The American Pageant Study Guide Chapter 35 APUSH

What agreements/Decisions were reached regarding c) the Far East -> What did Stalin get out of this agreement?

FDR wanted Stalin to enter the war against Japan, so as to obviate any need for an American invasion. In return, Stalin demanded that Russia regain dominion over various lands, notably Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands, then under Japanese control. He forswore any designs on Manchuria, which would be returned to China.

Operation Dixie

Failed effort by the CIO after WWII to unionize southern workers, especially in textile factories.

iron curtain

Term coined by Winston Churchill to describe the division between Communist and non-Communist life

What groups were responsible for Truman's victory?

The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. It was first announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947[1]:547-9 and further developed on July 12, 1948 when he pledged to contain threats to Greece and Turkey. Direct American military force was usually not involved, but Congress appropriated financial aid to support the economies and militaries of Greece and Turkey. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations allegedly threatened by Soviet communism. The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, a military alliance that is still in effect. Historians often use Truman's speech to date the start of the Cold War. Truman told Congress that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."[2] Truman claims that because totalitarian regimes coerced free peoples, they automatically represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States. Truman made the plea in the midst of the Greek Civil War (1946-49). He argued that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid, they would inevitably fall to communism with grave consequences throughout the region. Because Turkey and Greece were historic rivals, it was considered necessary to help both equally even though the crisis in Greece was far more intense. Critics of the policy have observed that the governments of Greece and Turkey were themselves far from democratic at this time, and neither were facing Soviet subversion in the spring of 1949. Historian Eric Foner writes that the Doctrine "set a precedent for American assistance to anticommunist regimes throughout the world, no matter how undemocratic, and for the creation of a set of global military alliances directed against the Soviet Union." For years, Britain had supported Greece, but was now near bankruptcy and was forced to radically reduce its involvement. In February 1947, Britain formally requested for the United States to take over its role in supporting the royalist Greek government.[4] The policy won the support of Republicans who controlled Congress and involved sending $400 million in American money but no military forces to the region. The effect was to end the Greek revolt, and in 1952, both Greece and Turkey joined NATO, a military alliance, to guarantee their stability. The Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world.[6] It shifted American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union from détente (a relaxation of tension) to a policy of containment of Soviet expansion as advocated by diplomat George Kennan. It was distinguished from rollback by implicitly tolerating the previous Soviet takeovers in Eastern Europe.

Joseph McCarthy

United States politician who unscrupulously accused many citizens of being Communists (1908-1957)

How did the fear of Communists affect individual states?

U.S. policy toward Communism at the close of World War II centered on containment. This policy led Americans to view Communism as a serious problem that had to be kept in check on distant shores. But in late 1945, a Russian clerk defecting from the Soviet Embassy in Canada provided documents revealing an aggressive campaign by the Soviets to infiltrate the Canadian and U.S. governments. Americans were shocked, and many suspected Communist agents already were working within the government. The 1948 perjury conviction of former diplomat Alger Hiss, who was accused of selling government secrets to the Soviets, and the 1953 execution of New York couple Julius and Ethel Rosenberg on grounds of espionage heightened Americans' fears. Government Mistrust President Harry Truman attempted to quell Americans' fears by creating the Loyalty Review Board and charging it with verifying the loyalty of all government workers. Americans, however, saw Truman's action as proof that Communists were already living and working among them. By 1951, more than 200 federal employees had been fired and thousands more had been pressured to quit their jobs on suspicion of loyalty infractions. Local governments began conducting loyalty screenings. Universities, businesses and even churches worked to identify Communists among employees and members. As a result, thousands of people lost jobs, friends and families due to suspicion of un-American activities. Entertainment Many Hollywood entertainers suspected of Communist affiliations were called to testify before the House on Un-American Activities Committee in the late 1940s. A few, like screenwriter Ring Lardner, Jr. refused to cooperate and were "blacklisted" in addition to receiving prison sentences. Comedic movie star Lucille Ball gave nonsensical testimony and was cleared. Actor Zero Mostel agreed to tell the committee anything they wanted to know about himself but said his religious beliefs prevented him from discussing other suspects. Some in the industry never recovered from the damaging accusations, even if they were unfounded. Lardner, however, went on to write the successful television series ''MAS*H'' in the 1970s. McCarthyism Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy capitalized on Americans' fear of Communists by claiming there were more than 200 documented Communists working in the U.S. Department of State. Although he never was able to prove his claim, in 1954 he went on to make accusations against officials in the U.S Army during eight weeks of televised hearings. Though the hearings proved to be McCarthy's undoing after Americans witnessed his cruel behavior and unscrupulous tactics, the hearings also showed Americans first-hand what aggressive interrogation was like. The fear of being labeled a subversive drove Americans to adopt a standard of conformity. Television and movies focused on wholesome entertainment, unions merged and closed ranks, and social reforms were abandoned. Family Life In 1949, the Soviets tested their first atom bomb and China became a Communist nation. Americans feared that nuclear war and a Communist takeover of the U.S. were genuine possibilities. Schoolchildren practiced "duck and cover" exercises and air raid drills. Civil Defense signs were affixed to buildings designated as fallout shelters. Suburban families dug bomb shelters in their backyards and stocked them with non-perishable foods. Television programs were interrupted by tests of the Emergency Broadcast System, reminding viewers that in the event of an actual emergency they would be instructed where to go.

Sunbelt

states in the south and southwest that have a warm climate and tend to be politically conservative

baby boom

the larger than expected generation in United States born shortly after World War II

How did the federal government aid the Sunbelt's prosperity?

tremendous influx of money from government

How long did the postwar "economic boom" last?

Allied war bonds matured during these years, transferring cash from governments to private households. Productivity See also: Agricultural productivity High productivity growth from before the war continued after the war and until the early 1970s. Manufacturing was aided by automation technologies such as feedback controllers, which appeared in the late 1930s were a fast-growing area of investment following the war. Wholesale and retail trade benefited from new highway systems, distribution warehouses, and material handling equipment such as forklifts and intermodal containers.[8][9] Oil displaced coal in many applications, particularly in locomotives and ships.[10] In agriculture, the post WW II period saw the widespread introduction of the following: Chemical fertilizers Tractors Combine harvesters High-yielding variety Pesticides New products and services Industries that were created or expanded during the post war period included television, commercial aviation and particularly in the US, computer technology. Economic aftermath of war Economists employing Marxian economic analysis and Crisis theory argue that the period of prosperity was a temporary phase in capitalist development fueled by a revival of capital stock, large pools of labor and raw materials, and technological innovation emerging from the end of the Second World War and the scale of defeats of the international working class.[11] This era of prosperity helped prop up the perspective that the crises and business cycles inherent to capitalism could be solved through macroeconomic Keynesian policies, when in actuality the fundamental instabilities of capitalism had not been resolved.[12] Keynesian economics Many Western governments funded large infrastructure projects during this period. Here the redevelopment of Norrmalm and the Stockholm Metro, Sweden. Keynesian economists argue that the post war expansion was caused by adoption of Keynesian economic policies. Naomi Klein has argued the high growth enjoyed by Europe and America was the result of Keynesian economic policies and in the case of rapidly rising prosperity that this post war period saw in parts of South America, by the influence of developmentalist economics led by Raúl Prebisch.[13] Infrastructure spending One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956.[14] He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence the highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers. Military spending Another explanation for this period is the theory of the permanent war economy, which suggests that the large spending on the military helped stabilize the global economy; this has also been referred to as "Military Keynesianism". Financial repression This period also saw financial repression—low nominal interest rates and low or negative real interest rates (nominal rates lower than inflation plus taxation), via government policy—resulting respectively in debt servicing costs being low (low nominal rates) and in liquidation of existing debt (via inflation and taxation).[15] This allowed countries (such as the US and UK) to both deal with their existing government debt level and reduce the level of debt without needing to direct a high portion of government spending to debt service. Wealth redistribution Historical federal marginal tax rates for income for the lowest and highest income earners in the US[16] Real income in the United States by percentile, normalized to 2007 costs. All social classes grew wealthier during the 1950s and 1960s, but the lower percentiles have only seen marginal improvement since then. Much property was destroyed in war. In the inter-war period, the Great Depression also caused investments to lose value.[17] During both World Wars, progressive taxation and capital levies were introduced, with the generally-stated aim of distributing the sacrifices required by the war more evenly. While tax rates dipped between the wars, they did not return to pre-war levels. Top tax rates increased dramatically, in some cases tenfold. This had a significant effect on both income and wealth distributions. Such policies were commonly referred to as the "conscription of income" and "conscription of wealth".[17] "a fundamental objection to the government's policy of conscription is that it conscripts human life only, and that it does not attempt to conscript wealth... " — Liberal party election platform, autumn 1917, Canada The Economist opposed capital levies, but supported "direct taxation heavy enough to amount to rationing of citizens' incomes". Rationing of goods was also widely used, with the aim of distributing scarce resources efficiently.[citation needed] Rationing was widely done with ration stamps, a second currency that entitled the bearer to buy (with regular money) a certain amount of a certain sort of good (for instance, two ounces of meat,[18] or a certain amount of clothing[19] or fuel). Price controls were also used (for instance, the price of restaurant meals was capped).[18] In the post-war period, progressive taxation persisted. Inheritance taxes also had an effect. Rationing in the United Kingdom lasted until 1954. Allied war bonds matured during the post-war years, transferring cash from governments to private households. Low oil prices The real oil price was low during the post-war decades, with this ending in the 1973 oil crisis. In the 1940s, the price of oil was about $17, rising to just over $20 during the Korean War (1951-1953). During the Vietnam War (1950s - 1970s) the price of oil slowly declined to under $20. During the Arab oil embargo of 1973—the first oil shock—the price of oil rapidly rose to double in price.

What caused the Chinese Civil War - c) Who won?

Communist Party

What was the significance of May 14, 1948

David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of a Jewish state, to be called Israel.

