Unit 1 - Unit 5 Exam Review

factor analysis

A complex statistical technique that involves analyzing correlations among measurements and attempting to explain the observed correlations by postulating a various influences (factors).

coefficient of correlation

A mathematical expression indicating the magnitude of correlation between two variables.

Hermann von Helmholtz

A monumental figure in the history of science who did pioneer work in the areas of nerve conduction, sensation, perception, color vision, and audition.

Skepticism: Pyrrho of Elis's (ca. 365-275 BC) Life and Work

Pyrro of Elis is usually considered the founder of the school of Skepticism, although skeptics had much in common with the earlier Sophists.

just noticeable difference

The sensation that results if a change in stimulus intensity exceeds the differential threshold.

Historiography:

The study of the proper way to write history.

Henry Herbert Goddard

Translated Binet's intelligence test into English and used it to test and classify students with mental retardation. Goddard was an extreme nativist who recommended that those with mental deficiencies be sterilized or institutionalized. As a result of Goddard's efforts, the number of immigrants allowed into the United States was greatly reduced.

school

a group of scientists who share common assumptions, goals, problems, and methods.

introspection

reflection on one's subjective experience, whether such reflection is directed toward the detection of the presence or absence of a sensation (as in the case of Wundt and Titchener) or toward the detection of complex thought processes (as in the cases of Brentano, Stumpf, Kulpe, Husserl, and others).

savings (method of measuring learning)

the difference between the time it originally takes to learn something and the time it takes to relearn something.

Empiricism: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): Empiricism, Materialism, Psychological Phenomena (i.e., Attention, Imagination, and Dreams)

(a) Empiricism: 1) Although he rejected Bacon's inductive method in favor of the deductive method, he did agree with Bacon on the importance of sensory experience. 2) Although he accepted Descarte deductive method, he rejected his to his concept of innate ideas. 3) All ideas came from experience or, more specifically, from sensory experience. (b) Materialism: 1) All so called mental phenomena could be explained by the sense experiences that result when the motion of external bodies stimulates the sense receptors, thereby causing internal motion. 2) The "mind" was nothing more than the sum total of a person's thinking activities--that is, a series of motions within the individual. 3) Concerning the mind-body problem, he was a physical monist; he denied the existence of a non-material mind. (c) psychological phenomena: 1) Attention was explained by as long as the sense organs retained the motion caused by certain external objects, they cannot respond to others. 2) Imagination was explained by the fact that sense Impressions Decay over time. When a sense impression has decayed for considerable amount of time, it is called memory. 3) Dreams too have a sensory origin: "the imaginations of them that sleep are those we called dreams. And these also, as all other imaginations, are in the sense". The reason that dreams are typically so vivid is because during sleep there are no new sensory Impressions to compete with the imagination.

Six reasons Hergenhahn (author) cites for studying the history of psychology:

(a) perspective, (b) deeper understanding, (c) recognition of fads and fashions, (d) avoiding repetition of mistakes, (e) a source of valuable ideas, and (f) curiosity.

Empiricism: James Mill (1773-1836): Association, Factors That Determine the Strength of Associations, and Influence on Psychology

(b) association: 1) External objects are clusters of Sensations that have been consistently experienced together. In other words, they are complex ideas and are reducible to simple ideas, like Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Hartley, no matter how complex an idea becomes 2) Simple ideas can be added to other simple ideas, making a complex idea; complex ideas can be added to complex ideas, making a still more complex idea. Still, at the base of all mental experience are Sensations and the ideas they initiate. (c) factors that determine the strength of associations: 1) Two factors cause variation in strength of associations: vividness and frequency. The more Vivid and/or frequent Sensations or ideas form stronger associations. 2) Vividness: (1) Sensations are more Vivid than ideas; (2) Sensations and ideas associated with pleasure or pain are more Vivid than those not related; (3) recent ideas are more Vivid than more remote ideas. (d) Influence on psychology: 1) His analysis is regarded as the most complete associationism ever offered. 2) Thus, his conception of the Mind is based on Newtonian physics. 3) The mind consisted of mental elements held together by the laws of Association; therefore, mental experience was as predictable as physical events.

Empiricism: David Hume (1711-1776): Ideas Regarding Physical Reality and Perceptions of It, Notion of Simple and Complex Ideas and The Imagination, and Account of The Association of Ideas (including the three laws of association)

(b) ideas regarding physical reality and perceptions of it: 1) Like the empiricists that preceded him, he believed that the contents of the Mind came only from experience. 2) Believed that experience could be stimulated by either internal or external events. He agreed with Berkeley that we never experience the physical directly and can have only perceptions of It. 3) He did not deny the existence of physical reality; he denied only the possibility of knowing it directly. 4) Although the ultimate nature of physical reality must necessarily remain obscure, its existence must be assumed in all rational deliberations. He distinguished between Impressions, which were strong, Vivid perceptions and ideas, which were relatively weak perceptions. (c) notion of simple and complex ideas and the imagination: 1) He had made the same distinction that Locke had made between simple ideas and complex ideas. Although all simple ideas were once Impressions, not all complex ideas necessarily correspond to complex Impressions. Once ideas exist in the mind, they can be rearranged in an almost infinite number of ways by the imagination. 2) The only difference between fact and fiction is the different feelings and experience it produces. 3) What distinguishes fact from fantasy is the degree of belief that one idea belongs with another, and such belief is determined only by experience. (d) account of the association of ideas (including the three laws of association): 1) Discussed three laws of Association that influence our thoughts. 2) The law of resemblance states that our thoughts work easily from one idea to other similar ideas. 3) The law of contiguity states that when one thinks of an object, there is a tendency to recall other objects that were experienced at the same time and place as the object being pondered. 4) The law of cause and effect states that when we think of an outcome, we tend to also think of the events that typically proceed that outcome.

French Sensationalism: Julien de La Mettrie (1709-1751): The Differences Between Humans and Nonhuman Animals, and The Desirability of Accepting Materialism as a Worldview

(b) the differences between humans and nonhuman animals: 1) Creative intelligence and some personality characteristics vary with the size and quality of the brain. 2) Intelligence was influenced by three factors: brain size, brain complexity, and education. Humans are typically Superior and intelligent to other animals because we have bigger, more complex brains and because we are better educated. 3) Humans differ from non-human animals only in degree, not in type. (c) the desirability of accepting materialism as a worldview: 1) Humans would be much better served by accepting their continuity with the animal world. 2) We should accept the fact that, like other animals, humans are machines--complex machines, but machines none the less.

René Descartes (1596-1650): The Reflexive Nature of Organisms' Interactions with the Environment; Sleep and Dreams; and The Mind-Body Interaction

(c) The Reflexive Nature of Organisms' Interactions with the Environment: 1) Modeled explanation for behaviour on the statues at St. Germain in terms of mechanical principles. 2) Thought of the nerves as hollow tubes containing "delicate threads" that connected the sense receptors to the brain. These threads connect to the cavities or ventricles of the brain, which were filled with animal spirits. 3) By believing animal spirits distinguished the living from the nonliving, these philosophers and Physicians embraced a form of vitalism. 4) By saying interactions with the environment are reflexive, it made legitimate the study of non-human animals to learn more about the functioning of the human body. 5) Dissecting research concluded that interactions with the environment be explained through mechanical principles. So could digestion, respiration, nourishment and growth of the body, circulation of the blood, and even sleeping and dreaming. (d) Sleep and Dreams: 1) Explanation of sleep notes that while organisms are awake, the cavities of the brain are so filled with animal spirits that the brain tissue engulfing a cavity expands, slightly increasing the totnes of the delicate threads and that's making them maximally responsive to sensory stimulation. 2) The amount of animal spirits in the brain cavities diminishes, and the tissue surrounding them becomes lax, whereupon the delicate threads become slack. Under these conditions, the organism is not very responsive to the environment, and we say it is asleep. 3) Animal Spirits flow randomly in the cavities, and every now and then isolated cavities will be filled; connecting Threads becoming tight. This causes the random, disconnected experiences (dreams). (e) The Mind-Body Interaction: 1) All animal behavior and internal processes could be explained mechanically 2) Important difference between humans and other animals. Only humans possess the mind that provided consciousness, free choice, and rationality. Furthermore, the mind was non-physical and the body physical; that is, the body occupied space but the mind did not. 3) On the mind-body problem, he was a dualist, and the type of dualism that he subscribed to was interactionism (sometimes referred to as Cartesian dualism). 4) Chose the pineal gland because it was surrounded by animal spirits (what we now call cerebrospinal fluid), it was not duplicated like other brain structures, and it was found only in the human brain. It was through the pineal gland that the mind will the body to act or inhibited action. When the Mind willed something to happen, it stimulated the pineal gland, which in turn stimulated appropriate brain areas, causing animal spirits to flow to various muscles and that's bringing about the will to behavior.

Rationalism: Thomas Reid (1710-1796): Direct Realism and Faculty Psychology

(c) direct realism: 1) Sensations not only accurately reflect reality but also do so immediately. 2) The belief that the world is as we immediately experience it is called direct realism. 3) He did not believe that Consciousness was formed by one sensation being added to another or to the memory of others. We experience objects immediately as objects because our innate power of perception. 4) We perceive the world directly in terms of meaningful units, not as isolated Sensations that are then combined via associative principles. (d) faculty psychology: 1) Faculty psychologists are those who refer to various mental abilities or powers in their descriptions of the Mind. 2) It has been alleged that faculty psychologist believed that a faculty of the Mind was housed in a specific location in the brain. 3) For him, the mental faculties were active powers of the Mind; they actually existed and influence individuals thoughts and behavior. The mental faculties were aspects of a single, unifying mind, and they never functioned in isolation. That is, when a faculty functioned, it did so in conjunction with other faculties. For him, the emphasis was always on the unity of the Mind.

Empiricism: John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): Ethology and Social Reform

(c) ethology: 1) Argued for the development of a science of the formation of character (called the science of ethology). 2) Ethology derived from a basic science of human nature (pychology). Psychology would discover the universal laws that human Minds operate, and then ethology would explain how individual minds are characters from under specific circumstances. Psychology holds primary mental laws, and ethology holds secondary laws. I.E. psychology provides information concerning humans commonality (human nature), and ethology explains individual personalities (individual differences). (d) social reform: 1) A dedicated social reformer. His causes included freedom of speech, representative government, and the emancipation of women. 2) Believed that male chauvinism was often defended on the basis of natural law (biologically inferior to males) or on the basis of some religious belief or another. He considered both defenses invalid and believed that a sound science of human nature would provide the basis for social inequality. 3) His version of Bentham's General principle of utilitarianism differed significantly. In bentham's calculation of Happiness, all forms of pleasure counted equally. He disagreed, saying that, for most humans, intellectual Pleasures were far more important than the biological Pleasures we share with non-human animals. He said, it is better to be human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.

Empiricism: John Locke (1632-1704): Innate Ideas, Sensation and Reflection

(c) innate ideas: 1) If the Mind contained any ideas, that all humans should have those ideas, and clearly they do not. 2) Humans are not born with any innate ideas, whether they be moral, the illogical, logical, or mathematical. (d) sensation and reflection: 1) All ideas come from either sensation or reflection. That is, either by direct sensory stimulation or by reflection on the remnants of Prior sensory stimulation. 2) Reflection, the second Fountain of Knowledge referred to in the preceding quotation, is the mind's ability to reflect on itself. 3) The source of all ideas is sensation, but the ideas obtained by sensation can be acted on and rearranged by the operations of the Mind, thereby creating new ideas. The operations the mind can include "perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, and willing". 4) Although the content of the mind is derived from sensory stimulation, The operations of the Mind are part of human nature; they are innate. 5) His philosophy, although labeled empirical, is partially nativistic. Simple ideas concerning the physical world come from Sensation, and simple ideas concerning our minds come from reflection.

Existentialism: Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855): Love in Religious Experience and The Stages of Personal Freedom

(c) love in religious experience: 1) One should read the Bible as one would read a love letter. The meaning of both the Bible and a love letter is found in the feelings that causes the reader to have. 2) Your feelings and your interpretation to find what is the experience is true for you. Truth is subjectivity--your subjectivity. (d) the stages of personal freedom: 1) In 'Either/Or', he said that the approximation of full personal freedom occurs in stages. a) The 'aesthetic stage.' At this stage, people are open to experience and seek out many forms of pleasure and excitement, but they do not recognize their ability to choose. People operating at this level are hedonistic, and such an existence ultimately leads to boredom and despair. b) The 'ethical stage.' People operating at this level accept the responsibility of making choices but use as their guide ethical principles established by others. Although he considered the ethical level higher than the aesthetic level, people operating on the ethical level are still not recognizing and acting on their full personal freedom. c) The 'religious stage.' At this stage, people recognize and accept their freedom and enter into a personal relationship with God. The nature of this relationship is determined by the nature of God and by one's self awareness. People existing on this level see possibilities in life that often run contrary to what is generally accepted, and therefore they tend to be nonconformists.

Empiricism: David Hartley (1705-1757): Notion of Simple and Complex Ideas, Application of The Laws of Association to Voluntary Behavior, Analysis of Emotion, and Influence on the Development of Psychology

(c) notion of simple and complex ideas: 1) Believed that all complex ideas are formed automatically by the process of Association. 2) There are no active mind processes involved at all. Simple ideas that are associated by contiguity form complex ideas. Similarly, complex ideas that are associated by contiguity become associated in 'decomplex' ideas. 3) As ideas combined/decombined, it may be difficult to remember the individual Sensations that make up such ideas. 4) Association is the only process responsible for converting simple ideas into complex ones. (d) application of the laws of association to voluntary behavior: 1) Used the law of Association to explain how involuntary Behavior gradually becomes voluntary and then becomes almost involuntary (automatic) again 2) The basic assumption in his explanation is that all behavior is at first involuntary and gradually becomes voluntary through the process of Association. 3) Thus, behavior is first involuntary, and then it becomes increasingly voluntary as, through the process of Association, more and more stimuli become capable of eliciting the behavior. 4) When performing the voluntary action becomes habitual, it is said to be secondarily automatic. 5) It should be clear that Hartley did not employ the term voluntary to mean freely chosen. For him, voluntary behavior is determined by the law of contiguity and, therefore, no free choice is involved. (e) analysis of emotion: 1) Believed that excessive vibrations caused the experience of pain and that mild or moderate vibrations caused the experience of pleasure. 2)Association plays a prominent role in Hartley's analysis. Through experience, certain objects, events, and people become associated with pain and others with pleasure. (f) influence on the development of psychology: 1) Took the speculations concerning neurophysiology of his time and used them in his notion of Association. 2) His effort was the first major attempt to explain the neurophysiology of thought and behavior since Descartes. 3) The neurophysiological mechanisms that he postulated were largely fictitious, but as more became known about neural transmission and brain mechanisms, the more accurate information replaced the older fictions. 4) Thus, he started the search for the biological correlates of mental events that has continued to the present.

Briefly describe the life and work of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Describe the following: (a) innate categories of thought, (b) the nature of phenomenological experience, (c) perceptions of time and space, and (d) the categorical imperative. Specify Kant's influence on the development of psychology. (pp. 192-196)

(c) perceptions of time and space: 1) All Notions of time cannot come from experience; thus, they must be provided by a priori category of time. He concluded that the experience of time could be understood only as a creation of the Mind. 2) Believed that our experience of space was provided by an inmate category of thought. He agreed with Hume that we never experience the physical world directly but he observed that it certainly seems that we do. 3) The innate categories of time and space are basic because they provide the contact for all mental phenomena, including causality. He proposed innate categories of thought that organized all sensory experience. 4) Both Descartes and he were nativists, but their brands of nativism differed significantly. (d) the categorical imperative: 1) Attempted to rescue moral Philosophy from what the empiricist have reduced it to--utilitarianism. 2) It was not enough to say that certain experiences feel good and others do not; he asked what rule or principle was being applied to those feelings that made them desirable or undesirable. 3) He called the rational principle that governs or should govern moral Behavior the categorical imperative. 4) Making moral decisions according to the categorical imperative would result in a community of free and equal members. 5) Whereas the empiricists analysis of moral Behavior emphasized hedonism, his was based on a rational principle and a belief in Free Will. For him, the idea of moral responsibility was meaningless unless rationality and Free Will were assumed. There is a reason for acting morally and, if that reason is freely chosen, moral Behavior results. (e) Influence on Psychology: 1) His rationalism relied heavily on both sensory experience and innate faculties. 2) Did not believe that psychology could become an experimental science. First, he claimed the Mind could never be objectively study because there's not a physical thing. Second, the Mind cannot be studied scientifically using introspection because it is constantly changing. Also, the very process of introspection influences the state of the mind, that's limiting the value of what is found through introspection. 3) Like most philosophers in the rationalistic tradition, Kant believed that to be a science, a discipline's subject matter had to be capable of precise mathematical formulation, and this was not the case for psychology.

Rationalism: Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841): The Apperceptive Mass, Educational Psychology, and Influence on Psychology

(c) the apperceptive mass: 1) At any given moment compatible ideas Gather in Consciousness and form a group. This group of compatible ideas constitutes the apperceptive mass. 2) Another way of looking at the apperceptive mass is to equate it with attention; that is, the apperceptive mass contains all ideas to which we are attending. 3) In the apperceptive mass. ideas compete with each other. An idea outside the apperceptive mass (not conscious) will enter the apperceptive mass only if it is compatible with the other ideas contained there at the moment. Thus whether an idea is a new one derived from experience or one already existing in the unconscious, it will be permitted conscious expression only if it is compatible with the ideas in the apperceptive mass. 4) Used the term repression to describe the force used to hold ideas incompatible with the apperceptive mass in the unconscious. 5) If enough similar ideas are repressed into the unconscious, they could combine their energy and force their way into Consciousness, thereby displacing the existing apperceptive Mass. 6) Used the term limen (threshold) to describe the border between the conscious and the unconscious mind. His goal was to mathematically express the relationships among the apperceptive mass, the Limen, and the conflict among ideas. 7) One goal was to describe the mind in mathematical terms just as Newton had describe the physical world. His use of calculus to quantify complex mental phenomenon made him one of the first to apply a mathematical model to psychology. (d) educational psychology: 1) Theory of Education offered the following advice to teachers: a) review the material that has already been learned. b) prepare the student for new material by giving an overview of what is coming next. This creates a receptive apperceptive Mass. c) present the new material. d) relate the new material to what has already been learned. e) show applications of the new material and give an overview of what is to be learned next. 2) For him, a student's existing apperceptive mass, or mental set, must be taken into consideration when presenting new material. Material not compatible with a student's apperceptive mass will simply be rejected or, at least, will not be understood. (e) Influence on Psychology: 1) Insisted that psychology could at least be a mathematical science gave psychology more status and respectability. 2) Denied Psychology as an experimental science; his efforts to quantify mental experience encouraged the development of experimental psychology. 3) Concept of the unconscious, repression, and conflict and his belief that ideas continue to exist intact even when they we are not conscious of them found their way into Freud's psychoanalytic theory. 4) Concept of limen was extremely important to Gustav fechner, who's psycho physics was instrumental in the development of psychology as a science. 5) Influenced Wilhelm wundt, the founder of psychology as a separate scientific discipline.

Rationalism: Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716): The Mind-Body Relationship and Conscious and Unconscious Perception

(c) the mind-body relationship: 1) Rejected Descartes's mind-body dualism because it is impossible for something physical to cause something mental. 2) Rejected occasionallism because he thought that it was untenable to believe that the mind and body work coordinated through God's continuous intervention. 3) In place of Descartes's interactionism and Malebranche's occasionalism, he proposed a psychophysical parallelism based on the notion of pre-established Harmony, 4) He believed that monads never influence each other; it only seems as if they do. Whenever we perceive in one monad what seems to be the cause of something, other monads are created in such a way as to display what appear to be the effects of that cause. Similarly, the monads that make up the mind and those that make up the body are always in agreement because God planned it that way, but they are not causally related. 5) One criticism was that monadology suggested that because God created the world, it cannot be improved upon. (d) conscious and unconscious perception: 1) The notion of insensible perceptions was as useful to psychology as the notion of insensible atoms was to physics. In both cases, what is actually experienced consciously is explained in terms of events beyond the realm of conscious experience. 2) called this the law of continuity. It implies that any change from small to large, or vice versa, passes through something which is, in respect of degrees as well as of parts, in between; and that no motion ever Springs immediately from a state of rest, or passes into one except through a lesser motion. 3) Called perceptions that occurred below the level of awareness petites perceptions. As petites perceptions accumulate, their combined force is eventually enough to cause awareness, or apperception. Therefore, a Continuum exists between unconscious and conscious perception. 4) First philosopher to clearly postulate an unconscious mind. He also introduced the concept of limen, or threshold, into psychology. We are aware of experiences above a certain aggregate of petites perceptions, but experiences below that aggregate remain unconscious.

Romanticism: Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860): The Relationship Between Life and Death, The Roles of Sublimation and Denial, and Unconscious Motivation

(c) the relationship between life and death: 1) Viewed life is as the postponement of death. In this life and death struggle, death is always the Victor. They cling to life because they fear death. (d) the roles of sublimation and denial: 1) Even though these powerful, irrational forces are a natural part of human existence, humans can and should attempt to rise above them. 2) With great effort, humans are capable of Approaching Nirvana, a state characterized by Freedom with irrational strivings. 3) Anticipated Freud's concept of sublimation; some relief or escape from the irrational forces within us can be attained by immersing ourselves in activities such as poetry, theater, art, music, platonic philosophy, or unselfish, non-sexual, sympathetic love. 4) One can attempt to counteract these it irrational forces, especially the sex drive, by living a life of asceticism. 5) Suicide as an escape from Human misery comes to mind. Most individuals resist such an adjustment because it is diametrically opposed to the will to survive. 6) Believed that a major goal for humans is to gain insight into their existence. The essence of human existence was the relationship between the noumenal (powerful, aimless will) and the phenomenal (Consciousness). 7) The proper adjustment to this tragic condition is to struggle to rise above it or, at least, to minimize it. Suicide evades this Noble effort and is therefore a mistake. (e) unconscious motivation: 1) Anticipating Freud, he observed that all humans have positive (intellectual, rational) and negative (animalistic) impulses. 2) Spoke of repressing undesirable thoughts into the unconscious and of the resistance encountered when attempting to recognize repressed ideas. 3) A great deal of schopenhauer's philosophy resides in Freud's psychoanalytic theory. Besides the ideas of repression and sublimation, Freud shared his belief that irrational (unconscious) forces are the prime motivators of human behavior and that the best we could do was minimize their influence. 4) Both men are pessimistic and their views of human nature.

Rationalism: Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677): Clear and Unclear Ideas, Emotions and Passions, Influence on Psychology

(d) clear and unclear ideas: 1) He was a hedonist because he claimed that what are commonly referred to as good and evil are "nothing else but the emotions of Pleasure and Pain." by pleasure, however, Spinoza meant "the entertaining of clear ideas." 2) A clear idea is one that is conducive to the mind's survival because it reflects an understanding of causal necessity. 3) The highest pleasure, then, comes from understanding God, because to do so is to understand the laws of nature. If the Mind dwells only on momentary perceptions or passions, it is being passive and not acting in a way conducive to survival; such a mind experiences pain. (e) emotions and passions: 1) Thought that the experience of passion is one that reduces the probability of survival. Unlike an emotion, which is linked to a specific thought, passion is not associated with any particular thought. 2) Because passion can cause non-adaptive Behavior, it must be harnessed by reason. Behavior and thoughts Guided by reason are conducive to survival, but behavior and thoughts guided by Passion are Not. By understanding the causes of passion, reason gives one the power to control passion. 3) Insistence that we can improve ourselves by clarifying our ideas through an analysis of them and by rationally controlling our passions comes very close to Freudian psychoanalysis. Replace the term passion with unconscious determinants of behavior. 4) Alexander and Selesnick actually refer to Spinoza as the greatest of the pre-Freudian psychologists. (f) Influence on Psychology: 1) Bernard believes that Spinoza should be given more credit than Descartes for influencing the development of modern psychology. 2) Similarity between Spinoza's philosophy and psychoanalytic thinking. Both stress that unclear thoughts should be made clear and that the passions should be controlled by the rational mind. 3) Had a strong influence on two individuals who were instrumental in launching psychology as an experimental science: Gustav Fechner and Wilhelm Wundt.

Empiricism: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): Motivation, Free Will, and Complex Thought Processes (i.e., trains of thought)

(d) motivation: 1) Argued that external objects not only produces sense Impressions but also influence the vital functions of the body. 2) Incoming Impressions that facilitate vital functions are experienced as pleasurable, and the person seeks to preserve them. 3) Impressions incompatible with the vital functions are experienced as painful, and the person seeks to terminate or avoid them. 4) Human behavior is motivated by appetite (the seeking or maintaining of pleasurable experiences) and aversion (the avoidance or termination of painful experiences). In other words, Hobbs accepted a hedonistic theory of motivation. 5) Stated and explained moral relativism: there were no objective moral properties, but what seemed good was what pleased any individual". (e) free will: 1) Deterministic view of human behavior, there was no 'free will'. People may 'believe' they are 'choosing' because at any given moment one may be confronted with a number of appetites and diversions and therefore there may be conflicting Tendencies to act. 2) The recognition of conflicting Tendencies as "deliberation" and to to the behavioral tendency that survives that deliberation as 'will.' (f) complex thought processes: 1) "Trains of thought," he meant the tendency of one thought to follow another in some coherent manner. 2) How such a phenomenon occurs, Reintroduced the law of contiguity first proposed by Aristotle. That is, events that are experienced together are remembered together and are subsequently thought of together.

Existentialism: Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900): Opinions versus Convictions, The Notion of the Will to Power, The Concept of Supermen, and Misinterpretations of Nietzsche's Concept of Supermen

(d) opinions versus convictions: 1) He Define conviction as the "belief in the possession of absolute truth on any matter of knowledge." 2) Opinions are different because they are tentative, challengeable, and easily modified in light of new information. 3) Convictions are thought to reflect Truth and opinions truth; convictions reflect certainty, opinions probability. It is convictions that cause fanaticism, not opinions. (e) the notion of the will to power: 1) Humans need to acquire knowledge of themselves and then act on that knowledge. Meaning and morality cannot be imposed from the outside; it must be discovered within. 2) Such self examination reveals that the most basic human motive is the 'Will To Power'. 3) Like Schopenhauer, he believed that humans are basically irrational. Unlike Schopenhauer, however, he thought that the instincts should not be refreshed or sublimated but should be given expression. 4) The will to power can be fully satisfied only if a person act as he or she feels--that is, acts in such a way as to satisfy all instincts. (f) the concept of supermen: 1) People approaching their full potential are 'Supermen' because standard morality does not govern their lives. Instead they rise above such morality and live independent, creative lives. 2) Like Goethe, he did not believe that negative experiences or impulses should be denied. Rather, one should learn from such experiences. 3) The notion of Superman was his answer to the human moral and philosophical dilemma. The meaning and morality of one's life comes from within oneself. For him then, it was important for each individual to find the meaning in his or her own life and then to live in accordance with such. (g) Misinterpretations of Nietzsche's concept of supermen: 1) His philosophy was embraced by the German national socialists (Nazis), who claimed that the German people were the Supermen to whom he referred. 2) For the Nazi, Superman meant Superior men, and the Germans were, they believed, Superior.

Empiricism: John Locke (1632-1704): Simple and Complex Ideas, Emotions, and Primary and Secondary Qualities

(e) simple and complex ideas: 1) Simple ideas, whether from sensation or reflection, constitute the atoms (corpuscles) of experience because they cannot be divided or analyzed further into other ideas. 2) Complex ideas are Composites of simple ideas and therefore can be analyzed into their component parts (simple ideas). when the operations of the Mind are applied to simple ideas through reflection, complex ideas are formed. (f) emotions: 1) Maintained that the feelings of pleasure or pain accompany both simple and complex ideas. He believed that the other Passions--like love, desire, Joy, hatred, sorrow, anger, fear, Despair, and lie, shame, and Hope--we're all derived from the two basic feelings of Pleasure and Pain. (g) primary and secondary qualities: 1) His friend and teacher Robert Boyle introduced the terms primary qualities and secondary qualities, and Locke borrowed the terms from him. 2) Defined primary qualities as attributes of physical reality and secondary qualities as attributes of subjective or psychological reality. That is, primary qualities refer to actual attributes of physical objects or events that have no counterparts in the physical world. 3) Boyle and he both took a different approach from Galileo, both primary and secondary qualities referred to characteristics of the physical world; what distinguished them was the type of psychological experience they caused. 4) Any aspect of a physical object that had the power to produce an idea as a quality. Primary qualities have the power to create in us ideas that correspond to actual physical attributes of physical objects. With primary qualities, there is a match between what is physically present and what is experienced psychologically. 5) The secondary qualities of objects also have the power to produce ideas, but the ideas they produced do not correspond anything in the physical world. These ideas produced by secondary qualities include those of color, sound, temperature, and taste. 6) His Paradox of the basins dramatically demonstrated the nature of ideas caused by secondary qualities. Take 3 water basins: one containing cold water, hot water, and warm water. One hand in Basin a and the other in Basin B, one hand will feel hot and cold, supporting the hot and cold properties of the water (temperature is a primary quality). Place both hands in Basin C (the warm water). To hand A, Basin C will feel hot; to hand B, the water will feel cold. Thus, he demonstrated that the experience of hot and cold depended on the experiencing person, and temperature there for reflected secondary qualities. 7) The important point was that some of our psychological experiences reflected the physical world as it actually was (experiences; primary qualities) and some did not (experiences; secondary qualities). Subjective reality could be studied as objectively as physical reality, and he set out to do just that.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Four Sources of Error That Influence Scientific Work

-The 'idols of the cave' are personal biases that arise from a person's intellectual endowment, experiences, education, and feelings. Any of these things can influence how an individual receives and interprets the world. -The 'Idols of the tribe' are biases due to human nature. All humans have in common the ability to imagine, too well, and hope, and these human attributes can and usually do distorted perceptions. -The 'Idols of the marketplace' are biases that result from being overly influenced by the meaning assigned to words. Verbal labels and descriptions can influence one's understanding of the world and distort one's observations of it. -The 'Idols of the theater' are biases that result from blind allegiance to any Viewpoint, whether it be philosophical or theological.

Beliefs and Contributions to Astronomy: Ptolemy (fl. ca. second century AD)

1) A Greco-Egyptian, summarized the mathematical and observational astronomy of his time and that of antiquity in his almagest. 2) The 'Ptolemaic system's included the beliefs that the heavenly bodies, including the Earth, were spiracle in shape and that the sun, moon, and planets travel around the Earth in orbits that are circular and uniform. 3) The Ptolemaic system was resilient for at least three reasons: one, it recorded well with the testimony of the senses (the Earth does appear to be the fixed center of the universe); two, it allowed reasonable astronomical predictions; and three, later, it was congenial to Christian theology because it gave humans a central place in the universe and this was in agreement with the biblical account of creation.

René Descartes (1596-1650):

1) A Renaissance Man, he was a soldier, mathematician, philosopher, scientist, and psychologist. 2) A rationalist: he stressed the importance of logical thought processes 3) A nativist: he stressed the importance of innate ideas 4) He was also a phenomenalologist; he introspectively studied the nature of intact, conscious experience. 5) His method consisted of intuition and deduction. Intuition is the process by which one arrived at a clear and distinct idea, and idea who's validity cannot be doubted. Once such an ideas discovered, one can deduce from it many other valid ideas. 6) His method of intuition and deduction was believed to be as valid when directed towards the world of inner experience as when directed toward the physical world. 7) Lasting Contribution to Psychology: His mechanistic analysis of reflexive Behavior can be looked on as the beginning of both stimulus-response and behavioristic psychology. What followed Descartes was a reaction to him; for that reason, he is often considered the father of modern philosophy in general and of modern psychology in particular.

Empiricism: James Mill (1773-1836): Life and Utilitarianism (and hedonism, including Jeremy Bentham's perspectives)

1) A Scotsman educated for the ministry at the University of Edinburgh. 2) Most significant contribution to psychology was analysis of the phenomena of the human mind. 3) His analysis of Association was influenced by Hume and especially by Hartley. (a) utilitarianism (and hedonism, including Jeremy Bentham's perspectives): 1) Bentham was the major spokesman for the British political and ethical movement called utilitarianism; the ability to find human happiness entirely in terms of the ability to obtain pleasure and avoid pain. 2) The best government was defined as one that brought the greatest amount of Happiness to the greatest number of people 3) In Psychology, bentham's Pleasure Principle showed up later not only in Freudian Theory but also in a number of learning theories. 4) He was one of bentham's most enthusiastic disciples, and utilitarianism entered his version of associationism. He is best known for his Newtonian, mechanistic, and elementistic view of the Mind.

Dark Ages: Maimonides (1135-1204)

1) A biblical and talmudic scholar and a physician 2) Anticipated the modern concern with psychosomatic disorders by showing the relationship between ethical living and mental health. 3) He wrote 'The Guide for the Perplexed' for scholars who were confused by the apparent conflict between religion and the scientific and philosophical thought. (between Judiasm and Aristotelian philosophy.) 4) He said that if something is demonstrably false, it should be rejected, even if it is stated as true in the Bible or Talmud.

Philosophy of William of Occam (ca. 1290-1350)

1) A british-born Franciscan monk, accepted Aquinas's division of faith and reason and pursued the latter. 2) Believed that in explaining things, no unnecessary assumptions should be made 3) Explanations should always be kept parsimonious. (Occam's Razor) 4) Sensory experience provided information about the world. 5) His philosophy marks the end of scholasticism. 6) Despite the church's efforts to suppress them, his views were widely taught and can be viewed as the beginning of modern empirical philosophy.

Dark Ages: Avicenna (980-1037)

1) A child prodigy who had memorized the Koran by the age of 10 2) He wrote books on many topics, including medicine, mathematics, logic, metaphysics, Islamic theology, astronomy, politics, and linguistics. In most of his work, he borrowed heavily from Aristotle, but he made modifications in Aristotle's philosophy that persisted for hundreds of years. 3) In his analysis of human thinking, he started with the five external senses--sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Then he postulated seven "interior senses," which were arranged in a heirarchy. 4) (1) Common sense, which synthesizes the information provided by the external sense. (2) Retentive imagination, the ability to remember the synthesized information from the common sense. (3) Compositive animal imagination and (4) compositive human imagination. Compositive imagination allows both humans and animals to learn what to approach or avoid in the environment. (5) Estimative power, the innate ability to make judgments about environmental objects. (6) The ability to remember the outcomes of all the information processing that occurs lower in the heirarchy, and (7) the ability to use that information.

French Sensationalism: Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655)

1) A contemporary of both Descartes and Hobbes, lived the quiet life of a studious priest and was respected as a mathematician and philosopher. 2) Both Locke and Newton acknowledged a debt to him, who's major goal was to denounce Descartes's purely deductive (axiomatic) and dualistic philosophy and replace it with an observational (inductive) science based on physical monism. 3) Offered several criticisms of Descartes proposed mind-body dualism, the most telling of which was the observation that the mind, if unextended (immaterial), could have no knowledge of extended things. Only physical things can influence and be influenced by physical things. 4) Concluded that humans are nothing but matter and therefore could be studied and understood just as anything else in the universe could. 5) Suggested a physical monism not unlike the one that the early Greek atomist, such as Democritus and later the epicureans, had suggested.

Rationalism: Nicholas De Malebranche's Concept of Occasionalism

1) A mystically oriented priest, accepted Descarte's separation of the mind and body but disagreed with his explanation of how the two interacted. For him, God mediated mind and body interactions. 2) There is no contact between mind and body, but there appears to be because of God's intervention. A wish to do something becomes the occasion for God to cause the body to act, and for that reason this Viewpoint became known as occasionalism. 3) This view of the mind-body relationship can be referred to as a parallelism with divine intervention. Without divine intervention, the activities of the mind and body would be unrelated, and we would have psychophysical parallelism.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Life, Science, and Radical Empiricism

1) After France, where he worked for an ambassador, He returned to England to practice law and in 1584 he was elected to Parliament. Shortly after publication of his most influential work, he was impeached for accepting bribes. 2) A radical empiricist who believed that nature could be understood only by studying it directly and objectively. 3) For Galileo, a law that governed the physical world expressed mathematically, a large number of manifestations could be deduced (deduction); He demanded science based on induction. Science should include no theories, no hypotheses, no mathematics, and no deductions but should involve only the facts of observation. 4) The ultimate Authority in science was to be empirical observation; later called positivism. What he proposed was a position between traditional empiricism (simple fact Gathering) and rationalism (the creation of abstract principles). 5) Scientists should follow two Cardinal rules: "one, to lay aside received options and Notions, and the other, to restrain the mind for a time from the highest generalizations." He was not against generalization, only premature generalization.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727). The Six Principles of Newtonian Science

1) Although God is the creator of the world, he does not actively intervene in the events of the world (deism). 2) The material world is governed by natural laws, and there are no exceptions to these laws. 3) There is no place for purpose in natural law, and therefore Aristotle's final causes must be rejected. In other words, natural events can never be explained by postulating properties inherent in them. Bodies fall not because of an inherent tendency to fall, as Aristotle had assumed, but because of various forces acting on them. 4) Occam's razor is to be accepted. Explanations must always be as simple as possible. Newton's conception of the universe could not have been simpler. Everything that happens can be explained in terms of (1) space, consisting of points; (2) time, consisting of moments; (3) matter, existing in space and possessing Mass; (4) full force, that which provides change in the motion of matter. 5) Natural laws are absolute, but at any given time our understanding is not perfect. Therefore, scientists often need to settle for probabilities rather than certainty. 6) Classification is not explanation. To understand why anything acts as it does, it is necessary to know the physical attributes of the object being acted on (such as it's mass) and the nature of the forces acting on it.

Physiology: Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930): Theory of Color Vision

1) Although she completed all the requirements for a doctor in 1882, the degree was not granted because she was a woman. She was later granted her doctorate. Theory of Color: 1) Her theory of color vision was based on evolutionary theory. 2) Noted that some animals are color-blind and assumed that achromatic Vision appeared first in evolution and color vision came later. 3) Assumed further that the human eye carries vestiges of its earlier evolutionary development. 4) the most highly evolved part of the eye is the fovea, where, at least in the daylight, visual Acuity and color sensitivity are greatest. Moving from the fovea to the periphery of the retina, Acuity is reduced and the ability to distinguish colors is lost. However, in the periphery of the retina, night vision and movement perception are better than in the fovea. 5) Assumed that peripheral vision (provided by the rods of the retina) was more primitive than foveal vision (provided by the cones of the retina) because night vision and movement detection are crucial for survival. 6) Concluded that color vision evolved in three stages. Achromatic Vision came first, then blue yellow sensitivity, and finally red green sensitivity. The assumption that the last to evolve would be the most fragile explains the prevalence of red green color blindness.

Renaissance Humanists: Philosophy of Martin Luther (1483-1546)

1) An Augustinian priest and biblical scholar, was disgusted by what Christianity had become in his day. 2) Like those of other humanists, his view of Christianity was much more in accordance with st. Paul's and St Augustine's views that human intentions are inspired either by God or by Satan: the former results in doing God's work, the ladder and sin. 3) The 'Reformation' is began in 1517 when Luther nailed his Ninty-five Theses (challenges to church dogma and hierarchy) to the door of the castle Church in Wittenberg because the church had drifted far from the teachings of Jesus and the Bible. 4) A major reason for the downfall of Catholicism was its assimilation of Aristotle's philosophy. 5) Disagreed with the Catholic church over the compulsory celibacy of nuns and Priests. 6) Believed that married couples are as a capable of doing God's work as any nun or priest. 7) Celebrated sexual enjoyment within marriage and even entertained some erotic thoughts. 8) Impotent man who desires children, wife with the consent of the man should have intercourse with another. Keep this "marriage" secret and prescribe children to the father. Such a woman would be in a saved State and would not be displeasing to God. 9) Luther both agreed and disagreed with Augustine. Augustine attributed free will to humans but argued that salvation is granted God's and independently of human endeavors (predestination). Luther denied free will but agreed that salvation is attained by God's grace alone. 10) Excommunicated in 1521, he leaded a new religious movement, 'Protestantism'. It denied the Pope's authority and insisted that every individual had the right to interpret the Bible themself. 11) Early protestantism had two negative aspects. First, as a religion, it was Grimm, austere, harsh, and unforgiving. In terms of individual happiness, it is difficult to imagine being better than those embracing Catholicism. Second, protestantism insisted on accepting the existence of God on faith alone; attempting to understand him through reason or empirical observations was foolish and to be avoided. 12) On the positive side, protestantism was a liberating influence in the sense that it challenged the authority of the Pope and of Aristotle; replacing them was the belief that individual feelings can provide the only truth needed and living one's life.

Empiricism:

1) An empiricist is anyone who believes that knowledge is derived from experience. 2) Experience is stressed instead of innate ideas, which emerge independently of experience. 3) There are many types of experience. There are "inner" experiences such as dreams, imaginings, fantasies, and a variety of emotions. Also, thinking logically, such as during mathematical deduction, are Vivid mental (inner) experiences. It has become general practice to exclude inner experience from a definition of empiricism and to refer exclusively to sensory experience. Robinson's definition: 1) Sensory experience constitutes the primary data of all knowledge; it does not say that such experience alone constitutes knowledge. 2) Knowledge cannot exist until sensory evidence has first been gathered; so for the empiricist, attaining knowledge begins with sensory experience. 3) All subsequent intellectual processes must Focus only on sensory experience in formulating propositions about the world. Thus, the thought processes that are focused on distinguishes the empiricist from the rationalist. 4) Most epistemological approaches use sensory experience as part of their explanation of the origins of knowledge; for the empiricist, however, sensory experience is of supreme importance.

Positivism: Ernst Mach (1838-1916): View of Positivism and Comparison to Comte and Mach

1) Another brand of positivism emerged later, however, under the leadership of the physicist. 2) Like Comte, insisted that science concentrate only on what could be known with certainty. 3) Neither of them allowed metaphysical speculation in their views of science. 4) The two men differed in what scientist could be certain about. For Comte, it was physical events that could be experienced by any interested Observer. He agreed with the contention of Berkeley and Hume--that we can never experience the physical world directly. We experience only Sensations or mental phenomena. 5) The job of the scientist was to note which Sensations typically cluster together and described in precise mathematical terms the relationships among them. 6) In agreement with Hume, he concluded that cause and effect relationships are nothing more than functional relationships among mental phenomena. 7) Positivism was revised through the years and it was eventually transformed into logical positivism. It was through logical positivism that positivistic philosophy had its greatest impact on psychology.

Beliefs and Contributions to Astronomy: Copernicus (1473-1543)

1) Argued successfully that, rather than the sun revolving around the Earth (the geocentric theory), the Earth revolved around the Sun (the heliocentric theory). 2) Heliocentric theory questioned the traditional place of humankind in the universe. 3) Giordano Bruno, a former Dominican priest who converted to the hermetism, held that in the universe there are innumerable inhabitents (that is, solar systems)and in each of these worlds the sun is divine. Bruno, therefore, accepted Copernicus's heliocentric theory because it restored the Divine status given to the Sun by the ancients. The only justification for accepting Copernicus's heliocentric theory was that it cast the known astrological facts into a simpler, more harmonious mathematical order. 4) In favor of the Copernican viewpoint was the Pythagorean-Platonic view that the Universe operated according to mathematical principles and that those principles are always the simplest and most harmonious possible. 5) The first to accept Copernicus's theory were mathematicians who, like himself, embraced the Pythagorean-Platonic worldview.

Renaissance Humanists: Philosophy of Giovanni Pico (1463-1494)

1) Argued that God had granted humans a unique position in the universe. 2) Humans alone, being between angels and animals, are capable of change. 3) All view points therefore should be studied objectively with the aim of discovering what they have in common. 4) Sought peace among philosophical and religious rivals. All human works, he said, should be respected.

Philosophy of Cynicism:

1) Argued that nonhuman animals provide the best model for human conduct. First, all the needs of nonhuman animals are natural and, therefore, the satisfaction of those needs is straightforward. Second, nonhuman animals do not have religion. 2) Nature, not social conventions, should guide human behaviour. 3) Social conventions are human inventions, and living in accordance with them causes shame, guilt, hypocrisy, greed, envy, and hate. 4) Rejects the family and all the distinctions based on sex, birth, rank, race, or education.'

Neoplatonism: Plotinus (ca. 204-270)

1) Arranged all things into a heirarchy, at the top of which was the One, or God. The One was supreme and unknowable. 2) Next in the heirarchy was the Spirit, which was the image of the One. It was the Spirit that was part of every human soul, and it was by reflecting on it that we could come close to knowing the One. 3) The lowest member of the heirarchy was the Soul. Although the Soul was inferior to the One and to the Spirit, it was the cause of all things that existed in the physical world. 4) Generally in agreement with Plato's philosophy, he did not share Plato's low opinion of sensory experience. Rather, he believed that the sensible world was beautiful, and he gave art, music, and attractive humans as examples. It was not that the sensible world was evil; it was simply less perfect than the spiritual world.

Empiricism: John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): Life, Mental Chemistry, and Psychology As A Science

1) Attempts to use associative principles with him as a child, he learned Greek by 3 years old, Latin and algebra by 8, and logic by 12. Perhaps as a result of his father's intense educational practices, he suffered several bouts of depression in his lifetime. 2) In 1869 he published a new edition of his father's analysis, adding numerous footnotes of his own that extended and clarified his father's view on associationistic psychology and sometimes criticized his father's ideas. (a) mental chemistry: 1) Believed that (1) every sensation leaves in the mind an idea that resembles the sensation but is weaker in intensity (he called ideas secondary mental States, Sensations being primary); (2) similar ideas tend to excite one another (Had reduced the law of similarity to the law of frequency, but accepted it as a separate law); (3) when Sensations or ideas are frequently experienced together, either simultaneously or successively, they become associated (law of contiguity); (4) more Vivid Sensations or ideas form stronger association's then do less Vivid ones; (5) strength of Association varies with frequency of occurrence. Aside from the law of similarity, this is his notion of mentalphysics or mental mechanics. 2) Instead of agreeing with his father that complex ideas are always Aggregates of simple ideas, he proposed a type of mental chemistry. (b) psychology as a science: 1) Contributed most to the development of psychology as a science. 2) Attacking the common belief that human thoughts, feelings, and actions are not subject to scientific investigation the way that physical nature is. 3) He stressed the point that any system governed by laws is subject to Scientific scrutiny, and this is true even if those laws are not presently understood. 4) Sciences whose primary laws are known and, if no other causes intervene, whose phenomena can be observed, measured, and predicted precisely. However, secondary laws often interact with primary laws, making precise understanding and prediction impossible. Because the primary laws are still operating, principal effects will still be observable, but the secondary laws create variations and modifications that cause predictions to be probabilistic rather than certain. 5) Viewed the science of human nature (Psychology) as in the same position as tidology or astronomy before secondary causation was understood. The thoughts, feelings, and actions of individuals cannot be predicted with great accuracy because we cannot foresee the circumstances in which individuals will be placed. It means that the primary causes interact with a large number of secondary causes, making accurate prediction extremely difficult.

Empiricism: Alexander Bain (1818-1903): Life and Goals

1) Attended Marisol College, which in 1858 became the University of Aberdeen. Following graduation, being moved to London, where he worked as a freelance journalist. While in London, being joined a lively intellectual Circle, which included John Stuart Mill, and the two became close, lifelong friends. At the age of 42, with his reputation established, he finally obtained an academic post at the University of Aberdeen. 2) Often referred to as the First full fledged psychologist. Besides writing the first textbooks in Psychology, he also the first to write a book exclusively dedicated to the relationship between the mind and the body. (a) Bain's goal: 1) his primary goal was to describe the physiological correlates of mental and behavioral phenomena. 2) His text was Modern in the sense that it started with a chapter on neurology, a practice many introductory psychology textbooks haven't followed ever since 3) He was the first to attempt to relate real physiological processes to psychological phenomena.

Epicureanism: Epicurus of Samos's (ca. 341-270 BC) Life and Work

1) Based his philosophy on Democritus's atomism but rejected his determinism. The atoms making up humans never lose their ability to move freely; hence, he postulated free will. 2) It was the nature of atoms and atomic activity that gave humans their freedom, not a disembodied soul. 3) Agreed with Democritus that there was no afterlife because the soul was made up of freely moving atoms that scattered upon death. 4) Atoms were never created or destroyed; they were only rearranged. Reconfigured following the individual's death. 5) Nothing was retained or transferred from one configuration to another. The good life must be attained in this world, for there is no other. 6) The type of Hedonism (seeking pleasure and avoiding pain) prescribed emphasized the pleasure that results from having one's basic needs satisfied. 7) Urged his followers to avoid power and fame because such things make others envious, and they may become enemies. Wise individuals attempt to live their lives unnoticed.

Two Major Early Greek Religions: Olympian Religion

1) Belief in the Olympian gods, who typically showed little concern for the anxieties and immorality of ordinary humans; 2) Believed that the "breath-soul" survived after death without any of the current memories or personality traits; encouraging those to live life to the fullest.

Heraclitus's (ca. 540-480 BC): Philosophy and Significance of his statement, "No man steps into the same river twice"

1) Believed everything to be in a state of flux. Things are never in a state of 'is' but rather a state of 'becoming'. This is where his statement comes from, as it indicates that things are constantly changing and so things (the river) is never the same as it was before (stepping into the same river twice).; 2) He postulated the question that 'how can something ever be known if it is constantly changing?' 3) He believed that everything existed between polar opposites, where one side of the pole defined the other.

Anaximander (ca. 610-540 BC; Thales's Student): Philosophy Characteristic

1) Believed that even water was made from something more basic that had the capability of forming into anything; 2) Called this 'something' the boundless or the indefinite; 3) Proposed a theory of evolution in which humans arose growing inside and emerged from a carrier fish, which were created from the mixture of hot water and earth, when humans could survive on their own; 4) He urged us not to eat fish, because he believed that they are our mothers and fathers.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: Motivation and Happiness

1) Believed that happiness was the result of doing what was natural because doing so fulfills one's purpose; 2) For humans, our purpose is to think rationally, and therefore, doing so brings happiness; 3) These actions to fulfill hunger, sex, etc. are biologically motivated to bring us happiness or pleasure.

Plato's (ca. 427-347 BC): Analogy of the Divided Line,

1) Believed that the only true knowledge involves grasping the forms themselves and that this can only be done with rational thought, rather than examining the empirical world through the sensory experience; 2) Imagining is seen as the lowest form of understanding because it is based on images; 3) We are better off confronting the objects themselves rather than their images, but confronting objects directly is to form beliefs or opinions about them. Although, beliefs do not constitute knowledge; 4) Still better is the contemplation of mathematical relationships, but mathematical knowledge is still not the highest type because such knowledge is applied to the solution of practical (empirical) problems, and many of its relationships exist only by definition. 5) The highest form of thinking involves embracing the forms themselves, and true intelligence or knowledge results only from an understanding of the abstract forms. The 'good' or the 'form of good' constitutes the highest form of wisdom because it encompasses all other forms and shows their interrelatedness.

Empedocles's (ca. 495-435 BC): Belief System

1) Believed that the world was made up of four elements; earth, fire, air, and water; 2) Postulated two causal powers of the universe: love and strife. Love is a force that attracts and mixes the elements, and strife is a force that seperates the elements; 3) These two forces create an unending cosmic cycle consisting of four recurring phases. (1) Love dominates and there is a perfect mixture of the four elements. (2) Strife disrupts the perfect mixture by progressively separating them. (3) Strife has managed to completely separate the elements. (4) Love again becomes dominant, and the elements are gradually recombined.

Anaxagoras's (ca. 500-428 BC): Philosophy, his assertion that "everything contains everything.", and the exception

1) Believed that things were made up of an infinite number of elements that he referred to as 'seeds'. 2) These elements do not exist in isolation. They are all present in everything but within differing proportions that provide the thing with it's characteristics; 3) The exception being the 'mind', which was pure in the sense that it contains no other elements and is not present in other elements.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: The Hierarchy of Souls

1) Believed, as most Greek philosophers, that souls give life and all living things possess a soul. 2) Believed that there are three souls, and a living thing's potential (purpose) is determined by what type of soul it possesses; 3) A vegetative (or nutritive) soul is possessed by plants. It allows only growth, the assimilation of food, and reproduction; 4) A sensitive soul is possessed by animals. In addition to the vegetative functions, organisms that possess a sensitive soul sense and respond to the environment, experience pleasure and pain, and having a memory; 5) A rational soul is possessed only by humans. It provides all functions of the other two souls but also allows thinking or rational thought.

Empiricism: John Locke (1632-1704): Life, Empiricism, and The Mind-Body Distinction

1) Born 6 years after the death of Francis Bacon. 2) Partially due to the zeitgeist that he, as well as several of his fellow students, was to develop a lifelong interest in politics. He became one of the most influential political philosophers in post Renaissance Europe. 3) Through his medical and empirical studies he met Robert Boyle, who influenced him. Boyle was one of the founders of the Royal Society and of modern chemistry. He became Boyle's friend, student, and research assistant. 4) From Boyle, learned that physical objects were composed of " minute corpuscles" that have a few intrinsic qualities. These corpuscles can be experienced in many numbers and arrangements. Some Arrangements result in the experience of primary qualities and some in the experience of secondary qualities. 5) Hobbs equated mental images with the motions in the brain that were caused by external motions acting on the sense receptors, he was content to say that somehow sensory stimulation caused ideas. 6) Insistence that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sensory experience that allows him to be properly labeled an empiricist.

Positivism: Auguste Comte (1798-1857): Life, Positivism, and The Law of Three Stages

1) Born in Montpellier on January 19th, grew up in the period of great political turmoil that followed the French Revolution of 1789 to 1799. 2) He met the social philosopher Henry de Saint-Simon, who converted him from an Ardent advocate of Liberty and equality to a supporter of a more elitist view of society. 3) He began giving lectures in his home on his positivist philosophy--that is, the attempt to use the methods of the physical sciences to create a science of history and human social behavior. (a) positivism: 1) The only thing we can be sure of is that which is publicly observable--that is, experiences that can be shared with other individuals. The data of science are publicly observable and therefore can be trusted. His insistence on equating knowledge with empirical observations was called positivism. 2) Science should seek to discover the lawful relationships among physical phenomena. Once such laws are known, they can be used to predict and control events and less improve life. 3) His approach to science was very much like the one suggested earlier by Francis Bacon. According to both, science should be practical and non-speculative. (b) the law of three stages: 1) Societies pass through stages that are defined in terms of the way its members explain natural events. a) The first stage (primitive) is theological and explanations are based on Superstition and mysticism. b) The second stage is metaphysical; explanations are based on unseen Essences, principles, causes, or laws. c) The third (highest stage of development), the scientific description, is emphasized over explanation, and the prediction and control of natural phenomena becomes all important. In other words during the Scientific stage, positivism is accepted. 2) Sociology is the study of how different societies compared on the three stages of development. 3) The beliefs characteristic of a particular stage become a way of life for the people within a society. 4) During a society's transition between stages. The beliefs characterizing the new stage then become a way of life until the process is repeated. As with a paradigmatic shift in science, there are always remnants of earlier stages and the newly-established ones.

French Sensationalism: Claude Helvétius (1715-1771)

1) Born in Paris and educated by Jesuits. Retired to the countryside where he wrote and socialized with some of Europe's finest Minds. 2) Explored in-depth the implication of the contention that the contents of the Mind come only from experience. In other words, control experiences and you control the contents of the Mind. 3) The implications of this belief for education and even the structure of society were clear, and in the hands of helvétius, empiricism became radical environmentalism. All manner of social skills, moral behavior, and even genius could be taught through the control of experiences. 4) Because eh was a hedonist, education in general terms could be viewed as the manipulation of pleasurable and painful experiences (i.e. reinforcing/punishing un/desirable thoughts and behavior). In this sense, his position has much in common with that of the modern behaviorist.

French Sensationalism: Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780): The Imaginary Sentient Statue and Its Relevance to Human Mental Abilities

1) Born into an aristocratic family in Grenoble. Educated at Jesuit seminary in Paris, but shortly after his ordination as a Roman Catholic priest, he became an outspoken critic of religious Dogma. 2) Suggested that Locke had unnecessarily attributed to many innate powers to the mind. He was convinced that all powers Locke attributed to the mind could be derived simply from the ability to sense, to remember, and to experience Pleasure and Pain. 3) He was not writing about statues but was discussing how human mental abilities could be derived from Sensations, memories, and a few basic feelings. Humans have more than one sense modality; that fact makes humans much more complicated than the statue, but the principal is the same. There was no need therefore for Locke and others to postulate a number of innate powers of the Mind. According to him, the powers of the Mind developed as a natural consequence of sensation.

Rationalism: Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677): Life, The Nature of God, The Relationship Between Mind and Body, and Free Will

1) Born of Portuguese Jewish parents on November 24th in the Christian city of Amsterdam. 2) Initially impressed by Descartes's philosophy, however, rejected Descartes's contention that God, matter, and mind were all separate entities. 3) Instead, proposed that all three were simply aspects of the same substance. In other words, God, nature, and the mind were inseparable. His proposal ran contrary to the anthropomorphic God image of both the Jewish and the Christian religions, and he was condemned by both. 4) One of his admirers was the great philosopher Leibniz. 5) Was deeply impressed with the deductive method of geometry. The methods of geometry could be used to discover truth and non-mathematical areas, Spinoza agreed with Descartes and Hobbes. 6) Presented a number of self-evident axioms from which he proposed to deduce other truths about the nature of reality. 7) His ultimate goal was to discover a way of life that was both ethically correct and personally satisfying. (a) the nature of God: 1) God not only started the world in motion but also was continually present everywhere in nature. To understand the laws of nature was to understand God. God was nature. It follows that he embraced pantheism, or the belief that God is present everywhere and in everything. 2) With his pantheism, embraced a form of primitive animism. (b) the relationship between mind and body: 1) Assumed that the mind and body were two aspects of the same thing--the living human being. The mind and body were like two sides of the same coin, even though the two sides are different. Thus, the mind and body are inseparable; anything happening to the body is experienced as emotions and thoughts; and emotions and thoughts influence the body. 2) In this way, combined physiology and psychology into one unified system. His position on the mind-body relationship has been called psychophysical double aspectism, double aspect monism, or simply double aspectism. 3) God's Own nature is characterized by both extension (matter) and thought (which is not extended), and because God is nature, all of nature is characterized by both extension and thought. Because God is the thinking, material substance, everything in nature is a thinking, material substance. 4) Pantheism necessitated a panpsychism; that is because God is everywhere so is mind. (c) free will: 1) God is nature, and nature is lawful. Humans are part of nature, and therefore human thoughts and behavior are lawful; that is, they are determined. 2) Although humans May believe that they are free to act and think anyway they choose, in reality they cannot. It makes no sense to view God as the cause of all things and, at the same time, to believe that humans possess a free will.

Comparison of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche's Existential Philosophies:

1) Both rejected what was conventionally accepted, such as the organized church and science. 2) The major difference between the two was that kjergaard accepted the existence of God, whereas for Nietzsche God did not exist. 3) The themes running through both philosophies are an emphasis on human emotions; the importance of subjective experience; is deep respect for individuality; a belief in free will; and a distrust of the grandoise theories of human nature created by the rationalists, empiricists and sensationalists, and natural scientist.

Pythagoras's (ca. 580-500 BC): Beliefs shared by Pythagoreans and by followers of Dionysiac-Orphic religion

1) Both viewed the body as a prison from which the soul should escape; 2) Accepted the notion of the transmigration of souls, and believed that only purification could stop the 'circle of births'; 3) The notion of transmigration fostered in the pythagoreans a spirit of kinship with all living things.

Physiology: The Bell-Magendie Law of Neural Transmission:

1) British physiologist Charles Bell had research on the anatomical and functional discreteness of sensory and motor nerves. 2) Operating on rabbits, Bell at demonstrated that sensory nerves enter the posterior (dorsal) roots of the spinal cord and the motor nerves emerge from the anterior (ventral) Roots. 3) Bell's Discovery separated nerve physiology into the study of sensory (sensation) and motor functions (movement). 4) Bell's finding demonstrated that specific mental functions are mediated by different anatomical structures. That is, separate nerves control sensory mechanisms and responses. 5) French physiologist François Magendie published results similar to Bells. Referring to the Discovery as the Bell-Magendie law. This law demonstrated separate sensory and motor tracts in the spinal cord and suggested separate sensory and motor regions in the brain.

Christianity: Emperor Constantine

1) Charged the bishops with the task of arriving at a single set of documents to be used by all Christian communities. Thus was created the "Constantine Bible," which was lost to history 2) The controversial and influential bishop of Alexandria, first decreed the 27 books that now constitute the New Testament and only those books be regarded as canonical. 3) Largely due to his efforts, a single set of beliefs and documents defined Christianity, and this helped promote its popularity.

Renaissance Humanists: Philosophy of Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374):

1) Concerned with freeing the human spirit from the confines of medieval traditions 2) The main target of his attack was Scholasticism. 3) As most Renaissance humanists did, he urged a return to a personal religion like that described by S. Augustine--a religion based on the Bible, personal faith, and personal feelings. 4) By actualizing the potential God has given to us, we can change the world for the better. 5) By focusing on human potential, he helped stimulate the explosion of artistic and literacy endeavors that characterized the Renaissance.

Rationalism: Thomas Reid (1710-1796): Life, Common Sense, and Conscious and Unconscious Perception

1) Defended the existence of reasoning Powers by saying that even those who claim that reasoning does not exist are using reasoning to doubt its existence. 2) Thought that reason is necessary so that we can control our emotions, appetites, and passions and understand and perform our duty to God and other humans. 3) Argued that because all we could ever experience are sense Impressions, everything that we could possibly know must be based on them alone. 4) For Hume then, knowledge of such things as God, the self, causality, and even external reality was simply unattainable. He emphatically disagreed with Hume, saying that because we do have such knowledge, Humes argument must be faulty. (a) common sense: 1) We can trust our impressions of the physical world because it makes common sense to do so. We are naturally endowed with the ability to deal with and make sense out of the world. (b) conscious and unconscious perception:

Rationalism: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): Life, Innate Categories of Thought, and The Nature of Phenomenological Experience

1) Devout Lutheran 2) Educated and taught at the University of konigsberg; he resigned because he was asked to stop including his views on religion in his lectures. 3) Started out as a disciple of Leibniz, but reading Humes's philosophy caused him to wake from his "dogmatic Slumbers" and attempt to rescue Philosophy from skepticism that Hume had generated toward it. (a) innate categories of thought: 1) Demonstrated that some truths were certain and we're not based on subjective experience alone. He focused on Humes analysis of the concept of causation. He agreed with Hume that this concept corresponds to nothing in experience. 2) Thinking in terms of a causal relationship could not be derived from experience and therefore must exist a priori, or independent of experience. 3) He did not deny the importance of sensory data, but he thought that the Mind must add something to that data before knowledge could be attained; that something was provided by the a priori (innate) categories of thought. 4) What we experienced subjectively has been modified by the pure concepts of the mind and is therefore more meaningful than it would otherwise have been. 5) The fact that we are willing at some point to generalize from several particular experiences to an entire class of events merely specifies the conditions under which we employ the innate category of totality, because the word all can never be based on experience. 6) In this way, he showed that, although the empiricist had been correct in stressing the importance of experience, a further analysis of the very experience to which the empiricist referred revealed the operations of an active mind. 7) Because he postulated categories of thought, he can be classified as a faculty psychologist. He was a faculty psychologist in the way that Reid was. (b) the nature of phenomenological experience: 1) He agreed with Hume that we never experience the physical world directly, and therefore we can never have certain knowledge of it. 2) For him, there was much more. He believed our sensory impressions are always structured by the categories of thought, and our phenomenological experience is there for the result of the interaction between Sensations and the categories of thought. This interaction is inescapable.

Dark Ages: Averroes (1126-1198)

1) Disagreed with Avicenna that human intelligence is arranged in a heirarchy with only the highest level enabling humans to have contact with God. 2) All human experiences reflect God's influence 3) In almost everything else, though, he agreed with Avicenna, and he too was an Aristotelian. 4) Averroes's writings are mainly commentaries in Aristotle's philosophy, with special emphasis on Aristotle's work on the senses, memory, sleep and waking, and dreams. Also, following Aristotle, he said that only the active intellect aspect of the soul survives death, and because the active intellect is the same for everyone, nothing personal survives death.

French Sensationalism: Julien de La Mettrie (1709-1751): Life and Man as a Machine

1) Distinguished himself in the medical community by writing articles on such topics as venereal disease, vertigo, and smallpox. 2) Contracted a violent fever; well convalescing, he began to ponder the relationship between the mind and the body. 3) Whatever influences the body influences the so-called thought processes. He believe that there's nothing in the universe but matter and motion. Sensations and thoughts are also nothing but movements of particles in the brain. (a) man as a machine: 1) in the whole universe there is but a single substance differently modified. 2) Single substance was matter 3) The belief that every existing thing, including humans, consists of matter and nothing else makes him a phsycial monist.

Empiricism: David Hume (1711-1776): Life and Goal As A Philosopher

1) Educated at the University of Edinburgh, where he studied law and commerce but left without a degree. Given relative Freedom by an inheritance, you moved to La Flèche in France, where Descartes had studied as a Young Man. 2) Was never a university Professor. He was nominated for an academic position twice, but the opposition of the Scottish clergy denied him the posts. Hume was skeptical of most religious beliefs, and friction with the church was a constant theme in his life. (a) goal as a philosopher: 1) Under The Heading of a science, human cluded such topics as mathematics, natural philosophy, religion, logic, morals, criticism, and politics. All important matters reflect human nature, and understanding that nature is there for essential. He followed in the empirical tradition of Occam, Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, and Berkeley. 2) Impressed by the achievements of Newtonian science, and he wanted to do for moral philosophy what Newton had done for natural philosophy. 3) In His day, moral philosophy referred roughly to what we now call the social sciences, and natural philosophy referred to what we now call the physical sciences. 4) The major determinants of behavior in his system of cognitive are not directly observable. The term experience meant cognitive experience. 5) By experiment, he meant careful observation of how experiences are related to one another and how experience is related to behavior. His experimental science of human nature would be different from the physical sciences, but superior to the other Sciences. 6) The goal was to combine the empirical philosophy of his predecessors with the principles of Newtonian science and create a science of human nature. 7) Used the Baconian inductive method more so than the Newtonian deductive method. 8) The major thrust of his approach was to make careful observations and then carefully generalize from those observations. 9) Occasionally formulated a hypothesis and tested it against experience, but his emphasis was clearly on induction rather than deduction

Existentialism:

1) Emphasized the importance of meaning in one's life and one's ability to freely choose that meaning. 2) Stressed the meaning of human existence, freedom of choice, and the uniqueness of each individual. 3) The most important aspects of humans are there personal, subjective interpretations of life and the choices they make in light of those interpretations. 4) Like the romanticists, they viewed personal experience and feeling as the most valid guides for one's Behavior. 5) One of the first modern of these philosophers was Soren Kierkegaard.

Compare and contrast rationalism and empiricism. What did Bacon and Descartes have in common? (pp. 179-181)

1) Empiricism was defined as the belief that experience is the basis of all knowledge. All the empiricist and sensationalist assumed the importance of sensory information 2) Empiricists used introspection to analyze what happened to that information after it arrived in the mind. 3) Empiricists tended to describe a passive mind; a mind that acts on Sensations and ideas in an automatic, mechanical way. 4) Rationalists tended to postulate a much more active mind, a mind that act on information from the senses and gives it meaning that it otherwise would not have. 5) For rationalists, the Mind added something to sensory data rather than simply passively organizing and storing it in memory. Typically, the rationalist assumed innate mental structures, principles, operations, or abilities that are used in analyzing the content of thought. 6) Rationalists believe that there are truths about ourselves and the world that cannot be ascertained simply by experiencing the content of our minds; such truth must be arrived at by such processes as logical deduction, analysis, argument, and intuition. 7) For the rationalist, it was important not only to understand the contents of the Mind, part of which may indeed come from experience, but also to know how the mechanisms, abilities, or faculties of the Mind process that content to arrive at higher philosophical truths. 8) The empiricists, Experience, memory, Association, and Hedonism determine not only how a person thinks and acts but also his or her morality. 9) The rationalist there are rational reasons that some Acts or thoughts are more desirable than others. Those emphasizing reasons for Behavior over causes usually embrace the concept of free will. That is, they say causes of behavior act mechanically and automatically but reasons are freely chosen. 10) Empiricists stress induction (the acquisition of knowledge through sensory experience and the generalizations from it) 11) Rationalists stress deduction. Given certain sensory data and certain rules of thought, certain conclusions must follow. 12) Empiricists (and Sensationalists) emphasized the importance of sensory information and postulated a relatively passive mind that tended to function according to mechanistic laws. 13) Rationalists emphasized the importance of innate structures, principles, or concepts and postulated an active mind that transforms, in important ways, the data provided by the senses. 14) Bacon is usually looked on as the founder of modern empiricism, Descartes is usually considered the founder of modern rationalism. 15) Both Bacon and Descartes had the same motive: to overcome the philosophical mistakes and biases of the past (mainly those of Aristotle and his Scholastic interpreters and sympathizers). 16) Both the empiricist and rationalist thought objective truth withstood the criticism of the Skeptics; they simply went about their search differently.

Philosophy of Stoicism:

1) Epicureanism and it were responses to the Skeptics' and Cynics' claims that philosophy had nothing useful to say about everyday life. 2) Believed that to live in accordance with nature was the ultimate virtue. The most important derivative of this 'divine plan' theory was the belief that whatever happens, happens for a reason; there are no accidents; and all must simply be accepted as part of the plan. 3) The good life involved accepting one's fate with indifference, even if suffering was involved. Indeed, courage in the face of suffering or danger was considered most admirable. 4) A person who may be sick, in pain, in peril, dying, in exile, or disgraced but is still happy. 5) Did not value material possessions highly because they could be lost or taken away. Virtue alone was important. 6) The joy in life came in knowing that one was participating in a master plan, even if that plan was incomprehensible to the individual. 7) The only personal freedom was in choosing whether to act in accordance with nature's plan.

Cynicism: Diogenes (ca. 412-323 BC) Life and Work

1) Exceeded the fame of his predecessor Anisthenes 2) He rejected conventional religions, manners, housing, food, and fashion. He lived by begging and proclaiming his brotherhood with not only all humans but also animals. 3) Lived an extremely primitive life and was given the nickname 'Cynic', which literally means 'doglike'.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: Memory and Recall

1) Explained memory and recall as the results of sense perception.; 2) Remembering, for him, was a spontaneous recollection of something that had been previously experienced 3) Recall involves an actual mental search for a past experience. It was in conjunction with recall that he postulated what have been called his 'laws of association.'

Empiricism: George Berkeley (1685-1753): Life Materialism, and The Existence Theory of Perception

1) First attended Kilkenny College; then in 1700 at the age of 15, he entered Trinity College, where he earned his bachelor's degree in 1704 at the age of 19 and his master's degree in 1707 at the age of 22. 2) Received ordination as a deacon of the angelican church at the age of 24. (a) materialism: 1) Observed that the downfall of scholasticism, caused by attacks on Aristotle's philosophy, had resulted in widespread religious skepticism, if not actual atheism. 2) Studied the works of such individuals as Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, and Newton, and he held these individuals responsible for the dissemination of materialistic philosophy. 3) Perceived that materialistic philosophy was pushing God farther and farther out of the picture, and that's it was dangerous, if not potentially fatal, to both religion and morality. Attack materialism at its foundation--it's assumption that matter exists. (b) the existence theory of perception: 1) His solution to the problem was bold and sweeping; he attempted to demonstrate that matter does not exist and that all claims made by materialistic philosophy must therefore be false. 2) In denial of matter, he both agreed and disagreed with Locke. They agreed with Locke that human knowledge is based only on ideas. However, strongly disagreed with Locke's contention that all ideas are derived from interactions with the empirical world. Even if there were such a world, we would never know it directly. All things come into existence when they are perceived, and therefore reality consists of our perceptions and nothing more.

Beliefs and Contributions to Astronomy: Kepler (1571-1630)

1) First studied to become a Lutheran Minister but, unable to accept the rigidity of Lutheran Doctrine, switched to the study of mathematics and astronomy. 2) Embraced Copernican Siri; First, he like Copernicus, was a platonist seeking the simple mathematical Harmony that describes the universe. Second, like Bruno, Kepler was a sun worshipper and was attracted to the greater dignity given the sun in the Copernican system. 3) Keeping with his Pythagorean-Platonic philosophy, he believed that true reality was the mathematical Harmony that existed beyond the world of appearance. The sensory world, the world of appearance, was an inferior reflection of the certain, unchanging mathematical world. 4) Important contribution to science, however, was his insistence that all mathematical deductions be verified by empirical observations.

Romanticism: Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860): Life, The Role of Self-Preservation, and The Relationship Between Intelligence and Happiness,

1) German philosopher, born on February 22nd in Donzi. 2) Most influenced by Kant and his ancient philosophies from India and Persia. Viewing women as inferior to men was not uncommon at the time, but schopenhauer was particularly harsh toward women. (a) the role of self-preservation: 1) Published the two volumes of his most famous work,'The World as Will and Representations', in 1818, when he was about 30. 2) Took Kant's philosophy as a basis for his own. Equated the noumenal world with 'Will,' which he described as a blind, aimless Force which cannot be known. 3) This Force manifests itself in the 'will to survive,' which causes and unending cycle of needs and need satisfaction. The powerful drive towards self-preservation--not the intellect and not morality--accounts for most human behaviour. 4) The pain caused by an unsatisfied need causes us to act to satisfy the need. When they need is satisfied, we experience momentary satisfaction ( pleasure). But when all needs are satisfied, we experience boredom. 5) Characteristic pessimism, he said that we work 6 days a week to satisfy our needs and then we spend Sunday being bored (Viktor Frankl called this boredom Sunday neurosis). (b) the relationship between intelligence and happiness: 1) Suffering varies with awareness. Humans suffer the most, especially the most intelligent humans. 2) Suffering caused by wisdom had a nobility associated with it but that the life of a fool was simply without higher meaning. 3) For the intellectually gifted, Solitude has two advantages. First, it allows one to be alone with one's own thoughts. Second, it prevents needing to deal with intellectually inferior people, and they constitute the vast majority.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642):

1) Had born into a family of impoverished nobility. He was a brilliant mathematician who, at the age of 25, was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Pisa. 2) He challenged Aristotle's contention that heavy object fall faster than lighter ones because of their inherent tendency to do so by demonstrating that both fall at the same rate. 3) Discovered four moons of Jupiter, which meant that there were at least 11 bodies in the solar system instead of 7 as claimed by the church. 4) Dynamics of projectiles: demonstrated that the Motions of all bodies under all circumstances are governed by a single set of mathematical laws. 5) Attitude toward experimentation, we see his Pythagorean-Platonic beliefs. Observation suggests that a lawful relationship may exist, and an experiment is performed to either confirm or disconfirm the possibility. Once discovered further experimentation is not necessary; mathematical deduction is used to precisely describe all possible manifestations of the law. 6) Experiments could also function as demonstrations that helped convince those skeptical about the existence of certain laws. 7) Relied more on mathematical deduction than he did on experimentation.

Christianity: St. Augustine

1) He combined Stoicism, Neoplatonism, and Judaism into a powerful Christian worldview that dominated Western life and thought until the 13th century. 2) Ultimate knowledge consisted of knowing God. 3) The human was seen as a dualistic being consisting of a body not unlike that possessed by animals and a spirit that was close to or part of God. 4) The war between the two aspects of human nature became the Christian struggle between heaven and hell--that is, between God and Satan.

Existentialism: Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855): Life, The Nature of Religious Experience, and The Subjective Nature of Truth

1) He said that the most meaningful relationship with God was a purely personal one that was arrived at through an individual's free choice, not one whose nature and content were dictated by the church. (a) the nature of religious experience: 1) Rejected Hegel's philosophy because it placed too much emphasis on the logical and the rational and not enough on the irrational, emotional side of human nature. 2) Rejected science as too mechanistic: It prevented us from viewing humans as emotional and choosing beings. 3) The ultimate state of being was arrived at when the individual decided to embrace God and take God's existence on faith without needing a logical, rational, or scientific explanation of why or how the decision was determined. (b) the subjective nature of truth: 1) Truth is always what a person believes privately and emotionally. Truth cannot be taught by logical argument; truth must be experienced. 2) Facts or logic do not remove paradoxes; they create them. Belief alone can resolve them; subjectivity, not objectivity, is truth. 3) Christian faith is something that must be lived; it must be felt emotionally. For it can neither be understood nor truly appreciated as a rational obstruction. 4) It is precisely because we cannot know God objectively that we must have faith in his existence.

Physiology: Ewald Hering (1834-1918): Spatial Perception and Theory of Color Vision

1) He sided with the nativist. 2) Working together, He and Breuer showed that respiration was, in part, caused by receptors in the lungs--a finding called the Hering-Breuer reflex. Space Perception: 1) Believed that when stimulated, each point of the retina automatically provides three types of information about the stimulus: height, left right position, and depth. 2) Believed that space perception exist the Priori. He believed it was an innate characteristic of the eye. Theory of Color: 1) Observed a number of phenomena that he believed either were incompatible with the Young-Helmholtz Theory or cannot be explained by it. 2) He noted that certain pairs of colors, when mixed together, give the sensation of Grey. This was true for red and green, blue and yellow, and black and white. 3) Observed that a person who stares at red and then looks away experiences a green afterimage; 4) Noted that individuals who have difficulty distinguishing red from Green could still see yellow; also, it is typical for a color-blind person to lose the sensation of both red and green, not just one or the other. 5) He theorized that there are three types of receptors on the retina that that each could respond in two ways a) One type of receptor responds to red green, one type of receptor to yellow blue, and one type two black white. b) Red, yellow, and white cause a tearing down, or a catabolic process, in their respective receptors. c) Green, blue, and black cause a building up, or an anabolic process, and their respective receptors. d) If both colors to which a receptor is sensitive are experienced simultaneously, the catabolic and anabolic processes are canceled out, and the sensation of grey results. e) If one color to which a receptor is sensitive is experienced, its corresponding process is depleted, leaving only its opposite to produce an afterimage. 6) His theory explains why individuals who cannot respond to red or green can still see yellow and why the inability to see red is usually accompanied by an inability to see green. 7) The current view is that the Young-Helmholtz theory is correct in that there are retinal cells sensitive to red, green, and blue but that there are neural processes beyond the retina that are more in accordance with His proposed metabolic processes.

Existentialism: Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900): Life, The Apollonian and Dionysian Sides of Human Nature, Psychology, and The Death of God

1) He was a model child and an excellent student; by the time he was 10, he had written several plays and composed music. (a) the Apollonian and Dionysian sides of human nature: 1) Believed that there are two major aspects of human nature, the Apollonian and the Dionysian. 2) The apollonian aspect of human nature represents our rational side, our desire for tranquility, predictability, and orderliness. 3) The dionysian aspect of human nature represents our irrational side, our attraction to creative chaos and a passionate, Dynamic experiences. 4) One of his major goals the resurrection of Dionysian spirit. Thus, he search for a life of reasonable passion, a life worth both Apollo and Dionysus. (b) psychology: 1) Viewed himself as primarily a psychologist. 2) At the heart of his psychology is the tension between apollonian and dionysian tendencies. 3) The dionysian tendency, which he referred to as "barbarian," could not express itself unabated without destroying the individual. Referred to as 'das es', or the ID. 4) For dionysian impulses (what Freud called primary processes) to gain expression, they must be modified (sublimated) by apollonian rationality (what Freud called secondary processes). 5) A major disagreement between him and Freudian psychology concerns determinism; Freud accepted it and Nietzsche did not. 6) Believe that we are only potentially free. Personality is an artist's creation, but some people are better artist than others. (c) the death of God: 1) Announced that God was dead and that philosophers and scientists of his day had killed him. 2) The same philosophers and scientist took the purpose from the universe, as in Aristotle's teleological philosophy, and stripped humans of any special place in the world. 3) Natural selection simply means that organisms possessing traits that allow adoption to the environment will survive and reproduce. Thus humans cannot even take pride or Find meaning in the fact that they have survived longer or differently than other species. Evolution in no way implies Improvement. 4) Astronomy showed that humans do not occupy a special place in the universe. 5) Without religion, science, and metaphysics, humans are left in a "cosmic tabula rasa" without transcendental principles or forces to guide them. 6) For him, there are no abstract truth waiting to be discovered by all; there are only individual perspectives. His perspectivism was directly contrary to Enlightenment philosophy and is seen as the Forerunner of post-modernism.

Renaissance Humanists: Philosophy of Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)

1) His work demonstrated extreme Skepticism that had been represented earlier by Pyrrho of Elis. 2) In sharp contrast to most earlier Renaissance humanists, he did not glorify human rationality, nor did he believe humans to be superior to other (in this he was in agreement with Erasmus). 3) He argued that it was human rationality that caused most human (such as the Holy Wars)and that because non-human animals lack rational Powers, they are superior to humans. 4) He analyzed the most famous philosophical doctrines, pointed out the contradictions within and among them, and showed them to be open to multiple interpretations.

Physiology: Friedrich Bessel: Individual Differences in Reaction Time, and his motivation

1) In 1795, astronomer Neville Maskelyne noticed that David Kinnebrook's observations were about 1/2 seconds slower than his in setting ships' clocks. The discrepancy between his observations and maskelyne increased to 8/10 of a second. 2) The incident came to the attention of the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel, who speculated that the error was due to individual differences among observers. 3) This was the first reaction time study and it was used to correct differences among Observers. This was done by calculating personal equations. 4) Bessel did show that the Observer influence of observations. 5) Because all of science was based on observation, it was necessary to learn about the processes that converted physical stimulation into conscious experience.

Socrates (469-399 BC): Search for truth, Essences of Things, Relationship Between Knowledge and Morality? (pp. 44-45)

1) In his search for truth, he used a method called inductive definition, which started with an examination of instances of such concepts as beauty, love, justice, or truth and then moved on to such questions as "what is it that all beauty have in common?' He sought to discover general concepts by examining isolated examples; 2) Opposite to other Sophists, he believed that truth could be general and communicated; 3) He also believed that the understanding of essences constituted knowledge, and the goal of life was to gain knowledge; 4) When one's conduct is guided by knowledge, it is necessarily moral. For Socrates, knowledge and morality were intimately related; knowledge is virtue, and improper conduct results from ignorance.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: Common Sense, Passive Reason, and Active Reason

1) Individual sensory information alone is not sufficient and that it is the combined information from all the senses that allows for the most effective interactions with the environment; 2) Common sense as the mechanism that coordinated the information from all the sense, which was assumed to be located in the heart and its job to synthesize sensory experience; 3) Passive reasoning involved the utilization of synthesized experience for getting along effectively in everyday life, but it did not result in an understanding of essence, or first principles; 4) The abstraction of first principles from one's many experiences could by accomplished by active reasoning, which was considered the highest form of thinking.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: Sensation

1) Information about the environment is provided by the five sense: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell; 2) Perception was explained by the motion of objects that stimulate one of the senses. The movement of environmental objects created movements through different media, and each of the five senses was maximally sensitive to movements in a certain medium.

Philosophy of Epicureanism:

1) It and Stoicism were responses to the Skeptics' and Cynics' claims that philosophy had nothing useful to say about everyday life. 2) Like Democritus, they're materialists, believing that " the universe is eminently physical, and that includes the soul of man." 3) The Epicureans preferred naturalistic explanations to supernatural ones, and they strongly protested against magic, astrology, and divination. 4) The Hedonism (seeking pleasure and avoiding pain) prescribed by Epicurus emphasized the good life consisting more of the absence of pain than the presence of pleasure--at least, intense pleasure.

Plato's (ca. 427-347 BC): The Reminiscence Theory of Knowledge

1) It answers the questions of how one comes to know the forms if they cannot be known through sensory experience 2) Was highly influenced by Pythagorean notions of the immortality of the soul 3) Believed that before the soul was implanted in the body, it dwelled in pure and complete knowledge; that is, it dwelled among the forms; 4) The only way to arrive at true knowledge is to ignore sensory experience and focus one's thoughts on the contents of the mind; 5) All knowledge is innate and can be attained only through introspection, which is the searching of one's inner experiences.

What considerations are involved in deciding what to include in a history of psychology?

1) It is unsafe to assume that current psychology (presentism) is a direct and better result of previous historiological psychology; 2) Presentism implies that the present state is the highest state of development. The field of psychology is too diverse to assume that it is at it's highest state of development; 3) Although the use of historicism can provide a better framework in which to understand psychology's history, even the use of historicism can present false understanding and be counter productive without regard to present knowledge state. This is important for recognizing where progress has or has not happened, if only for observation.

Rationalism: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831): The Absolute and The Dialectic Process, and Influence on Psychology

1) Like Spinoza, he saw the universe as an interrelated Unity, which he called the absolute. The only true understanding is an understanding of the absolute. True knowledge can never be attained by examining isolated instances of anything unless those instances are related to the whole. 2) Sense impressions are of little use unless one can determine the general concepts that they exemplify. Once these concepts are understood, the next step is to determine how those concepts are related to one another. When one sees the interrelatedness of all Concepts, one experiences the absolute. 3) Believed that both human history in general and the human intellect in particular evolved toward the absolute via the dialectic process. 4) His version of the dialectic process involve the thesis (one point of view), an antithesis (the opposite point of view), and a synthesis (a compromise between the thesis and the antithesis). When a cycle is completed, the previous synthesis becomes the thesis for the next cycle, and the process repeats itself continually. In this manner both human history and the human intellect evolve toward the absolute. 5) Attempting to account for Kant's categories; the categories emerged as a result of the dialectic process and they bring humans closer to the absolute. For him, the categories exist as a means to an end--the end being moving closer to the absolute. Through the dialectic process, all things move toward the absolute, including the human mind. 6) Some see Freud's concepts of the id, ego, and super-ego as manifestations of the dialectic process. Other see the roots of self-actualization theory in his philosophy. Other see it in the beginnings of phenomenology.

Two Major Early Greek Religions: Dionysiac-Orphic Religion

1) Most relative to the poor; 2) Based upon Dionysus, the god of wine and frenzy, and his disciple Orpheus; 3) Centered around the belief in the transmigration of the soul; in which the divine existence had, at some point, committed a sin and, as punishment, was locked into a physical body/prison. Until it redeemed itself, it continued a "circle of births"

Scholasticism: Limitations of Philosophy

1) New information was accepted only if it could be shown to be compatible with church dogma; if not, the information was rejected. 2) Although outstanding scholars and hairsplitting logicians, they offered little of value to either philosophy or psychology. Interested in maintaining the status quo than in revealing any new information. 3) As mentioned earlier, once Aquinas separated faith and reason, it was only a matter of time before there would be those wishing to exercise reason while remaining unencumbered by faith.

Empiricism: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

1) Often referred to as the founder of British empiricism; was friends with Galileo and Descartes. He also served as Bacon's secretary for short time. 2) Euclid's book, 'elements,' convinced him that humans could be understood using the techniques of geometry. That is, starting with a few undeniable premises, a number of undeniable conclusions could be drawn. 3) Galileo convinced him that the Universe consisted only of matter and motion and that both could be understood in terms of mechanistic principles. 4) Was a close friend of Bacon and had himself a considerable reputation 4) Never joined the British royal Society. The reason was that the society was dominated by Baconians, and he had nothing but contempt for Bacon's inductive method. 5) He chose the deductive method of Galileo and Descartes; the first serious attempt to to apply the ideas and techniques of Galileo to the study of humans. 6) Infamous conclusion, 'homo homini lupus' (man is a wolf to man) is fear of death that motivates humans to create social order. In other words, civilization is created as a matter of self-defense; each of us must be discouraged from committing crimes against the other. Unless interfered with, humans would selfishly seek power over others so as to guarantee the satisfaction of their own personal needs. 7) He was a 'materialist' because he believed that all that existed was physical; 8) He was a 'mechanist' just because he believed that the Universe and everything in it (including humans) were machines; 9) A 'determinist' because he believed that all activity (including human behavior) is caused by forces acting on physical objects; 10) An 'empiricist' because he believed that all knowledge was derived from sensory experience; 11) A 'hedonist' because he believed that all human behavior (as well as the behavior of non-human animals) was motivated by the seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. 12) Although, not all the empiricists were as materialistic or mechanistic as he was, they all joined him in denying the existence of innate ideas.

Factors that challenged the authority to the Christian church during the Renaissance:

1) Once begun, the questioning escalated rapidly, and the church tried desperately to discourage these challenges to its Authority. 2) Church Scholars attempted to show that contradictions were only apparent. Failing in this, they attempted to impose censorship. 3) The decline in the church's Authority was directly related to the rise of the new spirit of inquiry that took as its ultimate Authority empirical observation instead of the scriptures, Faith, or revelation.

Romanticism: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832): Life, The Role of Opposite Forces in One's Life, Phenomenology, and Contributions to Psychology

1) One of the most revered individuals in the intellectual life of Germany in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. 2) Thought of as the initiator of the 'Sturm und Drang' (storm and stress) period in literature; in his literary works and philosophy, he viewed humans as being torn by the stresses and conflicts of Life. (a) the role of opposite forces in one's life: 1) The idea of being transformed from one type of being (unfulfilled) into another type (fulfilled) was common within the Romantic Movement. 2) Wrote 'The Sorrows of Young Werther', a novela about a young man with love problems. In 1808, published Part I of his dramatic poem 'Faust'; Part II was published posthumously in 1833. 3) Although most of the romantics were anti-science, he was not. 4) Made important discoveries in anatomy and botany 5) Wrote 'science of colors,' and which he attempted to refute Newton's theory of color vision and proposed his own Theory in its place. (b) phenomenology: 1) Demonstrated that sensory experiences could be objectively studied by introspection. F 2) Insisted that intact, meaningful psychological experience should be the object of study rather than meaningless, isolated Sensations. This insistence that whole, meaningful experiences be studied came to be called phenomenology. 3) The color contrast effect known as Goethe's Shadows. Instrumental in the development of Edwin lands theory of color vision. 4) Proposed the theory of evolution in which one species of living things could gradually be transformed into another. 5) Employed a form of what is now called behavior therapy. 6) He saw science as Limited; he believed that many important human attributes will be on the grasp of the scientific method. (c) Contributions to Psychology: 1) His writings directly influenced Jung. Also influenced Freud. 2) Both Jung's and Freud's theories emphasize the conflicting forces operating in one's life, and focus on conflict, frustration, and Perpetual struggle between animal impulses and civilized Behavior.

Cultural Conditions from which Christianity emerged, including Vedantism, Zoroastrianism, and the Mystery Religions.

1) One such influence came from the religions of India and Persia. Indian 'Vedantism', taught that perfection could be approximated by entering into semi-ecstatic trances. 2) Zoroastrianism, which taught that individuals are caught in an eternal struggle between wisdom and correctness on one hand and ignorance and evil on the other. All good things were thought to derive from the brilliant, divine sun and all bad things from darkness. 3) Also influential were a number of ancient 'mystery religions' that entered the Greek and Roman worlds primarily from the Near East. Three examples are the cults of Magna Mater (Great Mother), Isis, and Mithras. The mystery religions (or cults) had several things in common; secret rites of initiation, ceremonies (such as some form of sacrifice) designed to bring initiates into communion with the patron deity or deities, an emphasis on death and rebirth, rituals providing purification and forgiveness of sins (such as confession and baptism in holy water), the confession of sin, sacramental dramas providing initiates the exaltation of a new life, and the providing of a feeling of community among believers. Clearly, there was much in common between the mystery religions and early Christianity. Incidentally, the popular god Mithras was said to have been born on Decemeber 25th in the presence of shepards.

Physiology: Johannes Muller (1801-1858): Adequate Stimulation (or specific irritability) and The Relationship Between Consciousness and Sensations versus Physical Reality

1) Physiologist who expanded the Bell-Magendie law by devising the 'doctrine of specific nerve Energies.' 2) Following Bell's suggestion, he demonstrated five types of sensory nerves, each containing a characteristic energy stimulating a characteristic sensation. In other words, each nerve responds in its own characteristic way no matter how it is stimulated. (a) adequate stimulation (or specific irritability): 1) He did not think that all of the sense organs are equally sensitive to the same type of simulation. Rather, each sense organs is maximally sensitive to a certain type of stimulation. Muller called this "specific irritability," and it was later referred to as 'adequate stimulation.' (b) the relationship between consciousness and sensations versus physical reality: 1) Implication of his doctrine of Psychology was that the nature of the central nervous system, not the physical stimulus, determines our Sensations. 2) We are not aware of objects in the physical world but of various sensory impulses. Knowledge of the physical world is limited to the types of sense receptors possessed. 3) Believed that he had found the physiological equivalent of Kant's categories of thought (sensory information> transformed by the innate categories of thought> experienced consciously. Him: the nervous system is the intermediary between physical objects and Consciousness. 4) Kant's nativism stressed mental categories, whereas his stressed physiological mechanisms. 5) Sensory information is modified; what we experience consciously is different from what is physically present. For Muller, however, Sensations did not exhaust mental life.

Renaissance: Name meaning, Time Period, and Humanism

1) Renaissance means 'rebirth,' and during this period, the tendency to go back to the more open-minded method of inquiry that had characterized early Greek philosophy. It was a time when Europe gradually switched from being God-centered to being Human-centered. 2) The Renaissance is generally dated from approximately 1450-1600 3) 'Renaissance humanism' denotes an intense interest in human beings, as if we were discovering ourselves for the first time.

Cynicism: Antisthenes's (ca. 445-365 BC) Life and Work

1) Studied with the Sophist Gorgias and later became a companion of Socrates. 2) Believed that society, with its emphasis on material goods, status, and employment, was a distortion of nature and should be avoided. 3) Showed a kinship to both the Sophists and Skeptics; questioned the value of intellectual pursuits. 4) Preached a back-to-nature philosophy that involved a life tree from wants, passions, and the many conventions of society. 5) True happiness depended on self-sufficiency. It was the quest for the simple, independent, natural life that characterized Cynicism. 5) The considered fame of Anisthenes was exceeded by his disciple Diogenes.

Stoicism: Zeno of Citium's (ca. 333-262 BC) Life and Work

1) Taught in a school that had a stoa poikile, or a painted porch, his philosophy came to be known as Stoicism. 2) The world was ruled by a divine plan and that everything in nature, including humans, was there for a reason.

Scientism:

1) The British empiricists and the French sensationalists had the belief that all knowledge, even moral knowledge, was derived from experience. If the denial of innate moral principles did not place the empiricists and the sensationalist in direct opposition to religion, it certainly placed them in direct opposition to religious Dogma. 2) A new belief emerged--the belief that science can solve all human problems. Such a belief is called scientism. 3) Scientific knowledge is the only valid knowledge; therefore, it provides the only information one can believe. For these individuals, science takes on some of the characteristics of a religion.

French Sensationalism:

1) The French newtonians of the Mind have been referred to as naturalist, mechanists, empiricist, materialist, and sensationalist. 2) The goal for both the French and British philosophers was to explain the mind as Newton had explained the physical world-- that is, in a way that stressed the mind's mechanical nature, that reduced all mental activity to its basic elements, that used only a few basic principles, and that minimized or eliminated metaphysical speculation. 3) Called sensationalist because some of them intentionally stressed the importance of Sensations in explaining all conscious experience and because the label provides a convenient way of distinguishing between the British and the French. 4) In general, both philosophers were more similar than they were different. Besides being influenced by Newton (or Galileo in Hobbes's case), they both strongly opposed the rationalism of Descartes, especially his beliefs in any ideas and in an autonomous mind. 5) All ideas, said both the British empiricists and the French sensationalists, came from experience, and most, if not all, mental activity could be explained by the laws of Association acting on those ideas.

Determinism:

1) The assumption that what is being studied can be understood in terms of causal laws; 2) Taylor's definition:The philosophical doctrine that " states that for everything that ever happens there are conditions such that, given them, nothing else could happen"; 3) Everything that occurs is a function of a finite number of causes and can be predicted with complete accuracy; 4) Knowing all causes of an event is not necessary; Its assumed they exist and that as more causes are known, predictions become more accurate.

Physiology: Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894): Life, Vitalism, The Principle of Conservation of Energy, The Rate of Neural Transmission, and Sensation versus Perception (including his notion of unconscious inference)

1) The greatest scientist of the 19th century. 2) Made significant contributions in physics, physiology, and psychology. (a) vitalism: 1) Accepted many of Muller's conclusions; disagreed over Mueller's belief in vitalism. The vitalism-materialism problem was much like the mind-body problem 2) The materialists: nothing mysterious about life and assumed that it could be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes. Therefore, there was no reason to exclude the study of life or science. 3) He sided with the materialist, in that the same laws apply to living and nonliving things, as well as to mental and non mental events. 4) The materialists accepted in rejecting vitalism were that living organisms, including humans, are complex machines (mechanism) that consist of nothing but material substances. (b) the principle of conservation of energy: 1) His early research concerned metabolic processes in the Frog. Demonstrated that food and oxygen consumption were able to account for the total energy that an organism expended. 2) Apply the 'principle of conservation of energy' to living organisms; energy is never created or lost in a system but is only transformed from one form to another. When applied to living organisms the principal was clearly in accordance with the materialist philosophy because it brought physics, chemistry, and Physiology closer together. (c) the rate of neural transmission: 1) To measure the rate of nerve conduction, he isolated the nerve fiber leading to a frog's leg muscle. He found that the muscle response followed more quickly when the motor nerve was stimulated closer the muscle then when it was stimulated farther away from the muscle. 2) By subtracting one reaction time from the other, he concluded that the nerve impulses are indeed measurable--and they are fairly slow. This was taken as further evidence that physical-chemical processes are involved in our interactions with the environment instead of some mysterious process that was immune to Scientific scrutiny. (d) sensation versus perception (including his notion of unconscious inference): 1) He thought that the past experience of the Observer is what converts a 'sensation' into a 'perception.' 2) Sensations are the raw elements of conscious experience, and perceptions are Sensations after they are given meaning by one's past experiences. 3) In explaining this transformation he relied on the notion of 'unconscious inference.' This means the prior experience that conduct knowledge. 4) He had subjects wear lenses that displaced the visual field several inches to the right or left. At first, the subject would make mistakes in reaching for objects; but after several minutes perceptual adaptation occurred, and even while wearing the glasses, the subjects could again interact accurately with the environment. When the glasses were removed, subject again made mistakes for short time but soon recovered. 5) He and Kant agreed on one important point: the perceiver transforms what the senses provide. The transformation occurred when sensory information was embellished by an individual's past experience. He had an empiricistic point of view.

Empiricism: David Hartley (1705-1757): Life, Goal As A Philosopher, and Account of Association

1) The son of a clergyman, had completed his training as a minister of the University of Cambridge before an interest in biology caused him to seek a career as a physician. Remains deeply religious all his life, believing that understanding natural phenomena increased one's faith in God. (a) goal as a philosopher: 1) his two major influences were Locke and Newton. He accepted Newton's contention that nerves are solid (not Hollow, as Descartes had believed) and that sensory experience caused by vibrations in the nerves. These vibrations were called Impressions. The Impressions reach the brain and cause vibrations in the infinitesimal, medullary particles, which cause Sensations. 2) The lingering vibrations in the brain following a sensation constituted ideas. Ideas were faint replications of Sensations. 3) His goal was to synthesize Newton's conception of nerve transmission by vibration with previous versions of empiricism, especially Locke's. (b) account of association: 1) After sense impression cease, they remain in the brain diminutive vibrations that he called vibratiuncles. It is the vibratiuncles that correspond to ideas. Ideas, then, are weaker copies of Sensations. 2) Vibratiuncles are like the brain vibrations associated with Sensations in every way except they are weaker. 3) That experiences consistently occurring together are recorded in the brain as an interrelated package and that experiencing one element in the package will make one conscious of the entire package. 4) The law of contiguity was at the heart of accounts of Association. What made his significantly different was his attempt to correlate all mental activity with neurophysiological activity.

Plato's (ca. 427-347 BC): Nature of the Soul

1) The soul had three main components; a rational that was immortal, a courageous (or emotional/spirited), and the appetive; 2) The courageous and appetive aspects were part of the body and thus mortal; 3) Postulated that humans were in a constant state of conflict, similar to freud, in which bodily appetites must be met (hunger, thirst, sex) and play a major motivational role; 4) Believed that in order to attain true knowledge, the bodily needs must be kept under control by the rational component of the soul.

Karl Popper: Important Tradition that began with Thales

1) The willingness to engage in critical discussion was the beginning of an extremely important tradition; 2) Critical discussion is the realization that our inquiries are never final but always tentative and capable of improvement.

Plato's (ca. 427-347 BC): Theory of Forms

1) Theory of forms, everything in the empirical world is a manifestation of a pure form (idea) that exists in the abstract; 2) Physical manifestations (chairs, cats, etc) are inferior manifestations of the 'pure' abstract idea or form; 3) What we experience through the senses results from the interaction of the pure form with matter; 4) Essence (form) had an existence separate from its individual manifestations.

Neoplatonism: Philo (ca. 25 BC-AD 50)

1) Took the Biblical account of the creation of man as the starting point of his philosophy. 2) The human body was created from the earth but that the human soul was part of God himself. 3) Humans have a dual nature: The body is lowly and despicable, and the soul is a fragment of the divine being or a ray of divine light. 4) The life of an individual human can develop in one of two directions: downward, away from the inner light and toward the experiences of the flesh; or upward, away from experiences of the flesh and toward the inner light. 5) Like the Pythagoreans and Plato before him, condemned sensory experience because it could not provide knowledge. 6) All knowledge comes from God. To receive God's wisdom, however, the soul (mind) must be purified. That is, the mind must be made free of all sensory distractions. 7) Real knowledge can be attained only when a purified, passive mind acts as a recipient of divine illumination.

Scholasticism: Peter Abelard (1079-1142)

1) Translating Aristotle's writing and introduced a method of study that was to characterize the Scholastics period. 2) Using his Dialectic Method, he pitted conflicting authorities against one another; but through it all, the authority of the Bible was expected to prevail. 3) The dialectic Method was controversial because it sometimes seemed to question the validity of religious assumptions. 4) Believed that God existed and therefore all methods of inquiry should prove it. The believer, then, has nothing to fear from logic, reason, or even the direct study of nature.

Rationalism: Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841): Life, Psychology's Status as a Science, and Psychic Mechanics

1) Tutored by his mother. He was a precocious child who developed an early interest in logic. After three years at University of Jenna, he left and became a private tutor in Switzerland. It was this chance experience with tutoring that created in a lifelong interest in education. (a) psychology's status as a science: 1) Agreed with Kant's contention that psychology could never be an experimental science, but he believed that the activities of the mind could be expressed mathematically; in that Sense, Psychology could be a science. 2) The reason he denied that psychology could become an experimental science was that he believed experimentation necessitated dividing up its subject matter; and because the mind acted as an integrated whole, the mind could not be fractionated. (b) psychic mechanics: 1) His system has been referred to as psychic mechanics because he believed that ideas had the power to either attract or repel other ideas, depending on their compatibility. Thus forming complex ideas. All ideas struggle to gain expression in Consciousness, and they compete with each other to do so. 2) Although ideas can never be completely destroyed, they can vary in intensity, or Force. For him, intense ideas are clear ideas, and all ideas attempt to become as clear as possible. Because only ideas of which we are conscious are clear ideas, all ideas seek to be part of the conscious mind. 3) He agreed with the empiricist that ideas were derived from experience, but he maintained that once they existed they had a life of Their Own. For him, and idea was like an atom with energy and a Consciousness of it's own--like Leibniz's conception of the monad. 4) His insistence that all ideas are derived from experience was a major concession to empiricism and provided an important link between empiricism and rationalism.

Romanticism:

1) Two of the most influential criticisms of Enlightenment philosophy were Romanticism and essentialism. Humans, Romantics said, also possess a wide variety of irrational feelings (emotions), intuitions, and instincts. 2) They believed that rational thought had often lead humans astray and their search for valid information and that empiricism reduced people to unfeeling machines. 3) The best way to find out what humans are really like is to study the total person, not just his or her rational powers or empirically determined ideas. 4) The Romantics sought to alleviate human emotions, intuitions, and Instinct from the inferior philosophical position they had occupied to one of being the primary guides for human conduct. 5) The philosophers of the Enlightenment, according to the romantics, had failed because they viewed humans mainly as either victims of experience or Vehicles by which some grandoise, rational principle was manifested. 6) During the Romantic Movement, in the late 18th to mid 19th century, the good life was defined as one lived honestly in accordance with one's inner nature.

Philosophies of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

1) Was a large introspective person 2) He joined the Dominican order and became a begging friar. Turned away from family wealth and power and reduced his chances of church advancement. 3) Synthesised Aristotle's philosophical works and the Christian tradition. 4) Negative: Once Aristotle's church dogma were no longer challengeable, despite being false. 5) Reconciled faith and reason by arguing effectively that reason and faith are not incompatible. For him, as for the other Scholastics, all paths led to the same truth--God and his glory. Thus, God could now be known through revelation, scripture, examination of inner experience, or logic, reason, and the examination of nature. Aquinas's Influence: 1) Divided reason and faith, making it possible to study them separately. It made the study of nature respectable. 2) Showed the world that argument over church dogma was possible. 3) Philosophy without religious overtones was becoming a possibility

Renaissance Humanists: Philosophy of Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)

1) Was the illegitimate son of a priest and a physician's daughter, a fact that depressed him all of his life. 2) He was fond of pointing out mistakes in the classics, claiming that anything created by humans could not be perfect. 3) He commended women for their role as caregivers but argued against access to education. He also argued against the idea that celibacy is superior to marriage. 4) Made the case that fools are better than wise persons because fools live in accordance with their true feelings instead of religious or philosophical doctrines.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: Imagination and Dreaming

1) When sensations occur, they create images that long outlast the stimulation that caused them. The retention of these images is what constitutes memory; 2) Imagination is explained as the lingering effects of sensory experience and is seen to be more susceptible to error; 3) Explained dreaming in terms of the images of past experience. During sleep, the images of past experience may be stimulated by events inside or outside the body; 4) The reasons that our residual impressions (images) may seem odd during a dream that (1) during sleep, the images are not organized by reason; and (2) while awake, our images are coordinated with or controlled by ongoing sensory stimulation, which interacts with the images of previous experience, but during sleep this does not occur.

Plato's (ca. 427-347 BC): Nature of Sleep and Dreams

1) While awake some individuals are better able to rationally control their appetites than are others; during sleep, however, it's another matter; 2) Even with otherwise rational individuals, the baser appetites manifest themselves as they sleep; 3) Although he does not mention 'dreams', he does refer to the endless number of shameless deeds committed within them.

Philosophy of Skepticism

1) main target of attack was dogmatism. For them, a dogmatist was anyone claiming to have arrived at an indisputable truth; 2) Believe that the arguments for and against any philosophical doctrine were equally compelling (all claims of truth are equivocal); 3) Advocated a suspension of judgment; 4) They were not affirming or denying any belief; they were only claiming that they were unaware of any reliable criteria for distinguishing claims of truth. 5) Because no matter what one believed it could be false, one could avoid the frustration of being wrong by simply not believing in anything. By refraining from making judgments about things that could not truly be understood.

Philosophies of St. Albertus Magnus (ca. 1193-1280)

1) was one of the first Western philosophers to make a comprehensive review of both Aristotle's works and the Islamic and Jewish scholars' interpretations of them. 2) Presented Aristotle's views on sensation, intelligence, and memory to the church scholars 3) Attempted to show how human beings' rational powers could be used to achieve salvation. 4) Following Aristotle, he performed detailed observations of nature, and he himself made significant contributions to botany.

Christianity: St. Paul (ca. 10-64)

1) was the first to claim that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah. 2) Had a vision that Jesus was the Messiah foretold by Hebrew prophets. Jesus became the Christ, and Christianity was born. 3) A Roman citizen whose education involved both Judaic teachings and Greek philosophy. 4) One god who created the universe and shapes the destiny of humans. God is Omniscient (knows everything), omnipresent (is everywhere), and omnipotent (has unlimited power). 5) Humans fell from a state of grace and they have been seeking atonement for this original sin. 6) Added that God had sacrificed his son to atone for our transgressions (original sin). This sacrifice made a personal reunion with God possible. 7) The human was now clearly divided into three parts: the body, the mind, and the spirit. 8) Like the Pythagoreans, Platonists, and Neoplatonists, the body was the major source of difficulty for early Christians. 9) The spirit was the spark of God within us and was the most highly valued aspect of human nature. Through our spirit, we were capable of becoming close to God, and the spirit was viewed as immortal. Humans, then, are caught in an eternal struggle between sinful, bodily urges and God's law. 10) For Paul, all physical pleasure was sinful, but most sinful of all was sexual pleasure. 11) This state of conflict involving the good, the bad, and the rational is very much like the one described by Freud many centuries later.

Würzburg school

A group of psychologists under the influence of Oswald Külpe at the University of Würzburg. Among other things, this group found that some thoughts occur without a specific referent (that is, they are imageless), the higher mental processes could be studied experimentally, and problems have motivational properties that persist until the problem is solved.

natural selection

A key concept In Darwin's theory of evolution. Because more members of a species are born than environmental resources can support, Nature Select those with characteristics most conducive to survival under the circumstances, which allows them to reproduce.

evolutionary psychology

A modern extension of Darwin's theory to the explanation of human and non-human social behavior (also called sociobiology).

Aristarchus of Samos

A notable exception was Aristarchus of Samos, the brilliant astronomer of the exact alexandrian School. Aristarchus believed that the Earth rotated on its own axis and that the earth and the other planets revolved around the Sun. In other words, Aristarchus arrived at the basic assumptions of the Copernican system about 1700 years before Copernicus.

Briefly describe the life and work of Pierre Flourens (1794-1867). (pp. 247-248)

A number of prominent Physicians questioned the claims of the phrenologist. It was not enough, however, to claim that the phrenologists were wrong in their assumptions; reclaim had to be substantiated scientifically. This was the goal of Pierre Flourens, who used the method of extirpation, or ablation, in Brain Research. This method involves destroying part of the brain and then noting the behavioral consequences of the loss. When he examined the entire brain, Flourens concluded that there is some localization, but that contrary to what the phrenologists believed, the cortical hemispheres do not have localized functions. Instead they function as a unit. Thus, at least one part of the brain have the capacity to take over the function of another part. Flourens's Fame as a scientist, and his conclusion that the cortex function does the unit, effectively silenced the phrenologists within the scientific community.

eidola

A phantom, apparition

mental set

A problem-solving strategy that has worked in the past, which we continue to use rather than try new strategies.

Thomas Kuhn:

A prominent philosopher of determinism that takes issue with some aspects of the traditional view of science. He changed the conception of science by showing science to be a highly subjective enterprise.

epiphenomenalism

A type of dualism; another form of emergentism that is not interactionst; claims that the brain causes mental events but mental events cannot cause behaviour. In this view, mental events are simply behaviourally irrelevent by-products of brain processes.

double aspectism

A type of dualism; claims that a person cannot be divided into a mind and a body but is a unity that simultaneously experiences events physiologically and mentally. Mind and body do not interact nor can they ever be separated. They are simply two aspects of each experience we have as humans.

emergentism

A type of dualism; claims that mental states emerge from brain states. One kind of emergentism claims that once mental events emerge from brain activity, the mental events can influence subsequent brain activity and thus behaviour. Because of the postualed reciprocal influence between brain activity (body) and mental events (mind), this kind of emergentism represents interactionism.

negative sensations

According to Fechner, sensations that occur below the absolute threshold and are therefore below the level of awareness.

perception

According to Helmholtz, the mental experience arising when Sensations are embellished by the recollection of past experiences.

unconscious inference

According to Helmholtz, the process by which the remnants of past experience are added to sensations, thereby converting them into perceptions.

mental essences

According to Husserl, those universal, unchanging mental processes that characterize the mind and in terms of which we do commerce with the physical environment.

elements of thought

According to Wundt and Titchener, the basic sensations from which more complex thoughts are derived.

principle of contrasts

According to Wundt, the fact that experiences of one type often intensify opposite types of experiences, such as when eating something sour will make the subsequent eating of something sweet taste sweeter than it would otherwise.

principle toward the development of opposites

According to Wundt, the tendency for prolonged experience of one type to create a mental desire for the opposite type of experience.

Greek Social and Cultural Conditions After Aristotle: Gave rise to Skepticism, Cynicism, Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Christianity. What did Skepticism and Cynicism promote?

After Sparta defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian War, the Greek city-states began to collapse, and the Greek people became increasingly demoralized. In this postwar atmosphere, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle flourished, but a gulf was beginning to develop between philosophy and the psychological needs of the people. Shortly after Aristotle's death, the Romans invaded Greek territory, making an already unstable situation even more uncertain. Both Skepticism and Cynicism were critical of other philosophies, contending that they were either completely false or irrelevant to human needs. As a solution, Skepticism promoted a suspension of belief in anything, and Cynicism promoted a retreat from society.

Briefly describe the life and work of Charles Spearman (1863-1945), including his work in factor analysis and his two-factor theory of intelligence. Contrast Spearman and Binet's views regarding the nature of intelligence. (p. 277)

After a military career in the English army that lasted until he was 34, Charles Spearman turn to a career in Psychology, studying with both Wundt and Kulpe in Germany. Spearman began reading the works of Galton. Galton's belief concerning the relationship between sensory acuity and intelligence. In 1904 he published his results in an article titled "general intelligence." In order to more thoroughly investigate the nature of intelligence, Spearman laid the groundwork for what became 'factor analysis.' Factor analysis is a complex statistical technique based on correlation. The technique Begins by measuring either an individual or group of individuals and a variety of ways. Next all the measures are intercorrelated to determine which of them very together in some systematic way. The final step is to examine the Matrix of correlations to determine which measure is very together and how many factors (influences) need to be postulated to account for the intercorrelations observed. Spearmint found that intelligence could be explained by two postulated factors. Individuals differ in their confidence in such things as mathematics, language, and music. Such a bilities are called 'specific factors' (s). Because measures of s tended to be intercorrelated, Spearman postulated an overriding kind of intelligence that he called a general factor or 'general intelligence' (g). According to Spearman, G is determined almost exclusively by inheritance. Spearmint, then, had a two-factor theory of intelligence; one factor (s) describe specific abilities, and the other (g) described general intelligence. Spearman's conclusions about the nature of intelligence are important for three reasons: - he emphasized the unitary nature of intelligence, whereas Binet and besides its diversity. - he viewed intelligence as largely inherited, whereas Binet viewed it as modifiable by experience. - it was largely spearman's conception of intelligence that was embraced by the new testing movement in the United States, not Binet's. That is, IQ was viewed as measuring something like spearman's G rather than Binet's multi-farious "intellectual level."

Briefly describe the life and work of Alfred Binet (1857-1911). Describe his (a) work in individual psychology, (b) work in assessing deficiencies in intelligence, (c) work in developing the 1905 Binet-Simon scale of intelligence, (d) role in developing the intelligence quotient (IQ), and (e) concept of mental orthopedics. (pp. 309-313) Comment: As suggested in the Overview, Binet provided a helpful concept of intelligence as something that can be changed, not something set in stone by hereditary forces. Binet's notion of intelligence did not prevail, however, leading to a more or less passive stance with respect to educational intervention that continues today.

Although Alfred Binet initially followed the family tradition by studying medicine, Binet terminated his medical studies and turned to psychology instead. Being independently wealthy allowed Binet to take the time to educate himself, and he read The Works of Darwin, Galton, and the British empiricists (especially John Stuart Mill), among others. He received no formal education in psychology. Binet began his career in Psychology by working with Jean-Martin Charcot, the world famous psychiatrist, at La Salpêtrière. Like Charcot, Binet conducted research on hypnotism, and he claimed that in one study he had been able to manipulate the symptoms and sensations of a hypnotized subject by moving a magnet to various places around the subject body. He also claimed that application of magnet could convert fear of an object, such as a snake, into affection. After a long attempt to defend his beliefs, he finally admitted that his results had been due to suggestion and not to the magnets power, and he resigned his position in 1890. Binet directed his attention to the study of the intellectual growth of his two daughters, who are two and a half and four and a half years old at the time. The test he created to investigate his children's mental operations were very similar to those of Jean Piaget later devised. In 1903 he published 'The Experimental Study of Intelligence', which summarized his longitudinal study of the intellectual growth of his daughters. In 1891 he joined the laboratory for psychological psychology at the Sorbonne, where he performed research in such areas as memory, the nature of childhood fears, the reliability of eyewitness testimony, creativity, image thought, psychophysics, abnormal psychology, craniometry, and graphology. During his ears at the Sorbonne, he also investigated individual differences in the perception of inkblots--before the famous work of Rorschach. (a) work in individual psychology: Rather then being interested in what people have in common, he was primarily interested in what made them different. In 1896 he and his assistant Victor Henri wrote an article titled "individual psychology," which proposed a list of variables on which individuals differ, especially intellectually. In other words, Binet and Henri proposed to study cognitive abilities directly instead of indirectly via sensory acuity, like the work of Galton and Cattell. According to Binet and Henri, the important variables on which humans differ are complex, higher-order processes that vary according to age. Their goal of accessing a person's higher mental processes in a relatively short of time failed. Stella sharp found very low intercorrelations among the Binet-Henri tests. Along with their own disappointing results, caused Binet and Henri too abandon their "individual psychology" project. (b) work in assessing deficiencies in intelligence: In 1899 Theodore Simon, who worked as an intern at a large Institution for children with mental retardation, ask Binet to supervise his doctoral research. Also in 1899, Binet joined the free Society for the psychological study of the child. he soon became leader of the society. In 1903 he and Simon were appointed to the group that the French government commissioned to study the problems of children with retardation in the French schools. In 1904 Binet and Simon said it to create test that would differentiate between intellectually normal and intellectually subnormal children. Binet was convinced that the best way to examine individual differences was in terms of complex, mental processes. Binet and Simon arrived at the first test of teligence that measured intelligence directly instead of indirectly through measures of sensory acuity. (c) work in developing the 1905 Binet-Simon scale of intelligence: Binet and Simon offered the 'Binet-Simon scale of intelligence' as a valid way of distinguishing between normal children and children with mental deficiencies. The 1905 scale consisted of 30 test ranging and difficulty from simple eye movements to abstract definitions. Three of the tests measured motor development, and the other 27 were designed to measure cognitive abilities. The tests were arranged in order of difficulty so that the more test a child passed, the more fully developed his or her intelligence was assumed to be. We see in the Binet Simon scale of reflection of Binet's belief that intelligence is not a single ability but several. With this belief, Binet a reflects the faculty psychology of several rationalist philosophers. It did not, however, except the nativism that often accompanies rationalistic viewpoints. He did believe that inheritance made place an upper limit on one's intellectual ability, but he also believe that almost everyone functions below their potential. Therefore, he believed strongly that everyone could grow intellectually and that fact should be a prime importance to Educators. In 1908 Binet and Simon scale. Their goal at the time was to go beyond simply distinguishing normal children from children with retardation to distinguishing among levels of intelligence for normal children. The 1908 revision of the Binet Simon scale consisted of 58 test, each showing the age at which 75% or more of the children taking it perform correctly. The 1911 revolution of the scale included normative data on adults 15 years or older and provided exactly 5 test for each age level. The latter allowed for more refined measure of intelligence. Binet warned that Extreme Caution should be taken in interpreting a child's intellectual age. For one thing, he observed that it was quite common for children to have an intellectual age that was only one year behind their chronological age. Poor test in performance did not necessarily mean the child had mental deficiencies. Before such a label was applied, the test administrator had to ensure that the child was healthy and motivated when he or she took the test and that he or she was knowledgeable enough about French culture to understand the reflections of that culture on the test. (d) role in developing the intelligence quotient (IQ): In 1911 William Stern, a German psychologist, introduced the term mental age. For stern, a child's mental age was determined by his or her performance on the Binet Simon test. Stern also suggested that mental age be divided by chronological age, yielding an intelligence quotient. In 1916 Lewis terman suggested that the intelligence quotient be multiplied by 100 to remove the decimal point. It was also Turman who abbreviated intelligence quotient as IQ. (e) concept of mental orthopedics: Binet believed that 'mental Orthopedics' could prepare disadvantaged children for school. Mental Orthopedics consisted of exercises that would improve a child's will, attention, and discipline--all abilities that Binet thought were necessary for effective classroom education. Both Binet and Galton died in 1911. Galton was an old man of 89 who had a long, highly productive life; Binet was 54 and at the height of his career.

Briefly describe the life and work of Gustav Fechner (1801-1887). Describe (a) his other half, Dr. Mises; (b) his work in psychophysics; (c) his use of the jnd as a unit of sensation; and (d) his three methods for determining thresholds. Describe Fechner's contributions to the development of psychology. (pp. 252-256) Comment: Fechner also brings us close to the modern era of psychological science. With his formula, S =k logR, we see a law of behavior much like the laws of chemistry and physics, except that human behavior is now part of the equation. For centuries, philosophers had discounted the possibility of psychology as a science due to the subjective nature of mental life. However, by using behavior as a dependent variable (for example, people's judgments about whether one weight was heavier than another or one light was brighter than another), Fechner was able to establish a mathematical relationship between external environmental stimuli and people's subjective reactions to those stimuli. This was an important achievement and paved the way for subsequent important discoveries.

At the age of 16, Fechner began his studies in medicine at the University of Leipzig and obtained his medical degree in 1822 at the age of 21. Upon receiving his medical degree, Fechner's interest shifted from biological science to physics and Mathematics. In 1834, when he was 33 years old he was appointed professor of physics at leipzig. He accepted Spinoza's double aspect view of mind and matter and therefore believe that Consciousness is as prevalent in the universe as matter. Because he believed that Consciousness cannot be separated from physical things, his position represents panpsychsim; that is, all things that are physical are also conscious. (a) his other half, Dr. Mises: For a young scientist to express so many viewpoints, especially because so many of them were incompatible with science, would have been professional suicide. So, he invented a person to speak for his other half, and this was born Dr. Mises. The pseudonym Dr. Mises first appeared while fechner was still a medical student. The Alter Ego also argued that because the sphere is the most perfect shape and angels are perfect, angels must be spherical; what planets are also spherical, so Angels must be planets. The Alter Ego described human existence as occurring in three stages. The first stage is spent alone in continuous sleep in the darkness of the mother's womb. The second stage, after birth, is spent alternating between sleeping and waking and in the company of other people. During the second stage, people often have glimpses into the third stage. These glimpses include moments of intense Faith or of intuitions that cannot be explained by one's life experiences. Dr. Mises tells us that we enter the third stage by dying. In the third stage, one's Soul merges with other souls and becomes part of the "Supreme Spirit." It is only during the stage that the ultimate nature of reality can be discerned. (b) his work in psychophysics: His Insight was that a systematic relationship between bodily and mental experience could be demonstrated if a person were asked to report changes and Sensations as a physical stimulus was systematically varied. Fechner speculated that for mental Sensations to change arithmetically, the physical stimulus would have to change geometrically. In testing these ideas he created the area of psychology that he called psychophysics. As the name suggests, psychophysics is the study of the relationship between physical and psychological events. Fechner's first step in starting this relationship was to State mathematically what Weber had found and to label the expression Weber's law: ∆R/R=k -R: Reiz (the German word for stimulus). In Weber's research, this was the standard stimulus. -∆R: The minimum change in R that could be detected; that is, the minimum change in physical stimulation necessary to cause a person to experience a jnd. -k: A constant. As we have seen, whether found this constant to be 1/40 of R for lifted weights. Weber's law concerns the amount that a physical stimulus must change before it results in the awareness of a difference or an a change of sensation (S). Through a series of mathematical calculations, Fechner arrived at his famous formula, which he believed it showed the relationship between the mental and the physical (the mind and the body): S=k log R This formula mathematically States his earlier Insight. That is, for Sensations to rise arithmetically (the left side of the equation), the magnitude of the physical stimulus must rise geometrically (the right side of the equation). (c) his use of the jnd as a unit of sensation: Fechner assumed that as the magnitude of the stimulus increased from 0, a point would be reached where the stimulus could be consciously detected. The lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected is called the absolute threshold. Intensity levels below the absolute threshold to cause reactions, but those reactions are unconscious. In that it allowed for these negative Sensations, his position was very much like those Leibniz (petites perceptions) and Herbart (threshold of consciousness). Differential threshold, which is defined by how much a stimulus magnitude needs to be increased or decreased before a person can detect a difference. It was in regard to the differential threshold but fechner found that stimulus intensities must change geometrically in order for sensation to change arithmetically. Given a geometric increase in the intensity of the stimulus, he assumed that Sensations increased in equal increments (jnd). With this assumption it was possible, using his equation, to deduce how many jnd above absolute threshold a particular sensation was at any given level of stimulus intensity. In other words, fechner's law assumed that Sensations increased in equal units (jnd) as l the stimulus intensity increase geometrically beyond the absolute threshold. (d) his three methods for determining thresholds: Fechner employed several methods to further explore the mind-body relationship: - The method of limits (also called the method of just noticeable differences): With this method, one stimulus is varied and is compared to a standard. To begin with, the variable stimulus can be equal to the standard and then buried, or it can be much stronger or weaker than the standard. The goal here is to determine the range of stimuli that the subject considers to be equal to the standard. - The method of constant stimuli (also called the method of right and wrong cases): Here, pairs of stimuli are presented to the subject. One member of the pair is the standard and Remains the Same, and the other fairies and magnitude from one presentation to another. The subject reports whether the variable stimulus appears greater than, less than, or equal to the standard. - The method of adjustment (also called the method of average error): Here, the subject has control over the variable stimulus and is instructed to adjust its magnitude so that the stimulus appears equal to the standard stimulus. After the adjustment, the average difference between the variable stimulus and the standard stimulus is measured. (e) Describe Fechner's contributions to the development of psycholog: In addition to creating psychophysics, he also created the field of experimental Aesthetics. Like Webber, however, he did show that it was possible to measure mental events and relate them to physical ones.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Influence of Inductive View

Bacon is a pivotal figure because of his extreme skepticism concerning all sources of knowledge except the direct examination of nature. He urged that nature itself be the only Authority and settling epistemological questions. We see in Baconan insistence that observations be made without any philosophical, theological, or personal preconceptions. Skepticism concerning information from the past also characterized the first great philosopher of the new age, René Descartes.

Parmenides' (fl. ca. 515 BC): Belief System

Believed that change was an illusion because there is only one reality, which is finite, uniform, motionless, fixed, and can only be understood through reason. Thus his knowledge is attained only through rational thought because sensory experience provides only illusion.

Franz Clemens Brentano

Believed that introspection should be used to understand the functions of the mind rather than its elements. His position came to be called act psychology.

Franz Joseph Gall

Believed that the strengths of mental faculties varied from person to person and that they could be determined by examining the bumps and depressions on a person's skull. Such an examination came to be called phrenology.

Briefly describe the life and work of Carl Stumpf (1848-1936). (pp. 280-281)

Carl Stumpf eventually enrolled at the University of Wurzburg, where he was greatly influenced by Brentano. The University of Göttingen, where he earned his Doctorate in 1868. Like Brentano, Stumpf argued that mental events should be studied as meaningful units, just as they occurred to the individual, and should not be broken down for further analysis. In other words, for Stumpf the proper subject of study for psychology was mental phenomena, not conscious elements. It is interesting to note that stump played a prominent role in the famous case of clever Hans, a horse owned and trained by Wilhelm Von Osten of Berlin. Hans could correctly solve arithmetic Problems by tapping his health or shaking his head at the appropriate number of times, and as a result the horse became a celebrity. It became clear that clever Hans was responding to very subtle cues unintentionally furnished by Von Osten, such as nodding his head when Hans had made the appropriate number of responses. Such communication is now referred to as the "clever Hans phenomenon." Providing subconscious subtle Clues can be an influence on an experimental outcome is called experimenter bias or the Rosenthal effect.

Edward Bradford Titchener

Created the school of structuralism. Unlike Wundt's voluntarism, structuralism was much more in the tradition of empiricism-associationism.

Briefly describe the life and work of Cyril Burt (1883-1971), including the scandal associated with his work. (pp. 314-315) Comment: Leon Kamin's 1984 book, The Science and Politics of the IQ, reviewed Cyril Burt's data and attempted to show that studies indicating that IQ is inherited are flawed. In this section, Hergenhahn concludes that Burt's conclusions about the heritability of intelligence were essentially correct even if his data were fabricated. However, in his book, Kamin found that all the data showing the heritability of IQ were flawed. In any case, voices can be heard on both sides of this issue, which remains controversial.

Cyril Burt was spearman's colleague at the University of London. Burt accepted spearman's concept of G and believed education should be stratified according to a student's native intelligence. Burt retired from the University of London in 1950 but continued to publish papers providing data supporting the idea that g was largely inherited. The Scandal. Leon Hammond reviewed Bert's data as presented in 1972 and found a number of discrepancies suggesting that Burt's data was invented. Finally, in his biography of Burt, Leslie Hearnshaw charged that Burt had published fraudulent data, supporting his case under a pseudonym and published with a co-author who did not exist. However, some argued that the case was either exaggerated or not proven. Raymond B Cattell, who also studied with Spearman, concluded that intelligence was about 65% genetically determined. Thomas Bouchard also concluded that the heritability of intelligence is about 70%.

Describe Wilhelm Wundt's (1832-1920) early experiment with his thought meter. Briefly describe his life and work, including the nature of voluntarism. Summarize his contributions with respect to (a) the goals of psychology; (b) the role of introspection; (c) the two elements of mental experience; (d) perception, apperception, and creative synthesis; (e) mental chronometry (i.e., the use of reaction time as a dependent variable), including the work of Franciscus Cornelius Donders; (f) psychological versus physical causation; and (g) Völkerpsychologie (1900-1920, as cited in Hergenhahn, 2009). Describe the general problem of the misunderstanding of Wundt's work. (pp. 262-272) Comment: Wundt was a champion of psychology as a separate discipline and of the idea that psychology is a science. The notion that psychology is a science is controversial even today, but in Wundt's time many influential thinkers believed that it was impossible for psychology to ever be a science. As Hergenhahn indicates, Wundt has been widely misunderstood. Although he founded experimental psychology, Wundt's work has not been properly represented. This underscores the virtue of reading the work of historical figures in the original, rather than relying on second-hand accounts (i.e., such as this one; put this down now and get Wundt from the library!).

Describe Wilhelm Wundt's (1832-1920) early experiment with his thought meter: As early as 1862, Wundt performed an experiment that led him to believe that a full-fledged discipline of experimental Psychology was possible. Using an apparatus, he showed that it took 1/10 of a second shift one's attention from the sound of the Bell to the position of the pendulum or vice versa. He believed that, with his "thought meter", you demonstrated that humans could attend only one thought of the time and that it takes about 1/10 of a second shift from one thought to another. Wundt's "thought meter" was a clock that was arranged so that the pendulum swing Along the calibrated scale. The apparatus was arranged so that a bail was struck by the metal pole at the extremes of the pendulum swing, he discovered that if he looked at the scale as the bell sounded, it was never in position D or B but some distance away from each other. Thus, determining that the exact position of the pendulum as the bell sounded was impossible. Readings were always about 1/10 of a second off. He concluded that one could either attend to the position of the pendulum or to the Bell, but not both at the same time. Wundt reached his goal by 1890, and psychology's first school had been formed. A school can be defined as a group of individuals who share common assumptions, work on common problems, and use common methods. This definition of school is very similar to Kuhn's definition of paradigm, individuals work to explore the problems articulated by a particular Viewpoint. That is, they engage in what Kuhn called normal science. Briefly describe his life and work, including the nature of voluntarism: Wundt's goal was not only to understand Consciousness as it is experienced but also to understand the mental laws that govern the Dynamics of Consciousness. But most important to him was the concept of will as it was reflected in attention and volition. He said that Will was the central Concept in terms of which all of the major problems in Psychology must be understood. He believed that humans can decide what is attended to and that's what is perceived clearly. Furthermore, he believed that much behavior and selective attention are undertaken for a purpose; that is, such activities are motivated. The name that Wundt gave to his approach to psychology, was voluntarism because of its emphasis on will, choice, and purpose. Voluntarism was psychology's first school, not structuralism, as it often claimed. Structuralism is the name of arrival school started by Edward titchener, one of wundt's students. As we will see, the schools of voluntarism and structuralism have very little in common. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was the fourth, and last, child of a Lutheran minister. His father's side of the family included historians, theologians, economists, and two presidents of the University of Heidelberg. On his mother's side were Physicians, scientists, and government officials. Despite the intellectually stimulating atmosphere in which he grew up (or perhaps because of it), he remained a shy, reserved person who was fearful of new situations. After graduation from high school, he enrolled in the premedical program at the University of tuebingen Jenn. he stayed for a year and then transferred to the University of Heidelberg, where he became one of the top medical students in his class, graduated Summa Cuma Lada, and placed first in the State Medical Board examination. After receiving his medical degree in 1855 at the age of 23, he went to Berlin and studied with Johann Muller, who so influence him that he decided to pursue a career and experimental physiology instead of medicine. After year of working and studying at Muller's Institute oh, he returned to the University of Heidelberg, where he became helmholtz's laboratory assistant. While he was working for helmholtz, he gave his first course in psychology as a natural science and wrote his first book, 'contributions to the theory of sense perception.' In this book, he formed the plan for psychology that he was to follow for the rest of his life. By 1879 his laboratory was in full production, and he was supervising the research of several students. The year 1879 is usually given as the date of the founding of the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research. He called his laboratory The Institute for experimental psychology. At first, the University Administration was not supportive of his Institute, and it was not listed in the University catalog until 1883. The Institute became extremely popular, however, and his lecture classes became the most popular at the University, sometimes exceeding 250 students. Appropriately, the last thing he worked on was his autobiography, which he finished a few days before he died at the age of 88. (a) the goals of psychology: Wundt believed strongly that psychology had, in fact, become an experimental science. He believed that experimentation could be used to study the basic processes of the mind but could not be used to study the higher mental processes. For the ladder, only various forms of naturalistic observation could be used. To summarize, psychology's goal was to understand both simple and complex conscious phenomena. For the former experimentation to be used; for the latter, it could not. Mediate and immediate experience; the type of experience psychology would use would be different. Where as other Sciences were based on mediate experience, Psychology was to be based on immediate experience. The physicist records the data from measuring devices and then uses the data to analyze the characteristics of the physical world. Thus, the experience of the natural scientist is mediated by recording devices and is not Direct. For him the subject matter of Psychology was to be human consciousness as it occurred. He said two major goals for his experimental psychology: (1) to discover the basic elements of thought, and (2) to discover the laws by which mental elements combined into more complex mental experiences. (b) the role of introspection: Wundt, then, used introspection more or less as the physiologists (such as helmholtz) and the psychophysicists had used it--that is, as a technique to determine whether a person is experiencing a specific sensation or not. In the restrictive way that he used it, introspection could be used to study immediate experience, but under no circumstances could it be used to study the higher mental processes. (c) the two elements of mental experience: According to Wundt, there are two basic types of mental experience: Sensations and feelings. A sensation occurs whenever a sense organ is stimulated and the resulting impulse reaches the brain. Sensations can be described in terms of modality (visual, auditory, taste) and intensity (such as how loud an auditory stimulus is). Within a modality, a sensation can be further analyzed to determine its qualities. For example, a visual sensation can be described in terms of hue and saturation. All Sensations are accompanied by feelings. He reached this conclusion while listening to the beat of a metronome and noting that some rates of beating were more pleasant than others. From his own intersections, he formulated his "tridimensional theory of feeling", According to which any feelings can be described in terms of the degree to which they possess three attributes: pleasantness / unpleasantness, excitement / calm, and strain / relaxation. (d) perception, apperception, and creative synthesis: Indeed, Sensations and feelings are the elements of Consciousness, but in everyday life they are rarely, if ever, experienced in isolation. Most often, many elements are experienced simultaneously, and then "perception" occurs. According to him, perception is a passive process governed by the physical stimulation present, the anatomical makeup of the individual, and the individuals past experiences. These three influences interact and determine an individual's perceptual field at any given time. The part of the perceptual field the individual attends to is apperceived (he borrowed the term Apperception from Herbart). Attention and apperception go hand-in-hand; what is attended to is apperceived. Unlike perception, which is passive in automatic, apperception is active and voluntary. In other words a perception is under the individuals control. For Wundt the vital difference between his position and that of the empiricist was his emphasis on the active role of attention. When elements are attended to, they can be arranged and rearranged according to the individuals will, and this Arrangements never actually experienced before can result. He called this phenomenon "creative synthesis" and thought that it was involved in all acts of a perception. It was, according to him, the phenomenon of creative synthesis that made psychology a discipline that was qualitatively different from the physical sciences. In fact, he believed that the apperceptive process was vital for normal mental functioning, and he speculated that schizophrenia could be the result of a breakdown of the attentional processes. If a person lost the ability to appercieve, his or her thoughts would be disorganized and would appear meaningless, as in the case of schizophrenia. As we have seen, he was interested in Sensations; and an explaining how Sensations combined into perceptions, he remained close to traditional associationism. With apperception, he emphasized attention, thinking, and creative synthesis. All these processes are much more closely aligned with the rationalist tradition then with the empiricist tradition. (e) mental chronometry (i.e., the use of reaction time as a dependent variable), including the work of Franciscus Cornelius Donders: Wundt expressed his belief that reaction time could supplement introspection as a technique for studying the elemental contents and activities of the Mind. About 15 years after helmholtz gave up the technique, Franciscus Cornelius Donders, a famous Dutch physiologist, began and ingenious series of experiments involving reaction time. First, donders measured simple Reaction Time by noting how long it took a subject to respond to a predetermined stimulus (such as a light) with a predetermined response (such as pressing a button). Next, Donders reasoned that by making the situation more complicated, he could measure the time required to perform various mental acts. The time it took to perform the mental Act of discrimination was determined by subtracting simple reaction time from the reaction time that involved discrimination. Similarly, the time required to make a choice was determined by subtracting both simple and discrimination reaction times from Choice reaction time. Wundt enthusiastically seized upon Donder's methods, believing that they could provide a "mental chronometry," or an accurate cataloging of the time it took to perform various mental act. He believed strongly that such research provided another way (along with experimental introspection) of experimental e investigating the mind. However, he eventually abandoned his reaction time studies. One reason was that he, like helmholtz, found that reaction times varied too much from study to study, from subject to subject, and often for the same subject at different times. Reaction time also varied with the sense modality stimulated, the intensity of the stimulus, the number of items to be discriminated and the degree of difference among them, how much practice a subject received, and several other variables. The situation was much too complicated to obtain measurable psychological constants. (f) psychological versus physical causation: Wundt believed that psychological and physical causality were "Polar Opposites" because physical events could be predicted on the basis of antecedent conditions and psychological events could not. It is the will that makes psychological causation qualitatively different from physical causation. He also believed that because intentions are willfully created, they cannot be predicted or understood in terms of physical causation. Another factor that makes the prediction of psychological events impossible is what he called the "principle of the heterogeny of ends". According to this principle, a goal directed activity seldom attains its goal and nothing else. Something unexpected almost always happens that changes one's entire motivational pattern. he also employed the "principle of contrasts" to explain the complexity of psychological experience. He maintained that opposite experiences intensify one another. They related principal, the "principal toward the development of opposites", states that after a prolonged experience of one type, there is an increased tendency to seek the opposite type of experience. This ladder principal not only applies to the life of an individual but also to the human history in general. Volitional acts are creative but not free. He was a determinist. That is, he did not believe in free will. Behind all volitional Acts were mental laws that acted on the contents of Consciousness. These laws were unconscious, complex, and not knowable through either introspection or other forms of experimentation; but laws they were, and their products were lawful. According to him, the laws of mental activity can be deducted only after the fact, and in that sense the the psychologist studying them is like a historian. (g) Völkerpsychologie: (group or cultural psychology). In this work, he emphasized the study of language, and his long overlooked conclusions have a strikingly modern ring to them. According to him, verbal communication begins with a "general impression", or unified idea, that one wishes to convey. The speaker apperceives this general impression and then chooses words and sentences to express it. The linguistic structures and words the speaker chooses for expressing the general impression may or may not do so accurately; and upon hearing his or her own words, the speaker may say, no, that's not what I had in mind, and make another attempt at expression. Once the speaker has chosen sentences appropriate for expressing the general idea, the next step is that the listener must apperceive the speaker's words. That is, the listener must understand the general impression the speaker is attempting to convey. If this occurs, The Listener can replicate the speaker's general impression by using any number of different words or sentence structures. Verbal communication, then, is a three-stage process. 1) the speaker must apperceive his or her own general impression. 2) the speaker chooses words and sentence structures to express the general impression. 3) The Listener, after hearing the words and sentences, must apperceive the speaker's general impression. As evidence for this process, he points out that we often retain the meaning of a person's words long after we have forgotten the specific words the person used to convey that meaning. (h) Describe the general problem of the misunderstanding of Wundt's work: By misrepresenting him, psychology has overlooked a rich source of ideas. Fortunately, his true psychology is in the process of being rediscovered, and one reason for this may be psychology's return to an interest in cognition.

Scientific Law: Correlational Laws

Describe how classes of events vary together in some systematic way. It allows prediction of events.

Charles Bell

Discovered, in modern times, the distinction between sensory and motor nerves.

François Magendie

Discovered, in modern times, the distinction between sensory and motor nerves.

Cultural Conditions Prevalent During the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries:

During the 14th and 15th centuries, philosophy still served religion. There were two classes of people: believers and nonbelievers. The latter, if they could not be converted, were physically punished, imprisoned, or killed, and they were considered either stupid or possessed by the devil. Clearly, this was not a time of open inquiry. As with other paradigms, the Christian paradigm determined what was acceptable as a problem and what counted as a solution.

Dark Ages: Expansion of Islam

During this time, Islam was a powerful force in the world. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570, and in middle age, believers say he received a revelation from God instructing him to preach. He called his religion Islam, which means "surrender to God," and his followers were called Muslims (or Moslems). His teachings are contained in the Koran. This expansion brought the Muslims into contact with ancient works long lost to the Western world. Islamic philosophers translated, studied, and expanded on the ancient wisdom of Greece and Rome, and the writings of Aristotle were of special interest. By utilizing this wisdom, the Muslims made great strides in medicine, science, and mathematics--subjects that were of greatest interest during the expansion of the Islamic empire because of their practical value.

doctrine of specific nerve energies

Each sensory nerve, no matter how it is stimulated, releases an energy specific to that nerve.

Scholasticism:

Efforts were made to modify the works, especially those of Aristotle, and in modified form, they were incorporated in church dogma. