Trait and Factor and Developmental Theories of Career Development

Theory of Work Adjustment: Person Traits

Needs and Values -Affect a person's satisfaction -Achievement, Recognition, Support, Independence, Relationships, Working Conditions Skills and Abilities -Affect a person's satisfactoriness Style Variables -Affect a person's adjustment behaviors -Affect a person's adjustment behaviors -Celerity, Pace, Rhythm, Endurance

Instruments to Assess TWA Traits of a Person

Needs/Values: Minnesota Importance Questionnaire Skills/Abilities: General Aptitude Test Battery

Super's Segment 3: Self-Concept: Dimensions and Differences

Super acknowledged many dimensions of self-concept -Self-concept system --Other role-specific self-concepts --Occupational self-concept Super addressed the difference between public and private self-concept (Table 3.7) -Public: Vocational Identity -Private: Occupational self-concept

Super's Vocabulary: Career Adaptability

Refers to adult ability to engage in career decision-making

Super's Vocabulary: Career Maturity

Refers to an individual's capacity to meet demands of age appropriate tasks

Super's Vocabulary: Career Identity

Refers to career self-concepts

Super's Vocabulary: Readiness

Refers to one's capacity to learn career-related concepts and skills and to move to next stage of development

Holland Code

Refers to the strongest 2 or 3 letters on the hexagon that reflect a person's interest/personality

Theory of Work Adjustment: Work Environment Traits

Reinforcers: Do the reinforcers in a work environment satisfy a worker's needs and values? Skill and Ability Requirements: Are a worker's skills and abilities satisfactory? Environmental Style: Is there a good fit (correspondence) between a worker's work style and the environmental style requirements of the workplace?

Instruments to Assess TWA Factors of an Environment

Reinforcers: Minnesota Job Description Questionnaire Skill/Ability Requirements: Occupational Aptitude Pattern

Assessment for Role Salience

Salience Inventory

Instruments to Assess Outcomes

Satisfaction: Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Satisfactoriness: Minnesota Satisfactoriness Scales

Super's Ladder of Life Stages

See Figure 3.2 Notice (from left to right) -Ages -Points of Transition -Substages -Stages

Super's Life-Career Rainbow

See Figure 3.3 for Super's Rainbow Notice (from inside out) -Personal Determinants (psychological & biological) -Roles (Child, Student, Leisurite, Citizen, Worker, Spouse, Homemaker, Parent, and/or Pensioner) -Ages -Life Stage -Situational Determinants (historical & socioeconomic

Archway of Career Determinants

See Figure 3.4 Left Column: -Biographical -Individual characteristics Right Column: -Geographical -Contextual factors Arch at the Top: -One's sense of self -One's role-specific self-concepts -One's developmental stage

Super's Segment 2: Life Space

See Table 3.6 for Theaters and Roles 4 Theaters: Home, Community, School, Work 9 Roles: Child, Student, Leisurite, Citizen, Worker, Spouse, Homemaker, Parent, Pensioner Super's Life-Career Rainbow

Super's Segments

Segment 1: Life Span -Proposition #5 -Stages -Visual Model: Ladder Segment 2: Life Space -Proposition #14 -4 Theatres and 9 Roles -Visual Model: Life Career Rainbox Segment 3: Self-Concept -Propositions 1-4 -Visual Model: Archway of Career Determinants

RIASEC Assessments

Self Directed Search Strong Interest Inventory The Career Key

Theory of Circumscription, Compromise and Self-Creation: Self-Creation

Self-creation refers to the "complex manner in which Gottfredson believes genetics influence a person to create a life consistent with one's genetic makeup" "Gottfredson (2002) has concluded that socialization theory has effectively been disproved and that there is a need to acknowledge the important role of genetics in influencing life outcomes"

Maxi-Cycles and Mini-Cycles

Super's 5 stages represent a "maxi-cycle" However, Super recognized that career development doesn't always go smoothly. Careers can be destabilized by many factors: -Inability to continue working at a job due to illness or injury (Juan) -Inability to continue working at a job due to layoffs or changes in human resource needs (Wayne) -Other socioeconomic or personal events such as getting fired (Doris), becoming a widow (Lakeesha), realizing you are gay (Vincent) or wanting to start a family (Gillian) When this happens, people "recycle" through the stages in a "mini-cycle"

What is the Career Development Assessment and Counseling (C-DAC) Model?

Super's model for how to integrate the three segments of his theory into the actual counseling process

TWA Adjustment Styles in Response to Dissatisfaction or a Lack of Correspondence: Colloquial Expression "Change them"

TWA Adjustment Style: Activeness Description: Adjustment behavior involving attempts to change the nature of the work environment

TWA Adjustment Styles in Response to Dissatisfaction or a Lack of Correspondence: Colloquial Expression "Put up with it"

TWA Adjustment Style: Flexibility Description: How long a person can tolerate a lack of correspondence before engaging in adjustment behavior

TWA Adjustment Styles in Response to Dissatisfaction or a Lack of Correspondence: Colloquial Expression "Keep trying"

TWA Adjustment Style: Perseverance Description: How long a person engages in adjustment behaviors before leaving the situation

TWA Adjustment Styles in Response to Dissatisfaction or a Lack of Correspondence: Colloquial Expression "Change yourself"

TWA Adjustment Style: Reactiveness Description: Adjustment behavior involving attempts to change oneself

TWA Model: Predictive Model

TWA predicts that the level of correspondence between a person's traits and the work environment is directly related to the level of satisfaction a person experiences in a given job and the degree to which a person is deemed satisfactory on the job.

TWA: Process Model

The TWA process model begins where the predictive model leaves off. It is specifically interested in the process of work adjustment and seeks to answer the question, "what happens when a worker is dissatisfied or unsatisfactory?"

Satisfaction

The goodness of fit between a person's needs and values and the types of rewards and reinforcers offered by a particular work environment

Satisfactoriness

The goodness of fit between a person's skills and abilities and the work environment's skill requirements

Person-Environment Fit: Congruence

The more congruent, the greater the similarities between the person and the other people in the work environment and the greater the satisfaction

Person-Environment Fit: Differentiation

The more differentiated interests are, the clearer the hierarchy of preferences

Person-Environment Fit: Consistency and Calculus

The more similar the types are, the more consistent they are and the closer they are on the hexagon

Developmental Theories focus upon...

The role of early childhood experiences and/or lifespan development on a person's career choices and level of satisfaction within various careers.

Person-Environment Fit: Identity

The stronger a person's sense of identity, the clearer and more stable a person's goals, interests and talents

Theory of Personality Development and Career Choice

Theorist: Anna Roe Believed that occupational choices are largely determined by: -Early childhood experiences -Nature of parenting received Developed a visual model illustrating how these factors tend to result in the choice of various occupational groups

Psychodynamic Model of Career Choice and Satisfaction

Theorist: Edward Bordin Interested in how occupational choice allows individuals to seek expression of their: -Unconscious personality structure -Conscious self-concept Bordin's theory is psychodynamic

Ginzberg's Theory of Occupational Choice

Theorist: Eli Ginzberg (an economist!) History: Ginzberg challenged the existing theories -Criticized psychodynamic, personality theories as inadequate and unsupported by research -Criticized environmentalists' exclusive focus on the labor market as insufficient Ginzberg developed a truly interdisciplinary theory that drew upon psychiatry, sociology, and psychology Two versions: Original Version (1951) Revised Version (1972)

Theory of Circumscription, Compromise and Self-Creation

Theorist: Linda Gottfredson Addresses early influences on career choice that limit the careers a person will seek -Circumscription: the process of eliminating unacceptable career options based primarily on gender and social class -Compromise: the elimination of career choices due to limiting factors Focuses on the impact of gender and prestige levels of jobs

Frank Parsons's Theory: Three Steps to Choosing a Vocation

These threes steps are still the foundation of the Trait Factor approach to career counseling. 1. Understand yourself -aptitudes and abilities -interests -resources -limitations -other qualities 2. Understand the World of Work -requirements and conditions of success -advantages and disadvantages -compensation -opportunities -prospects in different lines of work 3. Use "True Reasoning" to Find a Good Match Between You and the World of Work

Assessment for Values

Values Scale

Strengths and Weaknesses of Roe's Occupational Classifaction System

Weaknesses: -Roe had no experience in career counseling -Roe's theory has not been supported by empirical research Strengths: -Roe's work inspired other career development theories to also consider role of childhood and one's psychological needs on occupational choice

Theory of Circumscription, Compromise and Self-Creation: Process of Compromise

"Whereas circumscription is the process by which individuals reject alternatives they deem unacceptable, compromise is the process by which they abandon their most-preferred alternatives" Influenced by: -Perceptions of how attainable a career goal is -Actual or perceived barriers -4 Principles of Compromise

Ginzberg's Original Theory: Three Elements of Original Theory

1. Description of occupational choice as a PROCESS, not an event 2. Belief that "the process of occupational choice is largely irreversible" 3. Assertion that "compromise is an essential element of every choice" -Only the first element withstood the test of time and research. -The second and third elements were addressed in the revision of his theory.

Super's Segment 1: Life Span The 5 Life Stages

1. Growth (4-13) 2. Exploration (14-24) 3. Establishment (25-45) 4. Maintenance (46-65) 5. Decline/Disengagement (65+) Super's Ladder Maxi-Cycles and Mini-Cycles

Frank Parsons Fundamental Beliefs

1. It is better to choose a vocation than merely to hunt for a job. 2. No one should choose a vocation without careful self-analysis, thorough, honest, and under guidance. 3.T he youth should have a large survey of the field of vocations and not simply drop into the convenient or accidental position. 4. Expert advice, or the advice of men who have made a careful study of men and vocations and the conditions of success, must be better and safer for a young man than the absence of it. 5. Putting it down on paper seems a simple matter, but it is one of supreme importance in study.

Theory of Circumscription, Compromise and Self-Creation: Principles of Compromise

1. People establish "conditional priorities" that govern what a person is most likely to sacrifice when making a compromise regarding occupational goals See Table 3.9 2. People will often compromise and settle for an occupation they view as "good enough" in lieu of engaging in a difficult process of information gathering and decision making in order to find the best possible choice for themselves 3. People will avoid making any choice at all if none of the available choices seem good enough. 4. If necessary, people may make psychological accommodations by changing their view of themselves.

Assessment for Career Adaptability

Adult Career Concerns INventory

Super's Life Stages: Exploration Stage

Ages 14-24 Developmental Tasks -Crystallizing -Specifying -Implementing Substages -Tentative (14-17) -Transition (18-24) -Trial and Recycling if necessary (18-24) Related Constructs -Career Maturity

Super's Life Stages: Establishment Stage

Ages 25-44 Developmental Tasks -Stabilizing -Consolidating -Advancing Substages -Trial (Committed) (25-29) -Stabilization (25-29) -Consolidation (30-39) -Frustration? (30-39) -Advancement? (30-39) Related Constructs -Career Adaptability -Recycling

Super's Life Stages: Growth Stage

Ages 4-13 Developmental Tasks -Developing a future orientation -Developing a sense of personal responsibility for one's future -Developing an achievement orientation with respect to school and work -Developing employability skills and attitudes Substages -Curiosity (0-3) -Fantasies (4-6) -Interests (7-10) -Capacities (11-13) Related Constructs -Self-concept

Super's Life Stages: Maintenance Stage

Ages 45-65 Developmental Tasks -Holding on -Keeping up -Innovating Substages -Holding (45-49) -Stagnating or Updating (50-59) -Decelerating or Innovating (50-64) Related Constructs -Recycling

