Theories of Criminality EXAM1

Offender Search theory

Focuses on how people actually commit crimes Asks "How do potential offenders find opportunities to offend?" In their own "Routine Activities" Known places, daily activities, limited mobility, patterned by everyday activities Offender Awareness Space ***Routines structure are important to crime in two ways: 1.As offenders travel, opportunities for crime present themselves 2.When actively searching for crime targets, offenders wish to reduce the effort and the risk of detection

Classical theory

Individuals: - are rational beings - pursue their own interests - attempt to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain -enter into social contacts: -agree to give up some freedom to the state to prevent harm from occurring -state enforces the social contract through creating and establishing laws of the area

Akers Social Learning Theory: Imitation

Individuals can imitate behaviors they have observed Frequency of this occurring depends on the individual and how he or she identifies with society.

Inner containment

good self-control, ego strength, well-developed superego (conscience), good self-concept, high resistance to diversions, high frustration tolerance This was the insulator between the individual and a bad environment

Sykes and Matza: "Techniques of Neutralization"

Provides insights on the specific definitions or beliefs that might encourage offending Argues learned beliefs and definitions lead to crime but do not see society wracked by culture conflict There is a system in which everyone is socialized Controls are present over most of us most of the time Techniques of neutralization permit law-breaking to take place Many delinquents do feel guilt and shame after engaging in criminal behavior and seek the approval of law-abiding people (e.g., parents, church leaders, etc.) Delinquents often draw a line between those who can and cannot be victimized Certain groups are off limits (e.g., friends, kin, etc.) Argue against subcultural theories Rather, most youth internalize the dominant normative system, and when they violate those norms..........................they feel guilt and shame

denial of injury "Tech of neut"

" No one gets hurt" Behavior does not cause harm to society

Elements of self-control

"Here and now" orientation—very impulsive -Adventuresome, active, and physical -Unstable relationships and employment -Self-centered, indifferent, insensitive to suffering, unkind, antisocial -Tend to pursue noncriminal immediate pleasures -Minimal tolerance for frustration -Little ability to respond to conflict through verbal rather than physical means -Short-sighted root causes of crime lie in the first years of life Search for causes of crime in childhood Causes of low self-control are negative, not positive Absence of effort to create it No social group purposely attempts to lower the self-control of its members

Denial of victim "tech of neut"

"They deserved it" Argues injury is not wrong in light of the circumstances Not really an injury, rather a rightful retaliation or punishment Sees self as an avenger and the victim as a wrong-doer

Theory of the born criminal

---Avatism: born criminal Throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution. ----Stigmates Physical abnormalities such as large monkey-like ears and extra fingers or toes. Two other types of criminals Insane criminal Idiot, imbecile, epileptic, and psychotic, and mentally unfit for society. ---Criminaloid Motivated by passion or have an emotional makeup that compels them to commit crime Traits: large jaw, large cheekbones, strong canines

Dimensions of Social Structure: akers social learning theory

-Differential social organization -Differential location in the social structure -Theoretically defined structural variables -Differential social location in groups

ANS functioning and arousal

-Genetically speaking, people who inherit autonomic nervous systems (ANS) that are slow to be aroused or react to stimuli learn to control their aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly or not at all. -Right hemisphere dysfunction can affect autonomic arousal, which can result in a lower resting rate heart. -Recent research has revealed a link between low resting heart rate and involvement in crime.

Sutherland's Differential Association Theory

-Sutherland is recognized as the most important criminologist of the 20th century. -Proposed as an explanation of individual criminal behavior. 1.Criminal behavior is learned. ● 2.Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. ● 3.The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.

Neurophysiology Mental Functioning and Delinquency

-This concept deals with IQ and delinquency. -Childhood intelligence does not predict adolescent delinquency. ---Parental discipline, family cohesion, religious upbringing, and a child's exposure to delinquent peers are more effective predictors.

Behavior and Molecular Genetics

-This concept studies how genetics and the environment work together. ---Shared environments Class, parents, religion ---Non-shared environments Differences in family and siblings, peer groups, and teachers -Genes do not CAUSE behavior; they FACILITATE our behaviors and feelings.

Rational choice theory

-based on the expected utility principle in economic theory -proposed as a general, all-inclusive explanation of both the decision to commit a specific crime and the development of, or desistance from, a crim career -offenders are rational people who seek to maximize their pleasure and minimize their plan -focuses on offenders as rational decisions makers calculating where their self-interest lies = choice to engage in crime

Routine acivities theory

-intersection of time, place, object, and person -argues that these elements increase or decrease the likelihood of victimization -intended to describe the likelihood of a person victim of a predatory crime

Environmental Criminology

-the major focus is on the opportunity to commit crime -altering the environment to help reduce its occurrence -crime reduction approach ---> focuses on 2 issues 1. explaining crime events 2. exploring the causal role of opportunity

4 elements of Social bond theory

1. Attachment -Sensitivity to the opinion of others Cares about the wishes and expectations of others Involves an emotional connection Relationships with parents most crucial Involves indirect control 2.Commitment -Rational component—an assessment of the costs and benefits of crime -Committed to conformity -If uncommitted, have nothing to lose by committing crime 3.Involvement -Time and energy are limited -"Idle hands are the devil's workshop" -Being involved in conventional activities -keeps a person too busy to find time to get into trouble 4.Belief Variation in the extent to which people believe they should obey the rules of society The less a person believes s/he should obey the rules, the more likely s/he is to violate them Argues there is a common value system

Problems with Classical theory

1. assumes everyone is motivated to engage in crime through pursuit of self-interests 2. assumes people are rational and engage in crime to minimize pain and maximize pleasure 3. other factors besides the swiftness, severity, and certainty of punishment influence whether someone someone does or not engage in crime

Does CJ deter?

1. certainty - low correlation 2. severity - little to none 3. celerity - none

Condemnation of the condemners "tech of neut"

A rejection of the rejectors Shifts attention from his/her own deviant acts to the motives and behavior of those who disapprove of his/her violations The deviant argues his/her condemners are hypocrites, deviants, etc. "Police are corrupt" "If I don't do it they will win"

3 types of individuals

Acute Conformists: comply with the law because its the right thing to do Incorrigible Offenders: committed to crime, nothing will stop them deterrable offenders: group who are scared of the punishment and will be persuaded not to commit the crime

social learning theory theorist

Akers

Akers Social Learning Theory:The Social Learning Process—Sequence and Feedback Effects

Akers stresses that social learning is a process with reciprocal and feedback effects. Learning, imitation, and anticipated advantages are what produce the initial criminal act. The feedback from the initial event will determine if the act is repeated or not.

Akers Social Learning Theory: Differential Association

An individual can interact with others in two dimensions: Interactional dimension Direct and indirect association Normative dimension Different patterns of norms and values to which an individual is exposed through this association strongly supported by empirical data

Gottfredson+Hirschi: a General theory of crime

Argue that the lack of "self-control" is the chief source of criminal behavior Self-control is the source of resistance against criminal temptations Social bond theory located control in a person's relation to society, while self-control theory located control inside the individual -----argues experiences beyond childhood can affect a person's ties to society; self-control theory argues criminal propensities are established in childhood -crime is routed in indiv differences -embrace the view that crim behavior is gratifying ---Easy source of immediate short-term pleasure Requires few skills Similar to early control theories ----- consistent empirical support

Personality Theory

Belief that crimes are committed as a result of a deviant nonconforming individual's personality. Explains delinquent behavior as an expression of deviant personality traits like impulsiveness, aggressiveness, sensation seeking, etc.

issues with biological theories

By the 1950s biological theories had been discredited. Could not withstand empirical tests Seemed racist and sexist Viewed as simplistic, untestable, and illogical Early biological theories often served as justification for terrible policies of exclusion and eugenics. From the 1970s to the present day, biological explanations have been explored based on new scientific discoveries and technical advances in: Genetics Brain functions Neurology Nutrition Biochemistry Neurobiology Biochemistry Neurophysiology Evolutionary psychology

Classical criminology

Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham -challenged demonic theory with Essay on Crimes and punishments ---harsh sentences were imposed free will - can observe and test - prevent crime with shift, serve, and certain punishments

Situational crime prevention

Clark Opportunity reducing measures that are: 1. Directed at highly specific forms of crime 2. Involve the management, design, or manipulation of the specific environment 3. Increase the required efforts and risk on the part of the offender 4. Reduce the offender's perceived reward Goals: increase effort, risk, rewards, provocations, and remove excuses - also formed the idea that crime can be placed in a certain area "hotspot"

Psychological theory

Concept is similar to biological theory but looks deeper into the mind of the individual. Psychoanalytic and personality theories Recognize the effects of An individual's experiences, especially in early childhood Environmental factors Propose abnormal personality type/traits or emotional maladjustment as the primary causes of crime.