Levittown

New York suburb where postwar builders pioneered the techniques of mass home construction

Steps Taken by the Truman Administration to Prevent Economic Downturn d) What were the purpose of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act (GI Bill of Rights)

Signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 22, 1944, this act, also known as the GI Bill, provided veterans of the Second World War funds for college education, unemployment insurance, and housing.

Cold War

The direct and indirect conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union from 1945 to 1991

white fight

The migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas toward the suburbs

Rosenburgs

This couple was tried and executed for selling secrets to the Soviet Union to make the atomic bomb.

Election of 1948: a) Republican

Thomas E. Dewey

What caused the Chinese Civil War - d) What happened to the losers?

On 25 October 1971, the United Nations General Assembly admitted the PRC and expelled the ROC, which had been a founding member of the United Nations and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Representatives of Chiang Kai-shek refused to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China and left the assembly. Recognition for the People's Republic of China soon followed from most other member nations, including the United States.[citation needed] By 1984 PRC and ROC began to de-escalate their diplomatic relations with each other, and cross-straits trade and investment has been growing ever since. The state of war was officially declared over by the ROC in 1991.[69] Despite the end of the hostilities, the two sides have never signed any agreement or treaty to officially end the war. According to Mao Zedong, there were three ways of "staving off imperialist intervention in the short term" during the continuation of the Chinese Revolution. The first was through a rapid completion of the military takeover of the country, and through showing determination and strength against "foreign attempts at challenging the new regime along its borders". The second was by "formalising a comprehensive military alliance with the Soviet Union", which would dedicate Soviet power to directly defending China against its enemies; this aspect became extensively significant given the backdrop of the start of the Cold War. And finally the regime had to "root out its domestic opponents : the heads of secret societies, religious sects, independent unions, or tribal and ethic organisations." By destroying the basis of domestic reaction, Mao believed a safer world for the Chinese revolution to spread in would come into existence.[70] Under the new ROC president Lee Teng-hui, the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion was renounced in May 1991, thus ending the chances of the Kuomintang's conquest to retake the mainland. With the election in 2000 of Democratic Progressive Party candidate Chen Shui-bian, a party other than the KMT gained the presidency for the first time in Taiwan. The new president did not share the Chinese nationalist ideology of the KMT and CPC. This led to tension between the two sides, although trade and other ties such as the 2005 Pan-Blue visit continued to increase. Since the election of President Ma Ying-jeou (KMT) in 2008, significant warming of relations has resumed between Taipei and Beijing, with high-level exchanges between the semi-official diplomatic organizations of both states such as the Chen-Chiang summit series. Although the Taiwan straits remain a potential flash point, regular direct air links were established in 2009.

What agreements/Decisions were reached regarding b) the United Nations

Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed not only to include France in the postwar governing of Germany, but also that Germany should assume some, but not all, responsibility for reparations following the war. The Americans and the British generally agreed that future governments of the Eastern European nations bordering the Soviet Union should be "friendly" to the Soviet regime while the Soviets pledged to allow free elections in all territories liberated from Nazi Germany.

Election of 1948: c) Dixiecrat vs.

Strom Thurmond

What was the purpose of the International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., of "189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.

What encouraged Congress to pass the Marshall plan?

George Marshall

Election of 1948: b) Democrat vs.

Harry S. Truman

Explain the importance of the dates below c) 1953

January 20: Dwight D. Eisenhower becomes President January 7 - President Harry S. Truman announces the United States has developed a hydrogen bomb. January 14 - The CIA-sponsored Robertson Panel first meets to discuss the UFO phenomenon. January 19 - 68% of all television sets in the United States are tuned into I Love Lucy to watch Lucy give birth. January 20 - Dwight D. Eisenhower succeeds Harry S. Truman as the 34th President of the United States. January 22 - The Crucible, a drama by Arthur Miller, opens on Broadway. February 5 - Walt Disney's 14th animated film, Peter Pan, premieres at Chicago. February 11 - President Dwight D. Eisenhower refuses a clemency appeal for Ethel and Julius Rosenberg. February 13 - Transsexual Christine Jorgensen returns to New York after successful sexual reassignment surgery in Denmark. February 19 - Georgia approves the first literature censorship board in the United States. March 17 - The first nuclear test of Operation Upshot-Knothole is conducted in Nevada, with 1,620 spectators at 3.4 km (2.1 mi). March 19 - The 25th Academy Awards ceremony is held (the first one broadcast on television). March 31 - Due to increasingly lower ridership, Staten Island Rapid Transit closes two of its three-passenger lines (South Beach & North Shore). April-June May 11 - The 1953 Waco tornado outbreak: a F5 tornado hits in the downtown section of Waco, Texas, killing 114. May 25 - Nuclear testing: at the Nevada Test Site, the United States conducts its first and only nuclear artillery test: Upshot-Knothole Grable. June 8 - Flint-Worcester tornado outbreak sequence: a tornado kills 115 in Flint, Michigan (the last to claim more than 100 lives). June 9 CIA Technical Services Staff head Sidney Gottlieb approves of the use of LSD in a MKULTRA subproject. Flint-Worcester tornado outbreak sequence: a tornado spawned from the same storm system as the Flint tornado hits in Worcester, Massachusetts, killing 94. June 19 - The U.S. executes Julius and Ethel Rosenberg for spying for the USSR. June 30 - The first Chevrolet Corvette is built at Flint, Michigan. July-September July 18 - Howard Hawks's musical film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, starring Marilyn Monroe and Jane Russell, is released by 20th Century Fox. July 26 - The Short Creek raid is carried out on a polygynous Mormon sect in Arizona. July 27 - The Korean War ends: the United States, the People's Republic of China, North Korea, and South Korea sign an armistice agreement. August 5 - Operation Big Switch: prisoners of war are repatriated after the Korean War. August 17 - The first planning session of Narcotics Anonymous is held in Southern California (see October 5). August 18 - The second Kinsey Report, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, on American sexual habits, is issued. August 19 - Cold War: the CIA helps to overthrow the government ofs Mohammed Mossadegh in Iran, and retain Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi on the throne (see Operation Ajax). August 20 - The United States returns to West Germany 382 ships it had captured during World War II. October-December October - The United States tests the hydrogen bomb. October 5 - Earl Warren is appointed Chief Justice of the United States by U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower. October 10 - Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea is concluded in Washington D.C. October 12 - The play The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial opens at Plymouth Theatre, New York. October 30 - Cold War: U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower formally approves the top secret document of the United States National Security Council NSC 162/2, which states that the United States' arsenal of nuclear weapons must be maintained and expanded to counter the communist threat. December - Hugh Hefner publishes the first issue of Playboy magazine: it sells 54,175 copies at $.50 each. December 6 - With the NBC Symphony Orchestra, conductor Arturo Toscanini performs what he claims is his favorite Beethoven symphony, Eroica, for the last time. The live performance is broadcast nationwide on radio, and later released on records and CD. December 8 - U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers his Atoms for Peace address to the UN General Assembly in New York City. December 25 - Amami Islands are returned to Japan after 8 years of United States Military occupation. Date unknown Harold Butler and his first partner open Danny's Donuts (later Denny's) in Lakewood, California.[1] Swanson introduce the TV dinner. Ongoing Cold War (1945-1991) Second Red Scare (1947-1957) Korean War (1950-1953)

What did General McArthur want?

On 1 December 1950, MacArthur was asked by a reporter if the restrictions on operations against Chinese forces on the far side of the Yalu River were "a handicap to effective military operations." He replied that they were indeed "an enormous handicap, unprecedented in military history."[119] On 6 December, Truman issued a directive requiring all military officers and diplomatic officials to clear with the State Department all but routine statements before making them public, "and...refrain from direct communications on military or foreign policy with newspapers, magazines, and other publicity media."[120] Major General Courtney Whitney gave MacArthur a legal opinion that this applied "solely to formal public statements and not to communiqués, correspondence or personal conversations."[121] MacArthur made similar remarks in press statements on 13 February and 7 March 1951.[122] In February and March 1951, the tide of war began to turn again, and MacArthur's forces drove north. Seoul, which had fallen on 4 January,[123] was recaptured on 17 March.[124] This raised hopes in Washington that the Chinese and North Koreans might be amenable to a ceasefire agreement, and Truman prepared a statement to this effect. MacArthur was informed of it by the Joint Chiefs on 20 March, and he warned the new commander of the Eighth Army, Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway, that political constraints might soon impose limits on his proposed operations.[125] On 23 March, MacArthur issued a communiqué about offering a ceasefire to the Chinese: Of even greater significance than our tactical successes has been the clear revelation that this new enemy, Red China, of such exaggerated and vaunted military power, lacks the industrial capability to provide adequately many critical items necessary to the conduct of modern war. He lacks the manufacturing base and those raw materials needed to produce, maintain and operate even moderate air and naval power, and he cannot provide the essentials for successful ground operations, such as tanks, heavy artillery and other refinements science has introduced into the conduct of military campaigns. Formerly his great numerical potential might well have filled this gap but with the development of existing methods of mass destruction numbers alone do not offset the vulnerability inherent in such deficiencies. Control of the seas and the air, which in turn means control over supplies, communications and transportation, are no less essential and decisive now than in the past. When this control exists, as in our case, and is coupled with an inferiority of ground firepower in the enemy's case, the resulting disparity is such that it cannot be overcome by bravery, however fanatical, or the most gross indifference to human loss. These military weaknesses have been clearly and definitely revealed since Red China entered upon its undeclared war in Korea. Even under the inhibitions which now restrict the activity of the United Nations forces and the corresponding military advantages which accrue to Red China, it has been shown its complete inability to accomplish by force of arms the conquest of Korea. The enemy, therefore must by now be painfully aware that a decision of the United Nations to depart from its tolerant effort to contain the war to the area of Korea, through an expansion of our military operations to its coastal areas and interior bases, would doom Red China to the risk of imminent military collapse. These basic facts being established, there should be no insuperable difficulty in arriving at decisions on the Korean problem if the issues are resolved on their own merits, without being burdened by extraneous matters not directly related to Korea, such as Formosa or China's seat in the United Nations.[126] The next day, MacArthur authorized Ridgway to advance up to 20 miles (32 km) north of the 38th Parallel.[125] Truman would later report that "I was ready to kick him into the North China Sea...I was never so put out in my life."[127] Truman felt that MacArthur's communiqué, which had not been cleared in accordance with the December directive, had pre-empted his own proposal. He later wrote: This was a most extraordinary statement for a military commander of the United Nations to issue on his own responsibility. It was an act totally disregarding all directives to abstain from any declarations on foreign policy. It was in open defiance of my orders as President and as Commander-in-Chief. This was a challenge to the authority of the President under the Constitution. It also flouted the policy of the United Nations. By this act MacArthur left me no choice—I could no longer tolerate his insubordination.[128] Seven men in suits and one in an Army uniform in a car park. Harry Truman returns from the Wake Island Conference with General MacArthur and Admiral Radford. Left to right: presidential advisor Averell Harriman; Secretary of Defense George Marshall; President Harry Truman; Secretary of State Dean Acheson; Ambassador at Large Philip Jessup; Secretary of the Treasury John W. Snyder; Secretary of the Army Frank Pace; Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley. For the moment, however, he did. There had been dramatic confrontations over policy before, the most notable of which was between President Abraham Lincoln and Major General George McClellan, in 1862.[129] Another example was President James Polk's recall of Major General Winfield Scott after the Mexican-American War. Before relieving MacArthur, Truman consulted history books on how Lincoln and Polk dealt with their generals.[130] Truman later said that Polk was his favorite president because "he had the courage to tell Congress to go to Hell on foreign policy matters."[131] There were genuine differences of opinion over policy between MacArthur and the Truman administration. One was MacArthur's deep-seated belief that it was not possible to separate the struggle against Communism in Europe from that going on in Asia.[132] This was seen as the result of being stationed for too many years in the Orient, and of his perspective as a theater commander responsible only for part of the Far East. Another important policy difference was MacArthur's belief that China was not, as Acheson maintained, "the Soviet Union's largest and most important satellite,"[133] but an independent state with its own agenda that, in MacArthur's words, "for its own purposes is [just temporarily] allied with Soviet Russia."[134] If MacArthur's thesis was accepted, then it followed that expanding the war with China would not provoke a conflict with the Soviet Union. The Joint Chiefs emphatically disagreed, although this contradicted their position that it was Europe and not Asia that was the prime concern of the Soviet Union. Even among Republicans, there was little support for MacArthur's position.[135] On 5 April, Martin read the text of a letter he had received from MacArthur, dated 20 March, criticizing the Truman administration's priorities on the floor of the House. In it, MacArthur had written: It seems strangely difficult for some to realize that here in Asia is where the Communist conspirators have elected to make their play for global conquest, and that we have joined the issue thus raised on the battlefield; that here we fight Europe's war with arms while the diplomatic there still fight it with words; that if we lose the war to communism in Asia the fall of Europe is inevitable; win it and Europe most probably would avoid war and yet preserve freedom. As you pointed out, we must win. There is no substitute for victory.

What were some of the successes of the UN?

The big one - and the record is not so bad as we sometimes make out. Thanks in part to UN conflict resolution and peacekeeping initiatives, the number of people dying in conflicts has declined rapidly since 1945 - worldwide, fewer people died in conflict in the first decade of the 21st century than any decade of the 20th. Prosecutions of Charles Taylor and Slobodan Milosevic The Liberian and Serbian leaders were both prosecuted for war crimes by tribunals set up by the United Nations, with Taylor sentenced to 50 years' imprisonment. Milosevic died of a heart attack before a verdict was reached, but the precedent that dictators can face impartial, rather than victors', justice has been established. Ending famine The world is an unequal place, with large parts beset by poverty and hunger, and thousands still die of malnourishment every year. But as with war, the numbers have fallen from the 20th century, when more than 70 million died from famine. Again, intervention by the UN's World Food Programme, Food and Agriculture Organisation and UN-sponsored emergency aid management can take some of the credit. South Africa, Kazakhstan, and the other countries who gave up The Bomb Never before in history have countries voluntarily decided to give up weapons because they were too efficient. South Africa did this at the end of apartheid, and Kazakhstan when the Soviet Union fell apart. A number of other countries have committed to ending nuclear weapon research programmes and submit to inspections by the UN International Atomic Energy Agency. Protecting the Galapagos Islands ... ... and 1,000 other World Heritage sites. Since the Islands became one of 12 initial sites named by the UN cultural organisation Unesco in 1978, its listings have become the international benchmark for protection of the world's most important natural and historic places. That has allowed tourism and its economic benefits to develop in step with conservation.

Dr. Benjamin Spock

encouraged mothers to stay home with their children in The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care

What caused the Chinese Civil War - a) Nationalists lead by: vs.

kuomingtang

What were the causes of the long postwar economic explosion?

military spending and cheap energy

Explain the purpose of each of the following a) Department of Defense

responsible for providing the military forces needed to deter war and protect the security of our country. The major elements of these forces are the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force, consisting of about 1.7 million men and women on active duty.

Alger Hiss

state department official accused of giving secret government documents to the Soviets

Describe how Postwar Germany was partitioned

''there shall be uniformity of treatment of the German population throughout Germany'' and ''certain essential central German administrative departments shall be established.'' What the Powers desired was an economically united Germany rather than a divided one because the country's economic recovery was a prerequisite of the revival of postwar Europe. However, the postwar development of Germany turned out to be different from the settlement of the Potsdam Conference. The Powers failed to adhere to what they had decided in the conference and began to pursue their own interest in their occupation zones. Different policies were carried out in the four zones, so economic unity and inter-zonal agreements had never been achieved. The most serious divergence existed in the US zone and the Russian zone, and consequently frictions developed between them. The problem of reparations was the focus of dispute. For the Russians, the extraction of the greatest possible amount of reparations from Germany was of primary importance, so equipment was removed from the German factories and products were seized. For the Western Powers, the economic reconstruction of Germany was given priority. The endless requirement of reparation made by the Russians looked certain to retard the economic plans of the Western Allies, so General Clay, the Commander of the American zone, made efforts to search for a mutual understanding with the Russians on the reparation issue. An agreement was reached in March 1946 on an industrial plan, but the Americans withdrew from it after a month because of Russia's insincerity. The conflict over reparations between the Russians and the Western Allies surfaced when General Clay stoppedthe reparations deliveries to the Russian zone in May 1946. There was also a disagreement on shaping postwar Germany. The former Soviet Union extended the communist economic and political systems towards its sphere of influence. The government, police and factories were dominated by communists. Nationalisation and socialisation went on in full swing. Land was collected and then redistributed to the peasants. Bigger industries and commerce were transferred from the private sectors to state ownership. As a result, the Russian zone developed separately from the Western occupation zones. In the Western zones, a different pattern of polices was carried out. The Allies preferred to stop Germany from posing as a menace to the world order by making it a peaceful member of the international community. The United States hoped for a democratic, pluralistic and capitalistic Germany that could become a market and partner of its trade.

Truman Doctrine

1947 - Stated that the U.S. would support any nation threatened by Communism.

Explain the importance of the dates below a) September 1949

1st network detective series-Private Eyes-premieres Sep 1 KMTV TV channel 3 in Omaha, NB (CBS/NBC) begins broadcasting Sep 1 Viljo Heino runs world record 10k Sep 2 Fire in riverfront area kills 1,700

How was the Sunbelt region affected after the war?

Additionally, new types of businesses and industries like aerospace, defense and military, and oil moved from the north to the Sun Belt as the region was cheaper and there were fewer labor unions. This further added to the Sun Belt's growth and importance economically. Oil, for example, helped Texas grow economically, while military installations drew people, defense industries, and aerospace firms to the desert southwest and California, and favorable weather led to increased tourism in places like Southern California, Las Vegas, and Florida. By 1990, Sun Belt cities like Los Angeles, San Diego, Phoenix, Dallas and San Antonio were among the ten largest in the U.S. In addition, because of the Sun Belt's relatively high proportion of immigrants in its population, its overall birth rate was higher than the rest of the U.S.

What is one way the "baby boomers" strained aspects of American life?

America's baby boomers are in a collective funk. Members of the large generation born from 1946 to 1964 are more downbeat about their lives than are adults who are younger or older, according to a new Pew Research Center Social and Demographic Trends survey. Boomers See Trouble Ahead ...Not only do boomers give their overall quality of life a lower rating than adults in other generations, they also are more likely to worry that their incomes won't keep up with inflation — this despite the fact that boomers enjoy the highest incomes of any age group. More so than those in other generations, boomers believe it is harder to get ahead now than it was 10 years ago. And they are less apt than others to say their standard of living exceeds the one their parents had when their parents were the age they are now. These gloomy assessments come from a generation that always has been identified with youth (witness the resilience of their label: "baby boomers") but that's now well into — and even beyond — middle age. (Boomers turn 44 to 62 this year.) However, it is by no means certain that the boomers' current bleak mood is a function of their current stage of life. When it comes to quality-of-life assessments, data suggest the boomers generally have been downbeat, compared with other age groups, for the past two decades — starting back when some were still in their twenties. So their current sour ratings may be related to getting older, but they also may be related to the attitudes and expectations about life they formed when they were young. The Pew survey was conducted by telephone from January 24 through February 19, 2008 among a randomly selected nationally representative sample of 2,413 adults. Baby boomers are defined as adults ages 43-62 at the time the survey was taken. On a question that asked respondents to rate their present life on a scale of zero to 10, boomers, on average, give their lives a rating of 6.2. In contrast, adults older than boomers (those who are ages 63 and above) give their lives an average rating of 6.7. Adults younger than boomers (those who are ages 18 to 41) give their lives an average rating of 6.5. This "quality of life" gap between boomers and non-boomers admittedly is modest. A pattern of gaps, however, has lasted throughout the two decades the Pew Research Center has been asking this question, although in some years the differences are too small to be statistically significant.

containment doctrine

America's strategy against the Soviet Union based on ideas of George Kennan.

What was the purpose of the Marshall Plan

American initiative to aid Western Europe, in which the United States gave over $13 billion (nearly $110 billion in 2016 US dollars) in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II.

What was the purpose of the Bretton Woods Conference, meeting of Western Allies in New Hampshire

An adjustably pegged foreign exchange market rate system: Exchange rates were pegged to gold. Governments were only supposed to alter exchange rates to correct a "fundamental disequilibrium."[4] Member countries pledged to make their currencies convertible for trade-related and other current account transactions. There were, however, transitional provisions that allowed for indefinite delay in accepting that obligation, and the IMF agreement explicitly allowed member countries to regulate capital flows.[5] The goal of widespread current account convertibility did not become operative until December 1958, when the currencies of the IMF's Western European members and their colonies became convertible. As it was possible that exchange rates thus established might not be favourable to a country's balance of payments position, governments had the power to revise them by up to 10% from the initially agreed level ("par value") without objection by the IMF. The IMF could concur in or object to changes beyond that level. The IMF could not force a member to undo a change, but could deny the member access to the resources of the IMF.[6] All member countries were required to subscribe to the IMF's capital. Membership in the IBRD was conditioned on being a member of the IMF. Voting in both institutions was apportioned according to formulas giving greater weight to countries contributing more capital ("quotas").

Explain the purpose of each of the following c) Central Intelligence Agency

Central Intelligence Agency Seal of the Central Intelligence Agency.svg Seal of the Central Intelligence Agency Flag of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency.svg Flag of the Central Intelligence Agency Intelligence agency overview Formed September 18, 1947; 70 years ago Preceding Intelligence agency Office of Strategic Services[1] Headquarters George Bush Center for Intelligence Langley, Virginia, U.S. 38°57′07″N 77°08′46″W Motto "The Work of a Nation. The Center of Intelligence." Unofficial motto: "And you shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free." (John 8:32)[2] Employees 21,575 (estimate)[3] Annual budget $15 billion (as of 2013)[3][4][5] Intelligence agency executives Mike Pompeo, Director Gina Haspel, Deputy Director Parent Intelligence agency None (independent) Website cia.gov The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the United States federal government, tasked with gathering, processing, and analyzing national security information from around the world, primarily through the use of human intelligence (HUMINT). As one of the principal members of the U.S. Intelligence Community (IC), the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is primarily focused on providing intelligence for the President and Cabinet. Unlike the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which is a domestic security service, the CIA has no law enforcement function and is mainly focused on overseas intelligence gathering, with only limited domestic intelligence collection. Though it is not the only U.S. government agency specializing in HUMINT, the CIA serves as the national manager for coordination of HUMINT activities across the U.S. intelligence community. Moreover, the CIA is the only agency authorized by law to carry out and oversee covert action at the behest of the President.[6][7][8][9] It exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division.[10] Before the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, the CIA Director concurrently served as the head of the Intelligence Community; today, the CIA is organized under the Director of National Intelligence (DNI). Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA had the largest budget of all IC agencies, exceeding previous estimates.

What caused the Chinese Civil War - b) Communists lead by:

Chiang Kai-Shek

Reinhold Niebuhr

Clergy who crusaded against fascism, communism and pacifism which he perceived as anti Christian

Steps Taken by the Truman Administration to Prevent Economic Downturn a) sold war factories to private business

Contrary to the stereotype of a wartime "command economy," there was a remarkable entrepreneurial spirit in sharp contrast to the situation in Germany or in socialist, centrally planned economies. Roosevelt brought in dozens of top business executives as "dollar-a-year" men to help run the government commissions so that businesses didn't feel the government was simply telling them what to do. He allowed business to realize profits. He used government to create markets and to help business set up new plants and equipment, which business often leased and later bought cheaply after the war. It is hard for us to imagine today how such an entrepreneurial spirit could co-exist with war mobilization, but one did. One reason, of course, was the opportunity to profit, though the wartime tax on excess profits prevented the kind of windfalls made during World War I. More fundamentally, a spirit developed within each business enterprise to produce better than its competitors to serve the country. In his fireside chats, Roosevelt explained to the people over and over again why their productive genius had to be mobilized to win the war. Buoyed by the strong morale the president fostered, business and labor worked together to get the "E-for-excellence" citations that he spread around. It was not just producing more than your competitor, it was producing more than you did the previous quarter, and the quarter before that. ADVERTISEMENT For instance, Henry Kaiser's shipyards were able to get the production time for Liberty Ships down from 365 days to 92, 62, and, finally, to one day. Overall, the economy grew at a rate of 11 or 12 percent annually throughout the war. Air Corps aces would visit the factories; the pilot would tell the workers that it wasn't the pilots who were heroic, it was their planes. The war production posters emphasized that factories and GI's were one continuous front, a theme that Roosevelt also struck in his speeches. The people understood from the start that America's dominant contribution to the war would be its production. When he was being urged by his military advisers to function more as a economic czar, Roosevelt rejected that role. The military was constantly urging him to institute compulsory national service, in which people had either to enlist or work in one of the military plants to which the government would assign them. Roosevelt successfully resisted that idea throughout the war, on the theory that, somehow, the momentum of democracy would be sufficient: If the jobs were out there, people would put their mattresses on top of their cars and go to where the jobs were. He had this extraordinary vision of the highways filled with people going south, going west. In one fireside chat, he advised people to get maps. And the Hammond company in New York sold out their entire stock of 2,000 maps in a single morning. Even though the mobilization was chaotic and there were sometimes too many people in some places and too few people in other places, it worked. And America still produced more than any other country without the regimented manpower that some in the military wanted.

What happened the Yalta conference

During the conference, the three leaders agreed to demand Germany's unconditional surrender and began plans for a post-war world. Stalin also agreed to permit free elections in Eastern Europe and to enter the Asian war against Japan, for which he was promised the return of lands lost to Japan in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. Although most of these agreements were initially kept secret, the revelations of the conference particulars became controversial after Soviet-American wartime cooperation degenerated into the Cold War.

How did the "baby boomers" affect the economic through the a) 1940s/1950s

Following World War II, the United States experienced a greatly elevated birth rate, adding on average 4.24 million new babies to the population every year between 1946 and 1964. This generation of "baby boomers" was the result of a strong postwar economy, in which Americans felt confident they would be able to support a larger number of children. Boomers also influenced the economy as a core marketing demographic for products tied to their age group, from toys to records. Constituting as much as 40% of the American population, baby boomers have exerted a strong pull on American culture at large, particularly during the social movements of the 1960s. Today, most boomers are at or near retirement, prompting concerns for how American society will cope with an aging population.

How did builders meet the growing demands for housing in the suburbs?

For many generations and many decades, the AMERICAN DREAM has promised an EGALITARIAN society and material prosperity. For many, the notion of prosperity remained just a dream. But for millions of Americans in the 1950s, the American Dream became a reality. Within their reach was the chance to have a house on their own land, a car, a dog, and 2.3 kids. POSTWAR AFFLUENCE redefined the American Dream. Gone was the poverty borne of the Great Depression, and the years of wartime sacrifice were over. Plans for Levitt homes William Levitt offered five different versions of each type of home, but all had the same floor plan. Automobiles once again rolled off the assembly lines of the Big Three: Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler. The Interstate Highway Act authorized the construction of thousands of miles of high-speed roads that made living farther from work a possibility. Families that had delayed having additional children for years no longer waited, and the nation enjoyed a postwar BABY BOOM. William Levitt revolutionized the way Americans live and ushered in an age of suburbia by providing inexpensive housing outside the city. Racial fears, affordable housing, and the desire to leave decaying cities were all factors that prompted many white Americans to flee to SUBURBIA. And no individual promoted suburban growth more than WILLIAM LEVITT. Contracted by the federal government during the war to quickly build housing for military personnel, Levitt applied the techniques of mass production to construction. In 1947, he set out to erect the largest planned-living community in the United States on farmland he had purchased on Long Island, New York. Levitt identified 27 different steps to build a house. Therefore, 27 different teams of builders were hired to construct the homes. Each house had two bedrooms, one bathroom, and no basement. The kitchen was situated near the back of the house so mothers could keep an eye on their children in the backyard. Within one year, Levitt was building 36 houses per day. His assembly-line approach made the houses extremely affordable. At first, the homes were available only to veterans. Eventually, though, LEVITTOWN was open to others as well.

How did the creation of suburbs negatively impact African Americans?

Geographic living patterns in the United States changed during the postwar era as more Americans moved to western and southern states. Suburban living promoted the use of automobiles for transportation, which led to a vast expansion of America's highway system. Suburbs' emphasis on conformity had negative effects on both white women and minorities. Many white women began to feel trapped in the role of housewife, while restrictive covenants barred most African American and Asian American families from living in suburban neighborhoods at all.

Describe Truman's background

Harry S. Truman, the 33rd president of the United States, was born on May 8, 1884 in Lamar, Missouri. In 1890, the year the Little White House was built, the Truman's moved to Independence, Missouri. His poor eyesight prevented Truman from participating in sports but led him to two of his greatest passions, reading and music. An avid reader, he was proud of the fact that he had read every book in the Independence Public Library. Truman was also a fine musician, playing the piano. An excellent student, Truman's parents were unable to afford college for Harry and his eyesight prevented him from attending West Point. Following his high school graduation in 1901, Truman worked at a variety of jobs including farming, oil drilling and banking. In 1917, with World War I in full force, Truman joined the Army. He served in France and left the army as a captain in May of 1919. One month later, he married Elizabeth Wallace.