Super's Life Stages: Decline/Disengagement Stage

Ages 66-75 Developmental Tasks -Deceleration -Retirement -Planning -Retirement Living Substages -Specialization? (65-69) -Disengagement? (65-69) -Retirement (70-75) Related Constructs

Theory of Work Adjustment

Focused on the "correspondence" or match between the person and environment Also known as: -TWA -Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment -Person-Correspondence Theory Developed by Dawis and Lofquist Developed in the context of vocational rehabilitation: -Vocational guidance and employment preparation needs of people with disabilities -Two issues: --Satisfaction of Worker --Satisfactoriness of Worker

Super's Propositions

Form the foundation for the 3 segments of Super's theory 14 Propositions: 1. People differ in their abilities and personalities, needs, values, interests, traits, and self-concepts. 2. People are qualified, by virtue of these characteristics, each for a number of occupations. 3. Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits, with tolerances wide enough to allow some variety of occupations for each individual as well as some variety of the individuals in each occupation. 4. Vocational preferences and competencies, the situations in which people live and work, and hence their self-concepts change with time and experience, although self-concepts as products of social learning are increasingly stable from late adolescence until late maturity, providing some continuity in choice and adjustment. 5. This process of change may be summed up in a series of life stages (a "maxicycle") characterized as a sequence of Growth, Exploration, Establishment, Maintenance, and Disengagement, and these stages may in turn be subdivided into periods characterized by developmental tasks. A small (mini) cycle takes place during career transitions from one stage to the next or each time an individual's career is destabilized by illness or injury, employer's reduction in force, social changes in human resource needs, or other socioeconomic or personal events. Such unstable or multiple-trial careers involve the recycling of new growth, reexploration, and reestablishment. 6. The nature of the career pattern—that is, the occupational level attained and the sequence, frequency, and duration of trial and stable jobs—is determined by the individual's parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics (needs, values, interests, and self-concepts), and career maturity and by the opportunities to which he or she is exposed. 7. Success in coping with the demands of the environment and of the organism in that context at any given life-career stage depends on the readiness of the individual to cope with these demands (that is, on his or her career maturity). 8. Career maturity is a psychosocial construct that denotes an individual's degree of vocational development along the continuum of life stages and substages from Growth through Disengagement. From a social or societal perspective, career maturity can be operationally defined by comparing the developmental tasks being encountered to those expected based on the individual's chronological age. From a psychological perspective, career maturity can be operationally defined by comparing an individual's resources, both cognitive and affective, for coping with a current task to the resources needed to master that task. 9. Development through the life stages can be guided, partly by facilitating the maturing of abilities, interests, and coping resources and partly by aiding in reality testing and in the development of self-concepts. 10. The process of career development is essentially that of developing and implementing occupational self-concepts. It is a synthesizing and compromising process in which the self-concept is a product of the interaction of inherited aptitudes, physical makeup, opportunity to observe and play various roles, and evaluations of the extent to which the results of role-playing meet the approval of supervisors and peers. 11. The process of synthesis or compromise between individual and social factors, between self-concepts and reality, is one of role-playing and of learning from feedback, whether the role is played in fantasy, in the counseling interview, or in such real-life activities as classes, clubs, part-time work, and entry jobs. 12. Work satisfactions and life satisfactions depend on the extent to which an individual finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personality traits, and self-concepts. Satisfactions depend on establishment in a type of work, a work situation, and a way of life in which one can play the kind of role that growth and exploratory experiences have led one to consider congenial and appropriate. 13. The degree of satisfaction people attain from work is proportional to the degree to which they have been able to implement self-concepts. 14. Work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization for most men and women, although for some individuals this focus is peripheral, incidental, or even nonexistent. Then, other foci, such as leisure activities and homemaking, may be central. Social traditions, such as sex-role stereotyping and modeling, racial and ethnic biases, and the opportunity structure, as well as individual differences, are important determinants of preferences for such roles as worker, student, leisurite, homemaker, and citizen.

