Unit 1 (Chapters 1-4)

Nominal Scale

-Categories -Property: Identity -Frequency data- measure amount, not magnitude -Math computations (ex: mean) are meaningless Ex: Using numbers to assign a gender

What affects reliability?

-Error -Observer error (individual making the measurement making a simple mistake) -Environmental changes (morning vs afternoon testing) -Participant changes (the participant can change in between measurements)

Validity

-How accurately a method measures what it is supposed to measure -If research has high validity, it means that it produces results that correspond to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the physical/social world -How well is the method that I am using measures what it is supposed to measure

Structure of an Empirical Journal Article

-Intro -Methods (typically 4 subsections- participants, design of the study, materials used, procedure that participants went through) -Results -Discussion (compares findings to predictions, if predictions are right- what is learned is shown, possible explanations provided if predictions are wrong)

Normal vs. Operational Definition

-Normal- found in dictionaries or in other studies -Operational- definition of variable specific to your own study

Interval Scale

-Properties: Identity, Magnitude, Equal intervals -Zero point of the scale is arbitrary -Math: add or subtract Ex: SAT or IQ scores

Ratio Scale

-Properties: Identity, magnitude, equal intervals, true zero -Math: everything! Ex: How much money a movie grossed at a box office

Ordinal Scale

-Rank ordering -Property: Identity and magnitude -Equal intervals not assumed -Math: Frequencies Ex: your grade in college

Current Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants in Research

-Respect for persons (provide info before study begins, obtain consent, give participants opportunity to ask questions, inform participants of right to withdraw) -Beneficence (reduce risk of harm to participants, benefits of study must outweighs risks, confidentiality must be maintained) -Justice (selection of participants must be fair, all participants must receive benefits of research, no participant may be selected for harmful research)

Guidelines for Citations

-When citing a quote- ALWAYS use the original source (ex: if article is quoting another author, quote the original author of that statement) -Do not use more then 5 consecutive words- not an exact rule however -A cite in parenthesis does not give permission to quote something word for word -Always identify source material -Better to overcite then undercite

What is the IRB?

-institutional review board -an administrative body of an institution -essential goal is to protect human subjects enrolled in clinical research

Descriptive vs. Causal Hypothesis

A descriptive hypothesis is a study that describes behavior, and a causal hypothesis describes causes of behavior *We cannot prove, but only support hypothesis

pseudosciences

A set of ideas based on nonscientific theory, faith, and belief.

Self-plagiarism

Copying material you have previously produced and passing it off as a new production.

Finding an unanswered research question is often the result of: Random selection Critical reading Logical arguments Design constraints

Critical reading

A drawback of the method of tenacity is that it: Is nearly always counter-intuitive Tends to be extremely flexible and rapidly changing Does not allow for the correction of erroneous ideas Requires adherence to specific religious doctrine

Does not allow for the correction of erroneous ideas

Jared relies on looking out the window to decide what the day's weather will be like. Jared is relying on which method? Empiricism Authority Tenacity Intuition

Empiricism

Which method of acquiring knowledge can be time consuming and sometimes even dangerous? Authority Intuition Empiricism Tenacity

Empiricism

In a recent debate about a sometimes controversial scientific theory, Debater A was able to list observations that would cause her to modify the theory Debater B supported, while Debater B said nothing would cause him to change his views. This suggests that Debater B is: A better scientist More highly educated Engaging in pseudoscience Better prepared for the debate

Engaging in pseudoscience

Tenacity

Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it -Difficult to identify these beliefs

Face Validity

Measures whether a test looks like it tests what it is supposed to test. -Ex: a driving test will test someone's ability to drive

Can we have validity without reliability?

No

Design a study in class activity

Question used: Does caffeine affect test anxiety? IV- Caffeine consumption DV- Test anxiety levels -Take two groups of college students, one group will be given 200 mlg of caffeine, and the other group will be the control. Both groups will take an initial test with questions such as "I feel nervous before an exam" and answer in a 1-5 likert scale. This will give us a baseline of their anxiety before taking caffeine or the test. Then, the test group will be given caffeine, and after an hour they will take the actual test, and based on their test performance and how they rated their anxiety before they took the exam, we will make predictions on how the caffeine affected them.

quantitative research

Research that is based on measuring variables for individual participants or subjects to obtain scores, usually numerical values, that are submitted to statistical analyses for summary and interpretation.

qualitative research

Research that is based on observations that are summarized and interpreted in a narrative report.

Abstract of a journal article

Short summary of the study which includes: General topic Description of methodology Results of study What was learned

Reliability

Stability or consistency of the measurements produced by a specific measurement procedure

Convergent Validity

Strong relationship between the scores obtained from two (or more) different methods of measuring the same construct -Ex: correlations between traditional driving test and new simulator test

Upon hearing that one of her favorite actors has died, Natasha worries out loud about who the other two deaths will involve, as she is certain that deaths come in threes. Natasha's assertion that deaths come in threes is based on which of the following? Rationalism Intuition Tenacity Authority

Tenacity

Induction

The use of a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations. Also known as inductive reasoning.

Can we have reliability without validity?

Yes

How to measure variables?

You need to quantify your values in some way -Use the abstract number system- well defined properties -Variables are not well defined properties

Method of Faith

a type of method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the authority and accept info from the authority without doubt

Method of Intuition

acquiring knowledge in which info is accepted on the basis of a hunch or feeling

Construct Validity

an overall term: scores from a measurement behave exactly like the variable the measurement is supposed to measure -All of the other validities can be used to measure construct validity

Internal consistency

how consistent the items of a measure are with each other (we want them to be consistent because they are supposed to measure the same thing)

Concurrent Validity

how scores from a new measure correlate with scores from a more established measure

Properties of the Abstract Number System

identity: each number means something unique magnitude: numbers have an inherent order from smaller to larger equal intervals: the same magnitude between numbers true zero: zero means zero *these properties allow us to use math properties, however, for some variables we can only use some properties

Authority

person relies in info or answers from an expert in the subject area -"experts" have been training education experience -Halo effect could come into play and present a problem

Scales of Measurement Order

ratio interval ordinal nominal (can do the least with this)

Intuition

relying on common sense as a means of knowing about the world

Predictive Validity

scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory -driving test performance predicts the number of accidents and tickets a person gets later on

Rational Method

seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning -Largely works, but subject to logical fallacies (ex: someone saying "I don't know anyone who has died from Covid, so it must not be that serious")

Divergent Validity

showing little to no relationship between the measurements of two different constructs -ex: a simulator test does NOT correlate with history of gaming

Split-half reliability

splits the test in half computing a separate score for each half, and then calculating the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants (1st and 2nd half of an IQ test)

What is the aim of research?

to study the relationship between an IV and a DV

Extraneous Variables

uncontrolled variables that might affect behavior -Using control and experimental groups can best help avoid these situations

Deduction

uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples

Empirical/Scientific Method

uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge Step 1- Observation Step 2- Form a hypothesis Step 3- Use hypothesis to form a testable prediction Step 4- Evaluate the prediction by making systemic, planned observations Step 5- Use these observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis

What is a peer reviewed journal article?

❑Research article may describe one or more studies ❑Researcher submits article to psychological journal to publish it ❑Article is reviewed by (2 - 5) experts (peer review)