the premise that not all users will use all of space in their allocated storage space. Space is added to a user's storage space as the user consumes space. - If a storage space runs out of disk space, it will immediately unmount, leaving any I/O processes vulnerable to data corruption. -- An unmounted storage space must be brought back online manually. -- Files can be accessed after the storage space is brought back online manually, but you must add more physical disk space to the pool and add it to the storage space in order to use the storage space.

Slow performance (HDD) (5.9.2 - Common Storage Issues)

To help increase the performance of a slow HDD: - Maintain a healthy amount of free disk space on the drive. A mostly empty disk runs faster than a mostly full disk. If a disk is getting full, migrate to a newer, bigger disk. - Keep the disk defragmented. A heavily fragmented disk can run quite slowly. You need ample free space to fully defragment the drive. - Check the disk rotational speed. A disk that spins faster will perform better. - Check the speed of the disk interface. If the system uses an older disk interface, upgrade to a faster interface (if possible).

Split partitions (5.7.3 - Drive Use)

To split a partition in Windows 10, download and install the EaseUS Partition Master program. From the program interface, you can split a partition and reallocate space.

Upgrade the hard disk (5.8.5 - Disk Drive Upgrade)

Upgrade to the fastest disk possible. Disk drives come in a variety of rotation speeds such as: - 5400 RPM (not desired) - 7200 RPM (minimum) - 10,000 RPM - 15,000 RPM Some hard drives do not use rotating disks such as: - Solid-state drives - NVMe (nonvolatile memory express) solid-state drive - NVMe M.2 (nonvolatile memory express) solid-state drive

Upgrade the disk interface (5.8.5 - Disk Drive Upgrade)

Upgrading a disk interface significantly improves the throughput of data to and from a disk drive. For optimal performance, consider upgrading to PCIe. This will upgrade the speed to 4,000 Mbps.

Assign drive letters (5.7.3 - Drive Use)

When you connect a new drive to a PC, Windows automatically assigns the next available drive letter after C. - Change the drive letter from Disk Management using the Change Drive Letter and Paths option. - Use a letter other than A or B, which were historically reserved for floppy drives and can confuse older software.

Extend the volume (5.6.4 - Add Space to Volumes)

When you extend a volume, you add unallocated disk space to the volume. - For basic volumes, you can extend the volume only onto the same drive using contiguous unallocated space. Many third-party partitioning tools can extend partitions regardless of the operating system. - To extend the volume onto the same drive using non-contiguous unallocated space or to extend the volume onto another disk, convert the disk to a dynamic disk and extend the volume. -- An extended volume uses disk space on the same disk. -- A spanned volume uses disk space on a different disk. - You can extend a system volume only by using contiguous free space on the same disk. This is the same for both basic and dynamic disks. - Volumes must be unformatted or formatted with NTFS to be extended.

The OS cannot find the RAID array (5.9.2 - RAID Troubleshooting)

With hardware RAID arrays, this can be caused by: - A missing device driver for the RAID controller board. To fix, download and install the latest driver for the RAID board. - A failed RAID controller board. To fix, install a new RAID controller board, rebuild the array, and then restore the data from backup. With software RAID arrays it can be caused by a serious issue with either the operating system files or with the storage devices included in the array.

Initialize a drive (5.7.3 - Drive Use)

You can initialize (format) a new hard drive disk on a Windows system from Disk Management.

Shrink partitions (5.7.3 - Drive Use)

You can shrink a partition in Disk Management using the Shrink Volume option in Computer Management.

SATA2 (5.2.3 - SATA Revisions)

e second generation of SATA devices support up to 3 Gbps (300 MBps). SATA2 includes the following enhancements: - Hot pluggable support, allowing drives to be added and removed while the system is running. - Improved connectors to reduce electrostatic discharge (ESD), improved usability, and extended life when used with external devices. - Native Command Queuing (NCQ) for increased performance. - Port multiplier support, allowing multiple devices to be connected to a single SATA port.