Theory of Circumscription, Compromise and Self-Creation: Self-Creation: Dramatic and Controversial

Gottfredson has shifted her focus dramatically -From the impact of socialization (sex roles, social valuation) on occupational choice -To the impact of one's genetic makeup on occupational choice and career success A controversial addition -Central to Gottfredson's more recent research is her focus on how intelligence levels differ across racial groups. -She asserts that the idea of "equal potential" across races is "a collective fraud" and "egalitarian fiction"

Theory of Circumscription, Compromise and Self-Creation: Define Circumscription

Gottfredson refers to this process of eliminating options as circumscription and defines it as "the process by which youngsters... progressively eliminate unacceptable [vocational] alternatives in order to carve out... a zone of acceptable [occupational] alternatives from the full menu that a culture offers" Gottfredson considers circumscription as largely irreversible.

Theory of Circumscription, Compromise and Self-Creation: Stages of Circumscription

Stage 1: Size and Power (Ages 3-5) -Children: Little and Dependent, Students -Adults: Big and Powerful; Workers -Transitions from fantasy to real life adult aspirations Stage 2: Sex Roles (Ages 6-8) -Male Roles: Firefighter, Truck Driver, Doctor -Female Roles: Nurse, Teacher, Secretary -Establishes Tolerable Sex-Type Boundary Stage 3: Social Valuation (Ages 9-13) -Cognitive map of the prestige level of occupations -Sense of one's social space with regard to prestige -Establishes tolerable-level of prestige (floor) -Establishes tolerable-effort boundary (ceiling) Stage 4: Internal, Unique Self (Ages 14+) -One's zone of acceptable alternatives has now been established in stages 1-3 -Within this zone, potential occupations are considered in terms of their match with one's internal traits -Interests, Values, Skills, Personality, Goals

Theory of Work Adjustment: key Construct and Models

Key Constructs: -Person traits -Environment Factors -Correspondence -Satisfaction and Satisfactoriness Models: -TWA Predictive Model -TWA Process Model --Adjustment Styles --Adjustment Behaviors

Roe's Model of Occupational Choice

Look at Figure 3.1 in the text Designed to illustrates how the nature of parenting one experienced as a child reflects occupational choice Notice the layers (from inside outward) -Parenting Styles --Warm vs. Cold --Parenting Style --Subtype of Parenting Style -Major Orientation -Occupational groupings

Super's segmental theory consists of

14 theoretical propositions 3 segments, each with a visual model A career assessment and counseling model

Super's Segment 3: Self-Concept

A major premise of Super's theory that distinguishes it from other developmental theories involves the central role of self concept in career choice. Super believed that the choice of a career should be viewed as a way in which a person attempts to implement or express his or her self-concept. The importance of self-concept is reflected in numerous propositions and in its central role in the Archway of Career Determinants

Summary of Early Developmental Theories (of historical importance but no longer widely used)

Anna Roe: Parenting Styles Edward Bordin: Psychodynamic Eli Ginzberg: Process

The Career Development Assessment and Counseling (C-DAC) Model

Begins with assessment of a client's -Readiness to engage in career decision-making (CDI for children, ACCI for adults) and and an assessment of how important the worker role is to the client (Salience Inventory) -If client is not ready, career development activities are recommended -If client is ready, interest, ability and value assessments are recommended -Super then recommended using these assessment results within a matching process, much like the process used by trait factor counselors

Assessment for Career Decision Making

Career Decision Scale

Assessment for Career Maturity

Career Development Inventory

Holland's Six Types

Depicting by the hexagon People and model work environments can be classified as: Realistic: The Doer Investigative: The Scientist Artistic: The Creator Social: The Helper Enterprising: The Persuader Conventional: The Systematizer

Ginzberg's Original Theory

Developmental in nature Focused upon the occupational decision-making process that occurs between the ages of 11 and 21 Process of choice involves 3 periods: -Before age 11: Fantasy Choices -Ages 11-17: Tentative Choices Stages: Interests, Capacities, Values, Transition -Ages 17-21: Realistic Choices Stages: Exploration, Crystallization, Specification

Developmental theories most used in today's practice of career counseling

Donald Super's Life Span, Life-Space Approach Linda Gottfredson's Theory of Circumscription, Compromise and Self-Creation

Trait Factor Theory

E.G. Williamson-College Setting Identified 6 Steps for Career Counseling: 1. Analysis: collect data 2. Synthesis: organize and summarize data 3. Diagnosis: use data to describe client and problem -no choice -uncertain choice -unwise choice -discrepancy between interests & aptitudes 4. Prognosis: predict degree of success 5. Counseling: help client identify options and likelihood of success 6. Follow-up

Parenting Styles According to Roe: 3 types and there subtypes

Emotional Concentration on Child: Subtypes: -Overprotective Concentration -Over-demanding Concentration Avoidance of Child: Subtypes: -Emotionally Rejecting Avoidance -Neglectful Avoidance Acceptance of Child: -Casual Acceptance -Loving Acceptance

Donald Super's Developmental Theory

Instead of taking a trait-factor approach and looking for a static match between a person and a career, Super focused on an evolving, developing process in which individuals seek self-expression through career

Psychodynamic Concepts in Bordin's Theory (Model of Career Choice and Satisfaction)

Id - Reflected in the natural tendency to enjoy play and the desire to find work that feels like play and is intrinsically satisfying Ego - Reflected in the external pressures and the reality-based need to work Superego - Reflected in the internalization of reality-based expectations and external pressures result in a compulsion to work even when the work takes effort and/or is unpleasant

§Implication of Bordin's Theory on career satisfaction and success

If a person has major problems in personality structure (such as a personality disorder), that person is likely to also experience vocational difficulties. Traditional career counseling will be insufficient in such cases and psychodynamic treatment will be necessary. If a person does not have major problems in personality structure and instead is presenting primarily with career concerns, psychodynamic treatment is not necessary.

Ginzberg's Revised Theory

Incorporated revisions to the three elements of original theory 1. Occupational choice as a process: Ginzberg eliminated the age ranges. 2. Concept of irreversibility: Ginzberg eliminated this element and acknowledged that career decisions can be reversed. 3. Concept of compromise: Ginzberg moved from addressing the static concept of compromise of a single occupational choice to the concept of optimization over time within a dynamic process

Roe's Occupational Classification System

Initially published in 1957, this work preceded John Holland's hexagon and RIASEC classification. Occupational Group: Group 1: People Group 2: Business Contact Group 3: Organization Group 4: Technology Group 5: Natural Phenomena Group 6: Science Group 7: General Cultural Group 8: Arts and Entertainment Occupational Levels: Level 1: Professional and Managerial 1 Level 2: Professional and Managerial 2 Level 3: Semiprofessional & Small Business Level 4: Skilled Level 5: semiskilled Level 6: Unskilled

Variables Affected by Level of Correspondence: Person Traits and Environment Factors Style Factors and Environment Style

Person's level of Satisfaction and Satisfactoriness

Variables Affected by Level of Correspondence: Person Traits and Environment Factors Needs & Values and Reinforces

Person's level of Satisfaction with job

Variables Affected by Level of Correspondence: Person Traits and Environment Factors Skills & Abilities and Skills & Ability Requiements

Person's level of Satisfactoriness of Employer

Trait Factor Approaches/Primary Theories

the "Minnesota Point of View" Primary Theories: -Frank Parsons: 3 Steps -E.G. Williamson: 6 Steps -John Holland: Person-Environment Fit Theory -Dawis & Lofquist: Theory of Work Adjustment Approaches: Frequently utilize standardized tests and inventories to measure person-traits -This grew out of the differential psychology and testing movement