The English Civil War
1642 Royalist high tide By mid-1643 royal expectations seemed close to being fulfilled In north of England, William Cavendish, marquis of Newcastle, had achieved much Consolidated his hold over the northern coalfields around Newcastle But also he advanced south, taking considerable parts of east & north Yorkshire, north Lincolnshire & important town of Newark
1642 Royalist high tide By mid-1643 royal expectations seemed close to being fulfilled In north of England, William Cavendish, marquis of Newcastle, had achieved much Consolidated his hold over the northern coalfields around Newcastle But also he advanced south, taking considerable parts of east & north Yorkshire, north Lincolnshire & important town of Newark
2.) Interrupted string of humiliating reverses in open battle for parliament in 1643 3.) John Barratt noted that Royalists had failed in what might prove to have been 'their best chance to destroy the principle field army of their opponents, and hopes of a crushing victory which would bring down the Parliamentarian "war party" lay in ruins' 4.) high Parliamentarian feelings after Newbury led to the signing of Solemn League and Covenant, bringing a powerful Scottish army down to assault Royalists
2.) Interrupted string of humiliating reverses in open battle for parliament in 1643 3.) John Barratt noted that Royalists had failed in what might prove to have been 'their best chance to destroy the principle field army of their opponents, and hopes of a crushing victory which would bring down the Parliamentarian "war party" lay in ruins' 4.) high Parliamentarian feelings after Newbury led to the signing of Solemn League and Covenant, bringing a powerful Scottish army down to assault Royalists
Accepted traditional constitution Wanted a reformed church Difference came over parliamentary approval of king's ministers (sticking point in negotiations since the summer of 1641) Vast majority of political nation chose to believe that this had not been resolved because Charles had surrounded himself with 'evil counsel' Thus, they were prepared to fight king on behalf of the crown Only when they could blame no one but Charles would some MPs &, more importantly, some soldiers move against monarchy
Accepted traditional constitution Wanted a reformed church Difference came over parliamentary approval of king's ministers (sticking point in negotiations since the summer of 1641) Vast majority of political nation chose to believe that this had not been resolved because Charles had surrounded himself with 'evil counsel' Thus, they were prepared to fight king on behalf of the crown Only when they could blame no one but Charles would some MPs &, more importantly, some soldiers move against monarchy
Peace NegotiationsShock of clash of arms at Edgehill provoked calls for peace Even as his troops marched on London in 1642 Charles had met with Parliamentarian commissioners at Colnbrook in Buckinghamshire to discuss peace King expected Parliament to submit to his authority Negotiations took place again at Oxford from 1 Feb. to 14 Apr. 1643 'Treaty of Oxford' failed because parliament, determined to maintain their links with Scots, insisted that Charles agree to immediate abolition of episcopacy Furthermore Charles could still realistically expect to defeat his opponents militarily
Peace NegotiationsShock of clash of arms at Edgehill provoked calls for peace Even as his troops marched on London in 1642 Charles had met with Parliamentarian commissioners at Colnbrook in Buckinghamshire to discuss peace King expected Parliament to submit to his authority Negotiations took place again at Oxford from 1 Feb. to 14 Apr. 1643 'Treaty of Oxford' failed because parliament, determined to maintain their links with Scots, insisted that Charles agree to immediate abolition of episcopacy Furthermore Charles could still realistically expect to defeat his opponents militarily
Powder charge ignited by placing a burning length of 'match' (combustible cord) into some refined gunpowder placed on priming pan Weapons notoriously slow to load & inaccurate, though they could inflict horrible injury death
Powder charge ignited by placing a burning length of 'match' (combustible cord) into some refined gunpowder placed on priming pan Weapons notoriously slow to load & inaccurate, though they could inflict horrible injury death
Pym's contribution Before the Scots army entered England, Pym had died from cancer in Dec. 1643 Much of parliament's new methods of 1643 were credited to Pym Saw need to fight war effectively if parliament not to lose Acceptable to two parliamentary groups of time, 'peace' & 'war' parties Thus did much to keep parliament united When his wartime strategies are added to his leadership of parliament from 1640 to 1642, it can be seen that Pym had accomplished much
Pym's contribution Before the Scots army entered England, Pym had died from cancer in Dec. 1643 Much of parliament's new methods of 1643 were credited to Pym Saw need to fight war effectively if parliament not to lose Acceptable to two parliamentary groups of time, 'peace' & 'war' parties Thus did much to keep parliament united When his wartime strategies are added to his leadership of parliament from 1640 to 1642, it can be seen that Pym had accomplished much