Empirical Validity of Biological Theories of Criminal Behavior

Early biological theories had little empirical validity and fell out of favor with mainstream criminology. With advances in technology and medicine, modern biological theories have gained support and respectability.

Akers Social Learning Theory: Development of Theory

Differential reinforcement -Operant behavior conditioned by rewards and punishment Classical or "respondent" conditioning -The conditioning of involuntary reflex behavior Discriminative stimuli -The environmental and internal stimuli that provide cues or signals for behavior Schedules of reinforcement -The rate and ratio in which rewards and punishments follow behavioral responses

The Five-Factor Model

FFM was developed by Costa and McCrae Examines words people use to describe themselves and others. Adjectives are then clustered together to form a broader trait factor. OCEAN: Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Evolutionary Psychology and Criminality

Focuses on universal behaviors that affect the chances of survival and reproduction. Standard assumption --Surviving traits and behaviors exist because they were useful for successful reproduction for the species' distant ancestors. --Individuals are unaware that their behavior is driven mainly to seek reproductive advantage in passing along their genes to offspring.

Akers Social Learning Theory: The Central Concepts and Propositions of Social Learning Theory

Four dimensions of social structure that can be integrated with social learning: Differential social organization Differential location in the social structure Theoretically defined structural variables Differential social location Crime can be explained through how an individual interacts with his or her social environment.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freudian personality development: -Id—basic instincts and drive -Ego—rational part of the personality -Superego—conscience of the individual Issues can occur in childhood development and if something goes wrong, this could cause the child to become more susceptible to crime. - Therefore, crime can be explained through underlying mental issues.

denial of responsibility "Tech of Neut"

Function is to deflect blame attached to violations of social norms Better than saying the act was an "accident" Can be asserted that the delinquent act was outside the individual and beyond his control

Akers Social Learning Theory: Definitions

How an individual identifies a behavior -Good or bad Under this theory the definitions can be both -General or specific -Positive, neutral, or negative Discriminative stimuli -Operate as cues or signals to the individual as to what responses are appropriate or expected in a given situation. If the individual identifies a negative behavior, he or she is less likely to commit the crime.

Selection and Socialization in Peer Association

Selection Model Delinquent friendships are formed around similar behavior. Socialization Model Delinquency is learned through peer association.

Early Biological theories

Lombroso -Born criminals are the key concept here. -Until the biological school of thought arose, crime was thought to be a rational choice made by the offender, and crime was prevented through deterrence. ---Early biological criminologists viewed criminals as a distinct set of people who were biologically inferior to or inherently defective. **Biological positivism was scientific and concentrated on the measurable characteristics of the individual criminal.

Adoption Studies found

Mednick -proposed that children who are adopted and not raised by biological parents will still inherit their genetic tendencies ----not proven to have much of a pull in criminology

Routine Activities theory

Name derived from the notion that the elements are related to the normal, legal, and routine activities of life including potential victims and guardians Cohen and Felson define "Routine Activities" as recurrent and prevalent activities for peoples' needs Examples include work, food, shelter, sexual outlet, child bearing, leisure, social interactions, and education. ---- three elements must converge in rime and space for a crime to occur: -motivated offender, target, lack of guardians

Psychological Counseling in Delinquency Prevention and Treatment

Operates under the assumption that criminals are not responsible for their actions. Criminals must be treated for all underlying illnesses. Studies show little to no effect on juvenile delinquency No treatment effect

Hirschi "social bond theory -- results

Overall, there is fairly consistent support for the general thesis that weak social bonds increase the risk of being involved in criminal behavior However, Hirschi's claim that other theories are not empirically viable is incorrect Also, Hirschi does not examine how macro-social changes in society affect the strength of social bonds for people in different sectors

Psychopathic Personality Inventory - 2 general factors

PPI-I: Fearless Dominance -subscales measuring Stress Immunity, Fearlessness, and Social Potency (ability to charm others) -Correlated with positive behaviors and traits such as academic performance and well-being PPI-II: Impulsive Antisociality -consists of Egocentricity, Nonplanfulness, Impulsive Nonconformity, and Blame Externalization. -Correlated with adult and childhood antisocial behavior, aggression, and substance use problems.

Akers Social Learning Theory: Differential Reinforcement

Positive and negative reinforcement -Directly affect the likelihood of criminal activity. Modalities of reinforcement -The amount, frequency, and probability that reinforcement will occur. Social reinforcement -How the individual thinks or knows he or she will be punished by society. Self-reinforcement Individual exercising self-control.

Policy Implications for Modern Biosocial Theories

Prevention/treatment of delinquency looks similar to those that would be derived from other theories. Educational programs Teacher training Promotion of parenting skills After school programs Drug treatment

Psychopathic Personality

Psychopaths Known for manipulation of others and having little to no conscience Considered self-centered "social predators" Known for having multiple antisocial personality disorders PCL - Psychopath Check List

Appeal to higher loyalties "Tech of neut"

Sacrificing the demands of the larger society for the demands of smaller social groups to which the delinquent belongs (e.g., peer groups, gangs, cliques) Sees self caught up in a dilemma that must be resolved at the cost of violating the law Other norms are held to be more pressing or involving a higher loyalty "He is my Boy" " I had to do it for my homie"

Personality Traits

Tests have been used to determine an individual's personality traits: MMPI—Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory: Measures abnormal personality traits such as depression, hysteria, paranoia, and psychopathology CPI—California Psychological Inventory: Measure variations in personality traits, such as dominance, tolerance, and sociability

Essential ideas of Classical theory

To control crime: must deter people from criminal behavior in order to be deterred, - pain from punishment must outweigh the pleasure -- Punishment must fit the crime Cost-benefit ratio - to be effective, punishments must be: KNOW - universally read and understood SWIFT - more immediate, creates an association between crime and punishment SEVERE - but proportionate to crime committed CERTAIN - most important element

Control theories

Unlike strain and cultural deviance theories, control theories do not see humans as "blank slates" onto which society writes its script - Control theories argue it is human nature for people to "naturally" break the law humans seek gratification - Since all humans have motivation, theories that seek to explain motivation (e.g., strain and cultural deviance theories/social learning) are not needed Need to ask, "Why don't they do it?" What prevents them from acting out on their impulses Argue societal forces helps prevent people from committing crime Delinquent acts result when an individual's bond to society is weak or broken

Broken windows theory

Wilson and Kelling Set forth a community informal social control theory Argue that the CJ system (police) can prevent and reduce crime by instituting a zero tolerance policy for disorganization Provide a framework/process that creates acceptance of hard core crime The central premise is that unchecked social disorder or public incivility is the cause of serious crime ****Disorder and crime are linked at the macro-level in a three-stage developmental sequence ● 1.The spiral of decline first begins when disorderly people are allowed to take over public spaces ● 1.Decent people become fearful and change their behavior Retreat to their homes Neighborhood loses control

absolute deterrence

amount of crime that does not occur due to the fact that there is formal criminal justice system in place where there is a possibility of punishment ---people usually are not concerned with punishment but because THEY CONFORM TO SOCIAL NORMS

4 elements must be present to instill self-control in children

attachment - of the parent of the child = parents must have concern for welfare and behavior of child Parental supervision - Prevents criminal and analogous acts while training the child to avoid them 3.Recognition of deviant acts - In order for supervision to have an impact on self-control, the supervisor must perceive deviant behavior when it occurs 4.Punishment of deviant acts - If the child engages in deviant acts, s/he must be punished Punishment does not need to be legal or corporal Rather, disapproval by people one cares about is one of the most powerful sanctions

Impact of classical theory

became the basis for legal systems in the us, france, and other countries 1. laws should be applied to everyone equally (blind justice) 2. control crime by increasing certainty and severity of punishments

Resurgence

classical theory was eventually replaced by the positive school of thought we saw a resurgence after the 60s included deterrence, rational choice, routine activities

Modern Deterrence

composed of: -certainty -severity -celerity -proportionality -specific and general

Demonic Perspective

crime was said to be the result of supernatural forces dominated until 1700s - age of enlightenment - could not be observed or tested - solve crime through ridding indiv of evil spirits