Election of 1948: d) Harry A. Wallace

Henry Agard Wallace (October 7, 1888 - November 18, 1965) served as the 33rd Vice President of the United States (1941-1945), the 11th Secretary of Agriculture (1933-1940), and the 10th Secretary of Commerce (1945-1946). He founded the Progressive Party and stood as its presidential nominee in the 1948 presidential election. He strongly supported New Deal liberalism and sought conciliation with the Soviet Union. The son of Secretary of Agriculture Henry Cantwell Wallace, Henry A. Wallace was born in Adair County, Iowa. After earning a degree in animal husbandry from Iowa State University, Wallace worked as a farmer and as a newspaper editor. He founded the Hi-Bred Corn Company, which experienced immense success and made Wallace wealthy. Wallace helped introduce the use of statistics and econometrics in agriculture. Starting in the 1920s, he explored various religions, becoming interested in theosophy and befriending figures such as George William Russell and Nicholas Roerich. In 1933 President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Wallace as his Secretary of Agriculture. Though raised a Republican, Wallace joined the Democratic Party in 1936. As Agriculture Secretary, Wallace sought to raise farm prices and supported the ever-normal granary concept. After Roosevelt dumped John Nance Garner from the Democratic Party ticket in 1940, he selected Wallace as his running mate in his bid for an unprecedented third term. The selection of the liberal Wallace upset many Democratic delegates, and Wallace was only nominated by the 1940 Democratic National Convention after Roosevelt threatened to decline the presidential nomination. The ticket of Roosevelt and Wallace defeated the Republican ticket in the 1940 election, and Wallace was sworn in as vice president in 1941. As Wallace remained unpopular with many Democratic leaders, the 1944 Democratic National Convention denied Wallace re-nomination and instead selected Harry S. Truman as Roosevelt's running mate in the 1944 presidential election. Roosevelt appointed Wallace to the position of Secretary of Commerce in March 1945, and Wallace continued to serve under President Truman after Roosevelt died in April 1945. Truman dismissed Wallace in September 1946 after Wallace made several controversial comments. Wallace became the editor of The New Republic and emerged as a prominent critic of Truman's foreign policies. In 1948 Wallace undertook a third-party bid for the presidency as a Progressive Party candidate, calling for universal government health-insurance, an end to the burgeoning Cold War, and the abolition of segregation. Accusations of Communist influences and Wallace's association with theosophist figures undermined his campaign. Wallace received 2.4% of the popular vote, and Truman prevailed over Wallace, Republican Thomas E. Dewey, and Dixiecrat Strom Thurmond. After the election, Wallace returned to farming and studied agricultural science. He later published a memoir repudiating his foreign-policy views, and he supported the Republican Party nominees in the 1956 and 1960 presidential elections. He died in Danbury, Connecticut in 1965.

What is the importance of the 38th parallel

Image result for What is the importance of the 38th parallel At the end of WWII, the Japanese colony of Korea was to be freed and united as a single nation. Of course, during the transition, American and Soviet soldiers were needed to keep the peace. The dividing line between the American and Soviet zones was the 38th parallel, which roughly divided the country in two.

Explain the importance of each of the events of the Korean War b) November, 1950

In some of the fiercest fighting of the Korean War, thousands of communist Chinese troops launch massive counterattacks against U.S. and Republic of Korea (ROK) troops, driving the Allied forces before them and putting an end to any thoughts for a quick or conclusive U.S. victory. When the counterattacks had been stemmed, U.S. and ROK forces had been driven from North Korea and the war settled into a grinding and frustrating stalemate for the next two-and-a-half years.In the weeks prior to the Chinese attacks, ROK and U.S. forces, under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, had succeeded in driving deeper into North Korea and were nearing the border with the People's Republic of China (PRC). The PRC issued warnings that the Allied forces should keep their distance, and beginning in October 1950 troops from the Chinese People's Liberation Army began to cross the border to assist their North Korean ally. Their numbers grew to around 300,000 by early November. Some bloody encounters occurred between the Chinese and ROK and U.S. forces, but the Chinese troops suddenly broke off offensive operations on November 6. This spurred MacArthur, who had always discounted the military effectiveness of the Chinese troops, to propose a massive new offensive by U.S. and ROK forces. Alternately referred to as the "End the War" or "Home by Christmas" offensive, the attack began on November 24. The offensive almost immediately encountered heavy resistance, and by November 26 the Chinese were launching destructive counterattacks along a 25-mile front. By December, U.S. and ROK forces had been pushed out of North Korea. Eventually, U.S. and ROK forces stopped the Chinese troops and the war settled into a military stalemate.The massive Chinese attack brought an end to any thoughts that U.S. boys would be "home by Christmas." It also raised the specter of the war expanding beyond the borders of the Korean peninsula, something U.S. policymakers-leery of becoming entangled in a land war in Asia that might escalate into a nuclear confrontation with the Soviets-were anxious to avoid.

What were the reasons Truman recognized Israel?

In the Spring of 1948, Palestine became embroiled in American domestic politics. Jewish votes were important to President Truman in the coming election. Key advisers, especially Clark Clifford, pushed him to stand firmly for UN partition to win those votes. As May 15th approached, pressure on President Truman increased. He was urged to recognize the new Jewish state that was certain to be proclaimed when partition occurred. Others counseled against recognition, arguing it would antagonize Arab states and jeopardize American access to oil. President Truman's regard for Secretary of State George C. Marshall was tremendous. The Secretary's opposition to recognition of a new Jewish state in Palestine troubled President Truman and resulted in the sharpest disagreement the two ever had. A Nation is Born TorahAs partition approached, President Truman had to decide whether to officially recognize the Jewish state that would be proclaimed on May 15th. On May 12th, he gathered his advisers at the White House. Tempers flared. Clark Clifford made the case for recognition. Secretary of State George Marshall led the opposition, saying he couldn't vote for President Truman if he pursued recognition. President Truman weighed personal, political and strategic concerns. On May 14th he acted. America recognized the new state of Israel. On May 14th Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion reads the proclamation of nationhood. Striking the speaker's table for emphasis, he announced, "The name of our state shall be Israel." The American statement recognizing the new State of Israel bears President Truman's last-minute handwritten changes. American recognition came shortly after midnight in Palestine, just minutes after the new nation was proclaimed. President Truman accepted the gift of a Torah from Dr. Chaim Weizmann, first president of the new state of Israel, during Weizmann's visit to the White House on May 25th, 1948.

What caused the Korean Civil War: North Korea vs. South Korea

Korean War began when some 75,000 soldiers from the North Korean People's Army poured across the 38th parallel, the boundary between the Soviet-backed Democratic People's Republic of Korea to the north and the pro-Western Republic of Korea to the south. ... The Korean peninsula is still divided today.

Explain the purpose of each of the following e) North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NATO's mission is to protect the freedom of its members. For example, on July 8, 2016, NATO announced it would send up to 4,000 troops to the Baltic states and eastern Poland. It will increase air and sea patrols to shore up its eastern front after Russia's attack on Ukraine. Its targets include weapons of mass destruction, terrorism, and cyber attacks. On November 16, 2015, NATO responded to the terrorist attacks in Paris. It called for a unified approach with the European Union, France, and NATO. That's because France did not invoke NATO's Article 5. That would be a formal declaration of war upon the Islamic state group. France preferred to launch air strikes on its own. Article 5 states, "an armed attack upon one... shall be considered an attack upon them all." The only time NATO invoked Article 5 was after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. It responded to U.S. requests for help in the War in Afghanistan. It took the lead from August 2003 to December 2014. At its peak, it deployed 130,000 troops. In 2015, it ended its combat role and began supporting Afghan troops. NATO's protection does not extend to member's civil wars or internal coups. On July 15, 2016, the Turkish military announced it had seized control of the government in a coup. But Turkish President Recep Erdogan announced early on July 16 that the coup had failed. As a NATO member, Turkey would receive its allies' support in the case of an attack. But in case of a coup, the country will not get allied help. NATO's second purpose is to protect the stability of the region. In those cases, it would defend non-members. On August 28, 2014, NATO announced it had photos proving that Russia invaded Ukraine. Although Ukraine is not a member, it had worked with NATO over the years. Russia's invasion of Ukraine threatened nearby NATO members. They worried other former USSR satellite countries would be next. As a result, NATO's September 2014 summit focused on Russia' aggression. President Putin vowed to create a "New Russia" out of Ukraine's eastern region. According to a Wall Street Journal article, "U.S. Vows NATO Defense of Baltics," published in September 4, 2014, the U.S. promised to do the opposite. President Obama pledged to defend countries such as Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. NATO itself admits that "Peacekeeping has become at least as difficult as peacemaking." As a result, NATO is strengthening alliances throughout the world.

Explain the purpose of each of the following b) National Security Council

NSC is chaired by the President. Its regular attendees (both statutory and non-statutory) are the Vice President, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Defense, and the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is the statutory military advisor to the Council, and the Director of National Intelligence is the intelligence advisor. The Chief of Staff to the President, Counsel to the President, and the Assistant to the President for Economic Policy are invited to attend any NSC meeting. The Attorney General and the Director of the Office of Management and Budget are invited to attend meetings pertaining to their responsibilities. The heads of other executive departments and agencies, as well as other senior officials, are invited to attend meetings of the NSC when appropriate.