Alan Everitt's classic study The local community and the Great Rebellion (1969), compared two adjoining counties, Northamptonshire & Leicestershire Gentry of Leicestershire divided into two rival (& Puritan) groups Concentrated on local rivalries & thus avoided making a national choice until 1645 Northamptonshire chose for parliament in 1642 because its leading royalist families left to support the king Left the Puritans to rally county behind Pym & parliament Some counties tried to avoid getting drawn in John Morrill's Revolt in the provinces (1999), found attempts to form neutrality pacts in 22 English counties & many towns Argues that 'side-taking for the great majority was contingent'
Alan Everitt's classic study The local community and the Great Rebellion (1969), compared two adjoining counties, Northamptonshire & Leicestershire Gentry of Leicestershire divided into two rival (& Puritan) groups Concentrated on local rivalries & thus avoided making a national choice until 1645 Northamptonshire chose for parliament in 1642 because its leading royalist families left to support the king Left the Puritans to rally county behind Pym & parliament Some counties tried to avoid getting drawn in John Morrill's Revolt in the provinces (1999), found attempts to form neutrality pacts in 22 English counties & many towns Argues that 'side-taking for the great majority was contingent'
All men aged between 18 & 50 liable for military service, though parliament tried to ensure that policy carefully administered to avoid provoking too much opposition In terms of allies, Charles looked to Ireland Marquis of Ormond, commander of royal forces in Ireland, successfully concluded a one-year Cessation Treaty with Irish Confederates in Sept. 1643 During next nine months, a total of around 22,000 troops made their way from Ireland to England, Scotland & Wales However, because these troops came across in piecemeal fashion, they were militarily ineffective Indeed, Fairfax easily overwhelmed a force of 2,500 Irish troops at Battle of Nantwich, in Cheshire, in Jan. 1644 Some prisoners captured changed sides & thereafter fought for parliament
All men aged between 18 & 50 liable for military service, though parliament tried to ensure that policy carefully administered to avoid provoking too much opposition In terms of allies, Charles looked to Ireland Marquis of Ormond, commander of royal forces in Ireland, successfully concluded a one-year Cessation Treaty with Irish Confederates in Sept. 1643 During next nine months, a total of around 22,000 troops made their way from Ireland to England, Scotland & Wales However, because these troops came across in piecemeal fashion, they were militarily ineffective Indeed, Fairfax easily overwhelmed a force of 2,500 Irish troops at Battle of Nantwich, in Cheshire, in Jan. 1644 Some prisoners captured changed sides & thereafter fought for parliament
Allies & DivisionsAfter a year of civil war, both sides tried to improve supplies of money & men and to gain the support of allies outside England King keen to drive home his successes on battlefields, parliament sought to avoid total defeat Alliances formed in 1643 fundamentally affected course of rest of war In terms of finance, parliament took more drastic measures than did king Charles relied on traditional forms of revenue such as wardships, sale of titles & loans, esp. from the continent He avoided increasing taxation until parliament had led the way
Allies & DivisionsAfter a year of civil war, both sides tried to improve supplies of money & men and to gain the support of allies outside England King keen to drive home his successes on battlefields, parliament sought to avoid total defeat Alliances formed in 1643 fundamentally affected course of rest of war In terms of finance, parliament took more drastic measures than did king Charles relied on traditional forms of revenue such as wardships, sale of titles & loans, esp. from the continent He avoided increasing taxation until parliament had led the way
Also allowed divided counsel to emerge & often paralyse decision-making process Encapsulated in conflicting advice offered by Henrietta Maria & Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon Former remained even in exile his most important advisor She counselled war until total victory Hyde repeatedly stressed wisdom of a settlement with parliament Charles lacked sufficient war leadership to hold cause together
Also allowed divided counsel to emerge & often paralyse decision-making process Encapsulated in conflicting advice offered by Henrietta Maria & Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon Former remained even in exile his most important advisor She counselled war until total victory Hyde repeatedly stressed wisdom of a settlement with parliament Charles lacked sufficient war leadership to hold cause together
Appointed lord chamberlain & general of militia south of the Trent by Charles I in 1641 So deeply attached was Essex to parliament's cause that Charles forced to remove him from the generalship Fought stalemate at Edgehill in 1642 & without significant result at Newbury in 1643 His greatest success was relief of Gloucester in 1643 Greatest failure his defeat at Lostwithiel in 1645 Conservative by nature & pessimistic about parliament's chances of victory Took his burial shroud into battle just in case Essex forced to resign his command in 1645
Appointed lord chamberlain & general of militia south of the Trent by Charles I in 1641 So deeply attached was Essex to parliament's cause that Charles forced to remove him from the generalship Fought stalemate at Edgehill in 1642 & without significant result at Newbury in 1643 His greatest success was relief of Gloucester in 1643 Greatest failure his defeat at Lostwithiel in 1645 Conservative by nature & pessimistic about parliament's chances of victory Took his burial shroud into battle just in case Essex forced to resign his command in 1645
At Battle of Adwalton Moor on 29 June, he defeated Fairfaxes, father and son, & thus took control of much of west Yorkshire Prevented from advancing further south by actions of Oliver Cromwell & because Hull remained parliamentarian Since navy's allegiance was to parliament, Hull could be supplied & thus pose a threat to Newcastle's rear if he advanced south
At Battle of Adwalton Moor on 29 June, he defeated Fairfaxes, father and son, & thus took control of much of west Yorkshire Prevented from advancing further south by actions of Oliver Cromwell & because Hull remained parliamentarian Since navy's allegiance was to parliament, Hull could be supplied & thus pose a threat to Newcastle's rear if he advanced south
Briefly besieged Newcastle but could not take it Marched to Sunderland which declared for parliament - secure port for supplies Marquis of Newcastle set up headquarters at Durham Scots started to infiltrate hills to south of Durham in March 1644 - Newcastle marched south to avoid being cut off Parliamentarians under John Lambert seized Bradford in early March Parliamentarians at Hull under the Fairfaxes took Selby in April & were threatening York
Briefly besieged Newcastle but could not take it Marched to Sunderland which declared for parliament - secure port for supplies Marquis of Newcastle set up headquarters at Durham Scots started to infiltrate hills to south of Durham in March 1644 - Newcastle marched south to avoid being cut off Parliamentarians under John Lambert seized Bradford in early March Parliamentarians at Hull under the Fairfaxes took Selby in April & were threatening York
Choosing sides 'Few wars can have broken out as untidily as the English Civil War' (Anthony Fletcher) Few expected war much before 1642 No great military tradition in England Navy was its main form of defence Across England men - & more particularly the gentry - faced hard choices Faced two competing claims on their loyalty Parliament's 'Militia Ordinance' & king's 'Commission of Array' each asserted right to raise men in form of county trained bands How did the counties respond?
Choosing sides 'Few wars can have broken out as untidily as the English Civil War' (Anthony Fletcher) Few expected war much before 1642 No great military tradition in England Navy was its main form of defence Across England men - & more particularly the gentry - faced hard choices Faced two competing claims on their loyalty Parliament's 'Militia Ordinance' & king's 'Commission of Array' each asserted right to raise men in form of county trained bands How did the counties respond?
Committee for Both Kingdoms Committee of Both Kingdoms (Derby House Committee) set up by English & Scottish parliaments to manage war effort & foreign policy in late Dec. 1643 14 MPs, 7 lords & 4 Scottish commissioners Answerable to Parliament, but had authority to act independently in matters connected with conduct of war Responsible for co-ordinating strategy between English & Scottish armies However, political differences between English & Scots & between Independents & Presbyterians on Committee resulted in conflicts of interest & confused strategies Made peace less likely as it was controlled by war party Senior Parliamentarian commanders did not always co-operate with Committee
Committee for Both Kingdoms Committee of Both Kingdoms (Derby House Committee) set up by English & Scottish parliaments to manage war effort & foreign policy in late Dec. 1643 14 MPs, 7 lords & 4 Scottish commissioners Answerable to Parliament, but had authority to act independently in matters connected with conduct of war Responsible for co-ordinating strategy between English & Scottish armies However, political differences between English & Scots & between Independents & Presbyterians on Committee resulted in conflicts of interest & confused strategies Made peace less likely as it was controlled by war party Senior Parliamentarian commanders did not always co-operate with Committee
Covenanters in northern England 19 January 1644, Scottish army of 18,000 foot, 2,000 horse and 1,000 dragoons commanded by Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven (1580-1661) crossed into England Leslie experienced had served for many years in Thirty Years War as a commander in Swedish army Although perhaps not at full strength Covenanters arrival immediately forced Royalists on to defensive Eased pressure on Parliamentarian forces elsewhere in England
Covenanters in northern England 19 January 1644, Scottish army of 18,000 foot, 2,000 horse and 1,000 dragoons commanded by Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven (1580-1661) crossed into England Leslie experienced had served for many years in Thirty Years War as a commander in Swedish army Although perhaps not at full strength Covenanters arrival immediately forced Royalists on to defensive Eased pressure on Parliamentarian forces elsewhere in England