Criminal Events "crime as a Rational choice"

deal with the decision to commit specific crim acts -crim event model - heavily influenced by the immediate situation and the selection of a target based on costs and benefits

Criminal Involvement "crime as a Rational choice"

deals with the decision to become involved in crime -initial involvement model - heavily influenced by previous learning and experience over substantial periods of time which are influenced by background factors

Parsimony

dictates that a theory should provide the simplest possible (viable) explanation for a phenomenon

Sit crim prev WEAKNESSES

displacement human rights: freedom and privacy unattractive does not attack the roots of crime

Charles Goring theory

found no support for Lombroso's theory of physical abnormalities - did believe criminals were born different

Self - control

enduring propensity or individual difference that has general effects in a person's life ---Explains stability across the life course ---Explains why offenders engage in many noncriminal deviant behaviors Criminality: the propensity to offend Crime: an actual event in which a law is broken ***self-control remain relatively stable over the life course with changes in the social location of individuals and changes in their knowledge of the operation of sanction systems explaining changes in criminal behavior

what is a theory?

helps make sense of facts that we already know and can be tested against new facts

Reckless's Containment theory

identified two categories that were popular in his day: "Push" theories: argued forces pushed/propelled people into criminal behavior Example: strain theories "Pull" theories: argued people could be pulled/lured into criminal behavior by antisocial models and companions Example: differential association/social learning theories - believed an exclusive focus on "pushes" or "pulls" was incomplete - social disorganization important source of deviant behavior -"good self-concept" insulated these boys from the "bad neighborhoods"

Modifications and expansions of deterrence concepts

informal deterrence: the idea that sanctions outside of the formal criminal justice system will be the form of punishment that will deter the indiv form committing the crime - disapproval of fam -disapproval of community - disapproval of church group

Routine activities theorist

lawrence E. cohen and Marcus felson

Empirical Validity

most important criterion for judging a theory - theory has been supported by research evidence

Testability

must be able to be tested against empirical findings

Sykes and Matza: "Techniques of Neutralization" - what causes ppl to commit crime?

neutralizing these controls Help justify criminal behavior in certain circumstances His/her violations are acceptable His/Her behavior is valid in their thinking but not by the legal system or society at large some empirical support

Outer Containment

opposite of social disorganization Often weak and not strong enough to control the pushes and pulls of crime

scope

range of phenomena that proposes to explain ex: age distribution theory only touches on age not other factors such as race and gender ----- LIMITED AREA OF OUTLOOK

Situational Crime Prevention theorist

ronald v clarke

Purpose of theory

scientific internal logical consistency scope parsimony testability usefulness policy implications

Hirschi "social bond theory"

set forth in Causes of Delinquency his social bond theory Divided criminological theories into three main perspectives: 1.Control ● 2.Strain ● 3.Cultural deviance (differential association/social learning) Argued the three perspectives are incompatible and should be seen as rivals and tested empirically against one another Used survey research to obtain theoretical concepts and self-reported delinquency to test theories Focused on how an individual's bonds to society influence decisions to break the law Argues controls originate and are sustained by the person's bonds to society

Policy Implications

somethings that will or might happen when a theory is put into place

Tuatology

statement or hypothesis that is true by definition or involves circular reasoning -- when something is defined by the very thing it is hypothesized to explain -ex: someone who drinks alot = an alcoholic --->the saying of the same thing twice in different words, generally considered to be a fault of style

Methods for situational crime prevention

target hardening - steering column locks and immobilizers, tamper-proof packaging identify property - property marking, vehicle licensing Extend guardianship - go out in groups at night, neighborhood watch post instructions - "noparking"

Cornish and Clarke: "crime as a rational choice"

they argue for bounded rationally -draw heavily on existing theories when determining what impacts rationality -self-control, moral beliefs, strains, emotional states, associations with delinquent peers -argue a complete explanation of crime must distinguish between "criminal involvement" and "criminal events"

Routine Activities Theory IMP

what can be done so someone does not become a target, there isnt a chance for an offender to strike, or that there is a guardian present? -- sometimes there needs to be more light in one area...

Policy Implications of Biological Theories

•Possible solutions for offenders •Medical procedures such as lobotomies, gene splicing, and ingesting chemicals •Imprisonment •Sterilization and abortion •Deportation or isolation •Kill