What were the provisions and purpose of the National Security Act

National Security Act of 1947 Great Seal of the United States Long title An Act to promote the national security by providing for a Secretary of Defense; for a National Military Establishment; for a Department of the Army, a Department of the Navy, a Department of the Air Force; and for the coordination of the activities of the National Military Establishment with other departments and agencies of the Government concerned with the national security. Enacted by the 80th United States Congress Effective September 18, 1947 Citations Public law 80-253 Statutes at Large 61 Stat. 495 Codification Titles amended 50 U.S.C.: War and National Defense U.S.C. sections created 50 U.S.C. ch. 15 § 401 Legislative history Introduced in the Senate as S. 758 by John Gurney (R-SD) on March 3, 1947 Signed into law by President Harry S. Truman on July 26, 1947 The National Security Act of 1947 was a major restructuring of the United States government's military and intelligence agencies following World War II. The majority of the provisions of the Act took effect on September 18, 1947, the day after the Senate confirmed James Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense.[1] The Act merged the Department of War (renamed as the Department of the Army) and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment (NME), headed by the Secretary of Defense. It also created the Department of the Air Force and the United States Air Force, which separated the Army Air Forces into its own service. It also protected the Marine Corps as an independent service, under the Department of the Navy. Aside from the military reorganization, the act established the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency, the U.S.'s first peacetime non-military intelligence agency.

What did Truman do when MacArthur tried to go over his head to appeal to the American public?

On 11 April 1951, President Truman drafted an order to MacArthur, which was issued under Bradley's signature: I deeply regret that it becomes my duty as President and Commander-in-Chief of the United States military forces to replace you as Supreme Commander, Allied Powers; Commander-in-Chief, United Nations Command; Commander-in-Chief, Far East; and Commanding General, U.S. Army, Far East. You will turn over your commands, effective at once, to Lt. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway. You are authorized to have issued such orders as are necessary to complete desired travel to such place as you select.

Events of the Korean War - Explain the importance of the dates below b) June 27, 1950

On June 27, 1950, President Harry S. Truman announced that he had ordered United States air and naval forces to fight with South Korea's Army, two days after Communist North Korea invaded South Korea. The invasion had prompted the Security Council of the United Nations to call for a ceasefire and for all combatants to return to their former positions on either side of the 38th parallel, which divides the two Koreas.

Explain the importance of each of the events of the Korean War a) September 15, 1950

On September 15, 1950, during the Korean War (1950-53), U.S. Marines force made a surprise amphibious landing at the strategic port of Inchon, on the west coast of Korea, about 100 miles south of the 38th parallel and 25 miles from Seoul. The location had been criticized as too risky, but United Nations (U.N.) Supreme Commander Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964) insisted on carrying out the bold landing. Afterward, the American-led U.N. force was able to break North Korean supply lines and push inland to recapture Seoul, the South Korean capital that had fallen to the Communists in June.The landing at Inchon changed the course of the war; however, the conflict later settled into a long, bloody stalemate that did not end until a July 1953 armistice.

What the "Fair Deal"

Part of a series on Progressivism History[show] Ideas[show] People[show] By region[show] Socrates.png Philosophy portal A coloured voting box.svg Politics portal vte The Fair Deal was an ambitious set of proposals put forward by U.S. President Harry S. Truman to Congress in his January 1949 State of the Union address. More generally the term characterizes the entire domestic agenda of the Truman administration, from 1945 to 1953. It offered new proposals to continue New Deal liberalism, but with the Conservative Coalition controlling Congress, only a few of its major initiatives became law and then only if they had considerable GOP support. As Richard Neustadt concludes, the most important proposals were aid to education, universal health insurance, the Fair Employment Practices Commission, and repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act. They were all debated at length, then voted down. Nevertheless, enough smaller and less controversial items passed that liberals could claim some success

What was the purpose of the Loyalty Review Board

President Harry S. Truman signed United States Executive Order 9835, sometimes known as the "Loyalty Order", on March 21, 1947.[1] The order established the first general loyalty program in the United States, designed to root out communist influence in the U.S. federal government. Truman aimed to rally public opinion behind his Cold War policies with investigations conducted under its authority. He also hoped to quiet right-wing critics who accused Democrats of being soft on communism. At the same time, he advised the Loyalty Review Board to limit the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to avoid a witch hunt.[2] The program investigated over 3 million government employees, just over 300 of whom were dismissed as security risks.[3] The Loyalty Order was part of the prelude to the rise of Senator Joseph McCarthy, Republican of Wisconsin. It was mostly the result of increasing U.S.-Soviet tensions and political maneuvering by the president and Congress.[4] The order established a wide area for the departmental loyalty boards to conduct loyalty screenings of federal employees and job applicants. It allowed the FBI to run initial name checks on federal employees and authorized further field investigations if the initial inquiry uncovered information that cast someone in a negative light. Executive Order 9835 also was the main impetus for the creation of the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations (AGLOSO).

How did the visions of the postwar would differ between the two superpowers?

Relations between the Soviet Union and the United States were driven by a complex interplay of ideological, political, and economic factors, which led to shifts between cautious cooperation and often bitter superpower rivalry over the years. The distinct differences in the political systems of the two countries often prevented them from reaching a mutual understanding on key policy issues and even, as in the case of the Cuban missile crisis, brought them to the brink of war. The United States government was initially hostile to the Soviet leaders for taking Russia out of World War I and was opposed to a state ideologically based on communism. Although the United States embarked on a famine relief program in the Soviet Union in the early 1920s and American businessmen established commercial ties there during the period of the New Economic Policy (1921-29), the two countries did not establish diplomatic relations until 1933. By that time, the totalitarian nature of Joseph Stalin's regime presented an insurmountable obstacle to friendly relations with the West. Although World War II brought the two countries into alliance, based on the common aim of defeating Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union's aggressive, antidemocratic policy toward Eastern Europe had created tensions even before the war ended. The Soviet Union and the United States stayed far apart during the next three decades of superpower conflict and the nuclear and missile arms race. Beginning in the early 1970s, the Soviet regime proclaimed a policy of détente and sought increased economic cooperation and disarmament negotiations with the West. However, the Soviet stance on human rights and its invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 created new tensions between the two countries. These tensions continued to exist until the dramatic democratic changes of 1989-91 led to the collapse during this past year of the Communist system and opened the way for an unprecedented new friendship between the United States and Russia, as well as the other new nations of the former Soviet Union.

What were the reasons people headed to the South and Southwest?

Relations between the Soviet Union and the United States were driven by a complex interplay of ideological, political, and economic factors, which led to shifts between cautious cooperation and often bitter superpower rivalry over the years. The distinct differences in the political systems of the two countries often prevented them from reaching a mutual understanding on key policy issues and even, as in the case of the Cuban missile crisis, brought them to the brink of war. The United States government was initially hostile to the Soviet leaders for taking Russia out of World War I and was opposed to a state ideologically based on communism. Although the United States embarked on a famine relief program in the Soviet Union in the early 1920s and American businessmen established commercial ties there during the period of the New Economic Policy (1921-29), the two countries did not establish diplomatic relations until 1933. By that time, the totalitarian nature of Joseph Stalin's regime presented an insurmountable obstacle to friendly relations with the West. Although World War II brought the two countries into alliance, based on the common aim of defeating Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union's aggressive, antidemocratic policy toward Eastern Europe had created tensions even before the war ended. The Soviet Union and the United States stayed far apart during the next three decades of superpower conflict and the nuclear and missile arms race. Beginning in the early 1970s, the Soviet regime proclaimed a policy of détente and sought increased economic cooperation and disarmament negotiations with the West. However, the Soviet stance on human rights and its invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 created new tensions between the two countries. These tensions continued to exist until the dramatic democratic changes of 1989-91 led to the collapse during this past year of the Communist system and opened the way for an unprecedented new friendship between the United States and Russia, as well as the other new nations of the former Soviet Union.

What agreements/Decisions were reached regarding a) Poland, Bulgaria and Romania

Russia would essentially control Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary. Poland was another matter. In Lublin, Poland, the Soviets had set up a government of pro-Communist Poles. Back in London, however, a pro-Western group claimed to be the true government-in-exile. Throughout the war, Stalin had acted with customary barbarity in seeking an advantage. In 1940 he ordered the slaughter of thousands of Polish army officers in the Katyn Forest, fearing their potential allegiance to the London Poles. In 1944, he stalled his own army's march into Poland to let the Germans put down the Warsaw Uprising, again to strengthen the Communists' hand. At Yalta, Stalin wanted FDR and Churchill to recognize the Lublin government. They refused. Instead, all agreed to accept a provisional government, with a pledge to hold "free and unfettered elections" soon. For other liberated European countries, the Big Three also pledged to establish "interim governmental authorities broadly representative of all democratic elements in the population" and committed to free elections. Roosevelt knew that Stalin might renege, and it was perhaps cynical for him to trumpet elections that might never take place. But as the historian David M. Kennedy has written, he had little choice, "unless Roosevelt was prepared to order Eisenhower to fight his way across the breadth of Germany, take on the Red Army, and drive it out of Poland at gunpoint." Stalin, of course, never allowed elections in Poland or anywhere else. "Our hopeful assumptions were soon to be falsified," Churchill wrote. "Still, they were the only ones possible at the time." Short of starting a hot war, the West was powerless to intervene, just as it was in Hungary in 1956 or Prague in 1968.

What were the provisions of the Taft-Hartley Act

T]o promote the full flow of commerce, to prescribe the legitimate rights of both employees and employers in their relations affecting commerce, to provide orderly and peaceful procedures for preventing the interference by either with the legitimate rights of the other, to protect the rights of individual employees in their relations with labor organizations whose activities affect commerce, to define and proscribe practices on the part of labor and management which affect commerce and are inimical to the general welfare, and to protect the rights of the public in connection with labor disputes affecting commerce. The amendments enacted in Taft-Hartley added a list of prohibited actions, or unfair labor practices, on the part of unions to the NLRA, which had previously only prohibited unfair labor practices committed by employers. The Taft-Hartley Act prohibited jurisdictional strikes, wildcat strikes, solidarity or political strikes, secondary boycotts, secondary and mass picketing, closed shops, and monetary donations by unions to federal political campaigns. It also required union officers to sign non-communist affidavits with the government. Union shops were heavily restricted, and states were allowed to pass right-to-work laws that ban agency fees. Furthermore, the executive branch of the federal government could obtain legal strikebreaking injunctions if an impending or current strike imperiled the national health or safety.[

What was the purpose of the McCarran International Security Bill

The Act required Communist organizations to register with the United States Attorney General and established the Subversive Activities Control Board to investigate persons suspected of engaging in subversive activities or otherwise promoting the establishment of a "totalitarian dictatorship," either fascist or communist. Members of these groups could not become citizens and in some cases were prevented from entering or leaving the country. Citizens found in violation could lose their citizenship in five years. The Act also contained an emergency detention statute, giving the President the authority to apprehend and detain "each person as to whom there is a reasonable ground to believe that such person probably will engage in, or probably will conspire with others to engage in, acts of espionage or sabotage."[3] It tightened alien exclusion and deportation laws and allowed for the detention of dangerous, disloyal, or subversive persons in times of war or "internal security emergency". The Act made picketing a federal courthouse a felony if intended to obstruct the court system or influence jurors or other trial participants.

Steps Taken by the Truman Administration to Prevent Economic Downturn c) What was the purpose of the Council of Economic Advisers

The Council of Economic Advisers was established by Congress in the Employment Act of 1946. The portion of the bill that authorizes the Council is presented below: "There is hereby created in the Executive Office of the President a Council of Economic Advisers (hereinafter called the "Council"). The Council shall be composed of three members who shall be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and each of whom shall be a person who, as a result of his training, experience, and attainments, is exceptionally qualified to analyze and interpret economic developments, to appraise programs and activities of the Government in the light of the policy declared in section 2, and to formulate and recommend national economic policy to promote employment, production, and purchasing power under free competitive enterprise. The President shall designate one of the members of the Council as Chairman. It shall be the duty and function of the Council- to assist and advise the President in the preparation of the Economic Report; to gather timely and authoritative information concerning economic developments and economic trends, both current and prospective, to analyze and interpret such information in the light of the policy declared in section 2 for the purpose of determining whether such developments and trends are interfering, or are likely to interfere, with the achievement of such policy, and to compile and submit to the President studies relating to such developments and trends; to appraise the various programs and activities of the Federal Government in the light of the policy declared in section 2 for the purpose of determining the extent to which such programs and activities are contributing, and the extent to which they are not contributing, to the achievement of such policy, and to make recommendations to the President with respect thereto; to develop and recommend to the President national economic policies to foster and promote free competitive enterprise, to avoid economic fluctuations or to diminish the effects thereof, and to maintain employment, production, and purchasing power; to make and furnish such studies, reports thereon, and recommendations with respect to matters of Federal economic policy and legislation as the President may request."

Wat did the Supreme Court decide in the Dennis v. United States

The Court ruled that Dennis did not have the right under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution to exercise free speech, publication and assembly, if the exercise involved the creation of a plot to overthrow the government.

Who was at the Yalta conference

The February 1945 Yalta Conference was the second wartime meeting of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

What was the purpose of the House Un-American Activities Committee

The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was created in 1938 to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of private citizens, public employees, and those organizations suspected of having Communist ties. Reorganized from its previous incarnations as the Fish Committee and the McCormack-Dickstein Committee and with a new chairman, the cantankerous Martin Dies of Texas, HUAC's strident attacks on the Roosevelt administration prior to the outbreak of the war did not suit the political mood of a nation that was largely in favor of FDR's leadership. All that changed, however, in the postwar atmosphere of fear and contempt for the Soviet Union, at which time HUAC's activities commanded broad popular support and consistently attracted major headlines. Through its power to subpoena witness and hold people in contempt of Congress, HUAC often pressured witnesses to surrender names and other information that could lead to the apprehension of Communists and Communist sympathizers. Committee members often branded witnesses as "red" if they refused to comply or hesitated in answering committee questions. In perhaps its most famous investigation, HUAC-member Richard Nixon, after weeks of dramatic hearings, was, at the final hour, able to reveal that Alger Hiss, a former State Department official, had lied to them about having "ever been a Communist." More importantly, however, the questioning style and examination techniques employed by HUAC served as the model upon which Senator Joseph McCarthy would conduct his investigative hearings in the early 1950s. Following Senator McCarthy's censure, however, and his subsequent departure from the Senate, the American public grew increasingly wary of the "redbaiting" techniques employed by HUAC and others. The work of the committee continued to decline in importance throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s until the committee itself was renamed the House Internal Security Committee in 1969, prefiguring its eventual abolition in 1975.

What were the Tokyo Trials

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was convened at Ichigaya Court, formerly the Imperial Japanese Army H building, in Ichigaya, Tokyo. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE), also known as the Tokyo Trials or the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, was a military trial convened on April 29, 1946, to try the leaders of the Empire of Japan for "Class A" crimes, which were reserved for those who participated in a joint conspiracy to start and wage war.[1] Twenty-eight Japanese military and political leaders were charged with waging aggressive war and with responsibility for conventional war crimes. More than 5,700 lower-ranking personnel were charged with conventional war crimes in separate trials convened by Australia, China, France, the Netherlands, the Philippines, the United Kingdom and the United States. The charges covered a wide range of crimes including prisoner abuse, rape, sexual slavery, torture, ill-treatment of labourers, execution without trial and inhumane medical experiments. China held 13 tribunals, resulting in 504 convictions and 149 executions. The Japanese Emperor Hirohito and all members of The Imperial Family, such as career officer Prince Yasuhiko Asaka, were not prosecuted for involvement in any of the three categories of crimes. Herbert Bix explained, "The Truman Administration and General MacArthur both believed the occupation reforms would be implemented smoothly if they used Hirohito to legitimise their changes".[2] As many as 50 suspects, such as Nobusuke Kishi, who later became Prime Minister, and Yoshisuke Aikawa, head of Nissan, were charged but released in 1947 and 1948. Shiro Ishii received immunity in exchange for data gathered from his experiments on live prisoners. The lone dissenting judge arguing to exonerate all arrested suspects was Indian jurist Radhabinod Pal.

What was the purpose of the Security Council

The Security Council responds to crises around the world on a case-by-case basis and it has a range of options at its disposal. It takes many different factors into account when considering the establishment of new peacekeeping operation, including: Whether there is a ceasefire in place and the parties have committed themselves to a peace process intended to reach a political settlement; Whether a clear political goal exists and whether it can be reflected in the mandate; Whether a precise mandate for a UN operation can be formulated; Whether the safety and security of UN personnel can be reasonably ensured, including in particular whether reasonable guarantees can be obtained from the main parties or factions regarding the safety and security of UN personnel. The Security Council establishes a peacekeeping operation by adopting a Security Council resolution. The resolution sets out that mission's mandate and size. The Security Council monitors the work of UN Peacekeeping operations on an ongoing basis, including through periodic reports from the Secretary-General and by holding dedicated Security Council sessions to discuss the work of specific operations. The Security Council can vote to extend, amend or end mission mandates as it deems appropriate. Under Article 25 of the Charter, all UN members agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council. While other organs of the UN make recommendations to Member States, the Council alone has the power to take decisions which Member States are obligated to implement.

Explain the purpose of each of the following d) Selective Service System

The Selective Service System is an independent agency of the United States government that maintains information on those potentially subject to military conscription. Virtually all male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between the ages of 18 and 25 are required by law to have registered within 30 days of their 18th birthdays and must notify Selective Service within ten days of any changes to any of the information they provided on their registration cards, like a change of address.

What caused Southern Democrats ("Dixiecrats") to break away from the party?

The States' Rights Democratic Party dissolved after the 1948 election, as Truman, the Democratic National Committee, and the New Deal Southern Democrats acted to ensure that the Dixiecrat movement would not return in the 1952 presidential election. Some Southern diehards, such as Leander Perez of Louisiana, attempted to keep it in existence in their districts.[16] Former Dixiecrats received some backlash at the 1952 Democratic National Convention, but all Southern delegations were seated after agreeing to a party loyalty pledge.[17] Moderate Alabama Senator John Sparkman was selected as the Democratic vice presidential nominee in 1952, helping to boost party loyalty in the South.[17] Regardless of the power struggle within the Democratic Party concerning segregation policy, the South remained a strongly Democratic voting bloc for local, state, and federal Congressional elections, but increasingly not in presidential elections.

What was the purpose of the United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization created in 1945, shortly after the end of WWII. The UN was formed by 51 countries in order to encourage resolution of international conflicts without war and to form policies on international issues. Like most organizations, the UN was formed in order to meet certain goals and purposes. Article I of the Charter of United Nations specifies the purposes of the UN. The Charter of United Nations (UN Charter) is the UN's governing document, much like the Constitution of the United States of America. The UN Charter sets out four main purposes: Maintaining worldwide peace and security Developing relations among nations Fostering cooperation between nations in order to solve economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian international problems Providing a forum for bringing countries together to meet the UN's purposes and goals

Explain the importance of the dates below b) 1952-U.S. exploded an H-bomb

The United States detonates the world's first thermonuclear weapon, the hydrogen bomb, on Eniwetok atoll in the Pacific. The test gave the United States a short-lived advantage in the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union. Following the successful Soviet detonation of an atomic device in September 1949, the United States accelerated its program to develop the next stage in atomic weaponry, a thermonuclear bomb. Popularly known as the hydrogen bomb, this new weapon was approximately 1,000 times more powerful than conventional nuclear devices. Opponents of development of the hydrogen bomb included J. Robert Oppenheimer, one of the fathers of the atomic bomb. He and others argued that little would be accomplished except the speeding up of the arms race, since it was assumed that the Soviets would quickly follow suit.The opponents were correct in their assumptions. The Soviet Union exploded a thermonuclear device the following year and by the late 1970s, seven nations had constructed hydrogen bombs. The nuclear arms race had taken a fearful step forward.

What countries were involved in the Nuclear Arms Race

The nuclear arms race was a competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War. During this period, in addition to the American and Soviet nuclear stockpiles, other countries developed nuclear weapons, though none engaged in warhead production on nearly the same scale as the two superpowers.

Steps Taken by the Truman Administration to Prevent Economic Downturn b) What was the purpose of the Employment Act

The purpose of the Employment Equity Act, No 55 of 1998 is to achieve equity in the workplace by promoting equal opportunity and fair treatment in employment through elimination of unfair discrimination and implementing affirmative action measures to redress the disadvantages in employment experienced by designated groups, in order to ensure equitable representation in all occupational categories and levels in the workforce. This Act provides for additional reporting requirements employers with the additional burden of submitting an Employment Equity Report. All designated employers must, in terms of Section 21 of the Employment Equity Act of 1998 submit their annual report annually. The next reporting deadline for 2016 is 3 October 2016, if you submit manually or by post. Reports cannot be submitted via e-mail or fax. The Department of Labour has also launched an Employment Equity Online Reporting System where reports can be submitted electronically. The deadline for online submissions for the 2016 reporting period is 15 January 2017. To complete the online report, please visit the Department of Labour's website and register for the on-line reporting. On 21 July 2014 the President signed the Employment Amendment Act, No 47 of 2013. This Amendment Act became effective on 1 August 2014.

What problems occurred in Berlin that caused the Berlin Airlift?

The release of the Truman Doctrine in March 1947 ended all the possibility of a US-Soviet co-operation and dashed the hope of German reunification as well. Later that year, one more step was taken to consolidate the unity of a West Germany. France no longer opposed to the creation of a West German state and agreed to combine its zone with Bizonia to form the ''Trizonia''. The merger of the three Western zones was completed by mid-1948. The Russians reacted by introducing the Ostmark in their occupation zone and the whole of Berlin. They also suspended all land and air traffic to Berlin. This was known as the ''Berlin Blockade''. The Western Allies had to carry out massive airlift to provide food and other supplies to the West Berliners. The Russians eventually agreed to put an end to the blockade as it was costing more than it was worth, but the fundamental differences betweenRussia and the Western Powers on Germany could not be reconciled. The Berlin Blockade accelerated the setting up of a separate government in the Western zones.

What were the provisions of Social Security Act of 1950

This legislation extended coverage under the old-age and survivors insurance program to about 10 million more persons; it liberalized the eligibility conditions; it improved the retirement test; it provided wage credits of $160 a month for military service from September 1940 to July 1947; it increased benefits substantially; it raised the wage base for tax and benefit computation purposes; it provided a new contribution schedule; and it eliminated the 1944 provision authorizing appropriations to the trust fund from the General Treasury.

NSC-68

This policy statement committed the United States to a military approach to the Cold War.

What were some of the causes of bad feelings between the U.S. and Soviet Union?

Truman maintained most wars of the last two centuries had involved access to these and other inland waterways. Although Truman's proposal appeared to be of secondary importance, it became obvious over the course of the conference that it was important to Truman. The British expressed support in general terms, but Stalin refused to consider it. Truman requested the matter be referred to the foreign ministers, but Stalin ignored the request. On August 1, 1945, the conference began to consider the final communique. Truman stated he regretted that no agreement had been possible on control of inland waterways, but believed the communique should mention the subject had been discussed. The British again agreed, but Stalin objected. Truman then made a personal plea to Stalin, which Stalin rejected outright even before the translation was completed. Truman could not mistake the rebuff and was furious. American policy toward the Soviet Union did not change immediately, but evolved gradually. Clay, operating on the basis of JCS 1067 and the Potsdam agreements, was determined to get along with the Soviets. His reading of these agreements made clear that his principle mission was the unification of Germany and, therefore, harmonious cooperation with the Soviets seemed a given. Clay told his staff in Berlin: We have to make it work. If the four nations cannot work together in Berlin, how can we get together in the United Nations to secure the peace of the world. Obviously, there had to be some give and take and, at the Allied Control Council, this was going to be the American policy. During the first two years, Clay got along famously with his Soviet counterpart, Sokolovsky. One reporter made the following observation about this relationship. There was a great deal of mutual respect and each appeared to recognize that the insults and denunciations that were a standing feature at their meetings had nothing personal in them. . . Sokolovsky, because he had been trained in a school of diplomacy where the calculated insult was a standard weapon, and Clay, because he was alert and adaptable, never stood on their dignity once the fishwives' session was over. Out they would go to the bar, arm in arm, and have a drink. Later, critics of Clay would comment that he seemed to have blinders on and did not appear to take notice of Soviet actions going on outside Germany. As a military man with a mission, Clay directed all his energy and attention to accomplishing this mission and took too narrow a view of Soviet actions. Because Clay, on his level, had established good working relations with the Soviets, he feared that in the long run the mutual suspicion of the two governments would jeopardize the success of his assignment.

What were the Nuremberg Trials and what were the results?

Twelve prominent Nazis were sentenced to death. Most of the defendants admitted to the crimes of which they were accused, although most claimed that they were simply following the orders of a higher authority. Those individuals directly involved in the killing received the most severe sentences. Other people who played key roles in the Holocaust, including high-level government officials, and business executives who used concentration camp inmates as forced laborers, received short prison sentences or no penalty at all. The Nazis' highest authority, the person most to blame for the Holocaust, was missing at the trials. Adolf Hitler had committed suicide in the final days of the war, as had several of his closest aides. Many more criminals were never tried. Some fled Germany to live abroad, including hundreds who came to the United States. Trials of Nazis continued to take place both in Germany and many other countries. Simon Wiesenthal, a Nazi-hunter, provided leads for war crimes investigators about Adolf Eichmann. Eichmann, who had helped plan and carry out the deportations of millions of Jews, was brought to trial in Israel. The testimony of hundreds of witnesses, many of them survivors, was followed all over the world. Eichmann was found guilty and executed in 1962

Three reasons people moved from the cities to the suburbs after the war

Yes, there was a massive shift in the way Americans lived following WW2. When millions of young men returned from the war, the grateful government made funding available so that they could all live the "American Dream" of owning their own home. This resulted in the creation of the suburb, and the automobile lifestyle that has ruled the nation ever since. There were huge unforeseen consequences - urban sprawl as cities gave rise to giant suburbs and far more roads and highways, often built on former good farmland; air pollution from the car culture; "White flight" from the cities as white people followed the move to the suburbs, dropping the cities' tax bases sharply and resulting in poverty and minority-dominated ghettoes in many major cities; the cementing of Big Oil and the automobile manufacturers as perhaps America's key industries; and general high inefficiency in the way America runs because people accepted being separated from their jobs and having to commute to work.

Who were the greatest beneficiaries of postwar prosperity and how did they benefit?

erhaps the most important measure taken in combating the recession was the Montgomery G.I. Bill, which Congress had passed in 1944 to help the 15 million returning U.S. veterans reenter the job market. Also known as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act and the G.I. Bill of Rights, the G.I. Bill gave government grants to any veteran who wished to return to school. Neither Truman nor Congress predicted that more than half of returning veterans would take advantage of approximately $15 billion in federal grants to attend vocational schools, colleges, and universities. The G.I. Bill also set aside an equal amount of money to provide veterans with loans for new homes, farms, and businesses. Historians have since hailed the Montgomery G.I. Bill as the most significant law passed to address the concerns of the postwar years. It reduced fierce competition for jobs after the war and boosted the economy by helping millions of workers acquire new skills. Many have claimed that the economic boom in the 1950s would never have happened at all without the G.I. Bill.

What were the provisions of the Housing Act of 1949

federal financing for slum clearance programs associated with urban renewal projects in American cities (Title I) increased authorization for the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) mortgage insurance (Title II) extension of federal money to build more than 800,000 public housing units (Title III) research funding in housing and housing techniques financing through the FHA for rural homeowners

What was so significant about the NATO pact?

first peacetime military alliance the United States entered into outside of the Western Hemisphere

What was the purpose of the World Bank

he World Bank is an international organization that helps emerging market countries reduce poverty. It is not a bank in the conventional sense of the word. Instead, it consists of two development institutions. One is the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The second is the International Development Association. The Bank's 189 member countries share ownership. The Bank works closely with three other organizations: The International Finance Corporation The Multilateral Guarantee Agency The International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes. All five organizations make up the World Bank Group. Purpose and Function The World Bank provides low-interest loans, interest-free credit and grants. It focuses on improving education, health, and infrastructure. It also uses funds to modernize a country's financial sector, agriculture, and natural resources management. The Bank's stated purpose is to "bridge the economic divide between poor and rich countries." It does this by turning "rich country resources into poor country growth." It has a long-term vision to "achieve sustainable poverty reduction." To achieve this goal, the Bank focuses on six areas: Overcome poverty by spurring growth, especially in Africa. Help reconstruct countries emerging from war, the biggest cause of extreme poverty. Provide a customized solution to help middle-income countries remain out of poverty. Spur governments to prevent climate change. It helps them control communicable diseases, especially HIV/AIDS, and malaria. It also manages international financial crises and promotes free trade. Work with the Arab League on three goals. They are to improve education, build infrastructure, and provide micro-loans to small businesses. Share its expertise with developing countries. Publicize its knowledge via reports and its interactive online database.

What did people fear would happen to the economy now that the war was over?

merica's involvement in World War II had a significant impact on the economy and workforce of the United States. The United States was still recovering from the impact of the Great Depression and the unemployment rate was hovering around 25%. Our involvement in the war soon changed that rate. American factories were retooled to produce goods to support the war effort and almost overnight the unemployment rate dropped to around 10%. Women went to work to fill jobs that were traditionally held by men. This segment of Iowa Public Television's Iowa's WWII Stories includes historical footage and profiles how a civilian from Ankeny, Iowa supported the war effort.

Events of the Korean War - Explain the importance of the dates below a) June 25, 1950

rmed forces from communist North Korea smash into South Korea, setting off the Korean War. The United States, acting under the auspices of the United Nations, quickly sprang to the defense of South Korea and fought a bloody and frustrating war for the next three years.