Dragoons were mounted infantry soldiers who rode into battle & then dismounted to fight on foot Finally, both sides employed artillery, usually cannon though mortars were also used The former, in particular, could be highly destructive, though they seem to have played a major role only in the First Battle of Newbury in 1643 & Langport in 1645
Dragoons were mounted infantry soldiers who rode into battle & then dismounted to fight on foot Finally, both sides employed artillery, usually cannon though mortars were also used The former, in particular, could be highly destructive, though they seem to have played a major role only in the First Battle of Newbury in 1643 & Langport in 1645
Even more impressive was royalist progress in south-west Sir Ralph Hopton had expanded royalist influence from Devon & Cornwall eastwards into much of Wiltshire & Dorset Achieved, firstly, by inflicting serious damage upon forces of Sir William Waller at Lansdown on 5 July 1643
Even more impressive was royalist progress in south-west Sir Ralph Hopton had expanded royalist influence from Devon & Cornwall eastwards into much of Wiltshire & Dorset Achieved, firstly, by inflicting serious damage upon forces of Sir William Waller at Lansdown on 5 July 1643
For all its failings however proved vital in securing King's defeat After first Civil War, King Charles secretly negotiated with Scots to restore him to throne, resulting in Second Civil War & Engager invasion of England With breakdown of alliance between Scotland & English Parliament, Committee for Both Kingdoms dissolved in Jan. 1648 English members continued to meet - known as Derby House Committee Dissolved by Parliament soon after King's execution - replaced by Council of State
For all its failings however proved vital in securing King's defeat After first Civil War, King Charles secretly negotiated with Scots to restore him to throne, resulting in Second Civil War & Engager invasion of England With breakdown of alliance between Scotland & English Parliament, Committee for Both Kingdoms dissolved in Jan. 1648 English members continued to meet - known as Derby House Committee Dissolved by Parliament soon after King's execution - replaced by Council of State
Gradually Charles' poor leadership saw Royalist command structure weakened with establishment of separate jurisdiction at Bristol His appointment of his nephews to leading military positions caused disenchantment in royalist circles Commanders in north & west gradually became increasingly independent Indecisiveness allowed his early advantage in terms of his forces' greater experience to be squandered
Gradually Charles' poor leadership saw Royalist command structure weakened with establishment of separate jurisdiction at Bristol His appointment of his nephews to leading military positions caused disenchantment in royalist circles Commanders in north & west gradually became increasingly independent Indecisiveness allowed his early advantage in terms of his forces' greater experience to be squandered
Had Newcastle brought his royalist forces south it might have tipped numerical balance sufficiently to allow king to triumph in London theatre Charles might have taken advantage of his stronger position in 1643 to negotiate a favorable peace, but he still hoped to defeat rebels entirely
Had Newcastle brought his royalist forces south it might have tipped numerical balance sufficiently to allow king to triumph in London theatre Charles might have taken advantage of his stronger position in 1643 to negotiate a favorable peace, but he still hoped to defeat rebels entirely
HarquebusierCavalry of both sides generally harquebusiers This heavily armoured cavalry played a crucial role in battle during Civil War Though well protected, could be dangerously cumbersome Indeed, Sir Arthur Haselrig's regiment of 'lobsters' probably suffered defeat at Roundway Down in 1643 because their ponderous condition made them unable to respond to a flank attack
HarquebusierCavalry of both sides generally harquebusiers This heavily armoured cavalry played a crucial role in battle during Civil War Though well protected, could be dangerously cumbersome Indeed, Sir Arthur Haselrig's regiment of 'lobsters' probably suffered defeat at Roundway Down in 1643 because their ponderous condition made them unable to respond to a flank attack
In 1643 parliament introduced several new taxes, including weekly (later monthly) assessment Direct tax levied by means of ship-money system, & the excise, a tax on many basic goods Additionally, sequestration meant seizure of estates of those who had voluntarily contributed to royalist cause Devices all very effective, especially assessment, a land tax roughly equivalent to a parliamentary subsidy every fortnight Kent paid more each month in assessments than it had for an entire year of ship money Denounced as 'illegal taxes' & aroused bitter resentment, they increased frequency with which parliament paid its troops Crucial - persuaded communities to support parliament simply because it appeared to be winning side In terms of manpower, parliament introduced impressment for one of its armies in Aug. 1643
In 1643 parliament introduced several new taxes, including weekly (later monthly) assessment Direct tax levied by means of ship-money system, & the excise, a tax on many basic goods Additionally, sequestration meant seizure of estates of those who had voluntarily contributed to royalist cause Devices all very effective, especially assessment, a land tax roughly equivalent to a parliamentary subsidy every fortnight Kent paid more each month in assessments than it had for an entire year of ship money Denounced as 'illegal taxes' & aroused bitter resentment, they increased frequency with which parliament paid its troops Crucial - persuaded communities to support parliament simply because it appeared to be winning side In terms of manpower, parliament introduced impressment for one of its armies in Aug. 1643
In return, Scots would provide an army of 21,500 men to fight for parliament Parliament was to pay £30,000 per month to offset costs of the Scottish army Parliament called Westminster Assembly to advise it on government & doctrine of Church of England It convened 1 July 1643, made up largely of ministers from Parliamentary-controlled areas, & a few laymen appointed by Parliament Delegation of Scottish Commissioners also attended the proceedings Commons & Westminster Assembly took Solemn League and Covenant, 25 Sept 1643 England then sent Scotland money to raise & equip an army
In return, Scots would provide an army of 21,500 men to fight for parliament Parliament was to pay £30,000 per month to offset costs of the Scottish army Parliament called Westminster Assembly to advise it on government & doctrine of Church of England It convened 1 July 1643, made up largely of ministers from Parliamentary-controlled areas, & a few laymen appointed by Parliament Delegation of Scottish Commissioners also attended the proceedings Commons & Westminster Assembly took Solemn League and Covenant, 25 Sept 1643 England then sent Scotland money to raise & equip an army
King advanced on London via Banbury, Oxford, Reading & Windsor On 12 Nov., 13,000-strong Royalist army mustered on Hounslow Heath Royalist advance halted at Turnham Green, several miles outside city, because Charles declined to engage Essex's army, strengthened by trained bands of London under Sir Philip Skippon, a total force of 20,000 Charles retreated to Oxford for winter
King advanced on London via Banbury, Oxford, Reading & Windsor On 12 Nov., 13,000-strong Royalist army mustered on Hounslow Heath Royalist advance halted at Turnham Green, several miles outside city, because Charles declined to engage Essex's army, strengthened by trained bands of London under Sir Philip Skippon, a total force of 20,000 Charles retreated to Oxford for winter
Leaders: Charles I Royalist commander-in-chief was Charles I Not without considerable personal courage & leadership skills in battle King had a number of extremely wealthy supporters William Cavendish, Earl of Newcastle (made a Marquess in 1643 and a Duke in 1665) spent about £700,000 in the King's service Army of 'Whitecoats' he financed held North for Charles for much of war Worcester gave Charles £300,000 However, Charles possessed a poor judgement of human character &, as king, he could not be replaced Royalist Council of War at Oxford initially a very effective organisation esp. in contrast to parliament
Leaders: Charles I Royalist commander-in-chief was Charles I Not without considerable personal courage & leadership skills in battle King had a number of extremely wealthy supporters William Cavendish, Earl of Newcastle (made a Marquess in 1643 and a Duke in 1665) spent about £700,000 in the King's service Army of 'Whitecoats' he financed held North for Charles for much of war Worcester gave Charles £300,000 However, Charles possessed a poor judgement of human character &, as king, he could not be replaced Royalist Council of War at Oxford initially a very effective organisation esp. in contrast to parliament
Leaders: Earl of EssexRobert Devereux, earl of Essex (1591-1646) Experienced in fighting in Palatinate in 1620, also served with Dutch for short periods in 1623 & 1624 In 1639 appointed lieutenant-general of horse for Scots campaign but was superseded by earl of Holland In 1640 he declined to serve
Leaders: Earl of EssexRobert Devereux, earl of Essex (1591-1646) Experienced in fighting in Palatinate in 1620, also served with Dutch for short periods in 1623 & 1624 In 1639 appointed lieutenant-general of horse for Scots campaign but was superseded by earl of Holland In 1640 he declined to serve
Leaders: Oliver CromwellMost inspiring leader was Manchester's deputy, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) Led one of earliest military actions of war when with 200 lightly-armed volunteers he prevented King's men from carrying off silver plate of Cambridge colleges Raised 60 horsemen & fought with Essex at Edgehill Cromwell struck by superiority of Royalist cavalry
Leaders: Oliver CromwellMost inspiring leader was Manchester's deputy, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) Led one of earliest military actions of war when with 200 lightly-armed volunteers he prevented King's men from carrying off silver plate of Cambridge colleges Raised 60 horsemen & fought with Essex at Edgehill Cromwell struck by superiority of Royalist cavalry
Leaders: Prince Rupert of the Rhine Most talented of Charles's generals was his nephew, Prince Rupert Dashing cavalry commander, Rupert acquired a formidable reputation Yet, unlike Oliver Cromwell, he was not always able to maintain coherence & direction of his cavalry charge, as at Edgehill in 1642 & Naseby in 1645 Ultimately undermined by his youthful impatience in dealing with his peers during Civil War
Leaders: Prince Rupert of the Rhine Most talented of Charles's generals was his nephew, Prince Rupert Dashing cavalry commander, Rupert acquired a formidable reputation Yet, unlike Oliver Cromwell, he was not always able to maintain coherence & direction of his cavalry charge, as at Edgehill in 1642 & Naseby in 1645 Ultimately undermined by his youthful impatience in dealing with his peers during Civil War
Local circumstances decided whom they chose to support, if anyone For a sizeable minority, however, choice was less arbitrary Morrill believes that 'it was the men who felt most strongly about religion who began the war' Marxist historians (Christopher Hill & Brian Manning) have argued religious beliefs expression of more fundamental economic & social interests Social class key to explaining how England divided in 1642 Most gentry, ('middling sort'), most of whom were Puritans, identified with parliament Most of the aristocracy (C of E members) supported Charles
Local circumstances decided whom they chose to support, if anyone For a sizeable minority, however, choice was less arbitrary Morrill believes that 'it was the men who felt most strongly about religion who began the war' Marxist historians (Christopher Hill & Brian Manning) have argued religious beliefs expression of more fundamental economic & social interests Social class key to explaining how England divided in 1642 Most gentry, ('middling sort'), most of whom were Puritans, identified with parliament Most of the aristocracy (C of E members) supported Charles
Many others stationed in Welsh garrisons & consequently took little part in any fighting Yet, cessation also did political damage to king's cause Most troops coming from Ireland were Irish or English Protestants However, Parliament used situation to political advantage by implying that returning troops were bloodthirsty Irish papists, thus playing upon worst fears of English Protestants In this sense, it was a propaganda disaster Pym looked to Scotland Scots deeply concerned by Royalist victories of early 1643, fearing if Charles subdued Parliament use his army to reduce Scots to obedience Parliament eager for help from a Scots army
Many others stationed in Welsh garrisons & consequently took little part in any fighting Yet, cessation also did political damage to king's cause Most troops coming from Ireland were Irish or English Protestants However, Parliament used situation to political advantage by implying that returning troops were bloodthirsty Irish papists, thus playing upon worst fears of English Protestants In this sense, it was a propaganda disaster Pym looked to Scotland Scots deeply concerned by Royalist victories of early 1643, fearing if Charles subdued Parliament use his army to reduce Scots to obedience Parliament eager for help from a Scots army
Noted need for a disciplined Parliamentarian cavalry Cromwell carefully recruited only 'godly, honest men' as his troopers & led them with firm discipline Secured most of East Anglia for Parliament by summer of 1643, Cromwell appointed governor of Ely Promoted to colonel in new Eastern Association army raised by Earl of Manchester Played major role in Parliament's victory at Marston Moor, where his troopers routed both Prince Rupert's & Lord Goring's cavaliers Rupert himself is said to have coined nickname 'Ironside' for Cromwell, which became popular with army & extended to his regiment
Noted need for a disciplined Parliamentarian cavalry Cromwell carefully recruited only 'godly, honest men' as his troopers & led them with firm discipline Secured most of East Anglia for Parliament by summer of 1643, Cromwell appointed governor of Ely Promoted to colonel in new Eastern Association army raised by Earl of Manchester Played major role in Parliament's victory at Marston Moor, where his troopers routed both Prince Rupert's & Lord Goring's cavaliers Rupert himself is said to have coined nickname 'Ironside' for Cromwell, which became popular with army & extended to his regiment
Only then able to move south east towards London At Edgehill, in Warwickshire, Essex's army confronted him and the first major battle of the Civil Wars took place Battle is usually reckoned to be a draw Royalists failed to exploit what was probably a winning position when Prince Rupert allowed his cavalry to leave battlefield in order to pursue fleeing parliamentarians Nevertheless, when Essex withdrew towards Warwick after the battle, way to London remained open However, instead of ordering an immediate descent upon capital, Charles chose to set up a garrison and base at Oxford This proved to be a catastrophic strategic error Essex had time to recover his error & reach London before Charles did
Only then able to move south east towards London At Edgehill, in Warwickshire, Essex's army confronted him and the first major battle of the Civil Wars took place Battle is usually reckoned to be a draw Royalists failed to exploit what was probably a winning position when Prince Rupert allowed his cavalry to leave battlefield in order to pursue fleeing parliamentarians Nevertheless, when Essex withdrew towards Warwick after the battle, way to London remained open However, instead of ordering an immediate descent upon capital, Charles chose to set up a garrison and base at Oxford This proved to be a catastrophic strategic error Essex had time to recover his error & reach London before Charles did
Resulted in development of armies that were large for the time, on occasion numbering 15,000 to 20,000 men Not a constant feature of the Civil Wars As Ian Gentles, in The New Model Army in England, Ireland and Scotland 1645-1653 (1992), has observed, 'the armies of both sides were like mushrooms, shooting up almost overnight, and then disappearing even more quickly' Armies of both sides composed of infantry, cavalry & artillery Infantry were divided into units of pikemen & musketeers, Pikemen offered protection from cavalry charges for musketeers in battle Though both groups carried swords, principle weapon of pikemen was a pike, a pole of up to 5.5 metres in length, topped with a steel spike Musketeers equipped with matchlock muskets
Resulted in development of armies that were large for the time, on occasion numbering 15,000 to 20,000 men Not a constant feature of the Civil Wars As Ian Gentles, in The New Model Army in England, Ireland and Scotland 1645-1653 (1992), has observed, 'the armies of both sides were like mushrooms, shooting up almost overnight, and then disappearing even more quickly' Armies of both sides composed of infantry, cavalry & artillery Infantry were divided into units of pikemen & musketeers, Pikemen offered protection from cavalry charges for musketeers in battle Though both groups carried swords, principle weapon of pikemen was a pike, a pole of up to 5.5 metres in length, topped with a steel spike Musketeers equipped with matchlock muskets
Royalist ascendancy, 1642-43 Royalist strategy at start of war was to take London Raising royal standard at Nottingham on 22 Aug. 1642 attracted such little support that Charles had to postpone his advance on London until he had sufficient troops Headed west, to Wales & the Marches 'the nursery of the King's infantry'
Royalist ascendancy, 1642-43 Royalist strategy at start of war was to take London Raising royal standard at Nottingham on 22 Aug. 1642 attracted such little support that Charles had to postpone his advance on London until he had sufficient troops Headed west, to Wales & the Marches 'the nursery of the King's infantry'
Royalist assault held off by resolution of Trained Band regiments, who held southern flank Stood firm against pounding by Royalist artillery & furious cavalry & infantry attacks Stand by Trained Bands at Newbury remarkable as they were militia regiments - not fought in a full-scale battle before By nightfall, both armies exhausted & neither had gained a clear advantage Parliamentarians had held their ground, yet Royalists still blocked road to London Prince Rupert & Sir John Byron favoured continuing battle next day, but Royalist army had used up almost its entire supply of gunpowder - endemic problem that hampered Royalist war effort (Blair Worden) King Charles ordered a withdrawal to Oxford
Royalist assault held off by resolution of Trained Band regiments, who held southern flank Stood firm against pounding by Royalist artillery & furious cavalry & infantry attacks Stand by Trained Bands at Newbury remarkable as they were militia regiments - not fought in a full-scale battle before By nightfall, both armies exhausted & neither had gained a clear advantage Parliamentarians had held their ground, yet Royalists still blocked road to London Prince Rupert & Sir John Byron favoured continuing battle next day, but Royalist army had used up almost its entire supply of gunpowder - endemic problem that hampered Royalist war effort (Blair Worden) King Charles ordered a withdrawal to Oxford
Royalist high command realised that if Essex's army could be defeated decisively London would be left defenceless Given inexperience of London Trained Bands, Royalists had an advantage Intense artillery duel, said to have been fiercest & most sustained of whole war inflicted high casualties on both sides
Royalist high command realised that if Essex's army could be defeated decisively London would be left defenceless Given inexperience of London Trained Bands, Royalists had an advantage Intense artillery duel, said to have been fiercest & most sustained of whole war inflicted high casualties on both sides
Secondly, aided by Prince Maurice, Rupert's brother, Hopton soundly defeated Waller at Roundway Down on 13 July Finally, on 26 July, Rupert captured Bristol, providing royalists with not only a port but also resources of England's second largest city
Secondly, aided by Prince Maurice, Rupert's brother, Hopton soundly defeated Waller at Roundway Down on 13 July Finally, on 26 July, Rupert captured Bristol, providing royalists with not only a port but also resources of England's second largest city
Solemn League and Covenant In September 1643, parliament signed Solemn League and Covenant with Scots Covenanters Two sides agreed: 'That we shall sincerely, really and constantly, through the grace of God, endeavor in our several places and callings, the preservation of the reformed religion in the Church of Scotland, in doctrine, worship, discipline and government, against our common enemies; the reformation of religion in the kingdoms of England and Ireland, in doctrine, worship, discipline and government, according to the Word of God, and the example of the best reformed Churches' Term would later cause many problems between parliament & Scots Treaty actually stated that England would model church on 'best-reformed' churches Scots took for granted that this meant their church; English did not
Solemn League and Covenant In September 1643, parliament signed Solemn League and Covenant with Scots Covenanters Two sides agreed: 'That we shall sincerely, really and constantly, through the grace of God, endeavor in our several places and callings, the preservation of the reformed religion in the Church of Scotland, in doctrine, worship, discipline and government, against our common enemies; the reformation of religion in the kingdoms of England and Ireland, in doctrine, worship, discipline and government, according to the Word of God, and the example of the best reformed Churches' Term would later cause many problems between parliament & Scots Treaty actually stated that England would model church on 'best-reformed' churches Scots took for granted that this meant their church; English did not
Surprise to Parliamentarians, who had also expected battle to continue Charles appalled at carnage: around 3,500 men were killed at Newbury including senior Royalists, Lord Carnarvon & Lord Sunderland Most painful of all for Charles was death of Viscount Falkland, his secretary of state Falkland reported to have ridden deliberately to his death on Round Hill, in despair at horror of civil war Most importantly, Essex continued towards London Newbury, has a claim to being most significant engagement of war 1.) Though Charles had gained territory in both the north & south west, Newbury ensured he did not threaten parliament's control of London
Surprise to Parliamentarians, who had also expected battle to continue Charles appalled at carnage: around 3,500 men were killed at Newbury including senior Royalists, Lord Carnarvon & Lord Sunderland Most painful of all for Charles was death of Viscount Falkland, his secretary of state Falkland reported to have ridden deliberately to his death on Round Hill, in despair at horror of civil war Most importantly, Essex continued towards London Newbury, has a claim to being most significant engagement of war 1.) Though Charles had gained territory in both the north & south west, Newbury ensured he did not threaten parliament's control of London
The two sides, 1642 There was no permanent - or standing - army in England in 1642 The counties raised trained bands that did not traditionally operate outside their county boundaries Both sides used trained bands that they came to control as basis for field armies that might fight outside their counties Both sides also relied on volunteers In order to counter localism they formed regional associations, armies composed of a number of different county bands Most significant of these was to be parliament's Eastern Association, led by earl of Manchester
The two sides, 1642 There was no permanent - or standing - army in England in 1642 The counties raised trained bands that did not traditionally operate outside their county boundaries Both sides used trained bands that they came to control as basis for field armies that might fight outside their counties Both sides also relied on volunteers In order to counter localism they formed regional associations, armies composed of a number of different county bands Most significant of these was to be parliament's Eastern Association, led by earl of Manchester
These successes, however, were soon offset by Essex's raising of siege of Gloucester on 8 Sept. Essex found his return to London blocked by king's army at Newbury
These successes, however, were soon offset by Essex's raising of siege of Gloucester on 8 Sept. Essex found his return to London blocked by king's army at Newbury
Traditional historiography asserted that by Oct., out of 42 English counties, 24 had accepted parliament's ordinance & 11 the king's commission 7 had avoided making any choice Parliament's stronghold was in south & east Royalists dominated in west & north This is the basis of the common argument about geographical division of England in 1642: south-east England, along with London, chose parliament while north & west plumped for Charles Last 40 years of research has demonstrated pattern of choices much more complex than that Local factors key to explaining why people decided for king or parliament
Traditional historiography asserted that by Oct., out of 42 English counties, 24 had accepted parliament's ordinance & 11 the king's commission 7 had avoided making any choice Parliament's stronghold was in south & east Royalists dominated in west & north This is the basis of the common argument about geographical division of England in 1642: south-east England, along with London, chose parliament while north & west plumped for Charles Last 40 years of research has demonstrated pattern of choices much more complex than that Local factors key to explaining why people decided for king or parliament
What were the two sides fighting for? Parliament Most complete public statement of parliament's aims was 'Nineteen Propositions' of June 1642 Revealed that MPs still saw crown as lynchpin of government; Accepted traditional constitution Wanted a reformed church Royalist Best statement of royalists' aims is king's reply to 'Nineteen propositions' Saw parliament as having an important role in national government
What were the two sides fighting for? Parliament Most complete public statement of parliament's aims was 'Nineteen Propositions' of June 1642 Revealed that MPs still saw crown as lynchpin of government; Accepted traditional constitution Wanted a reformed church Royalist Best statement of royalists' aims is king's reply to 'Nineteen propositions' Saw parliament as having an important role in national government
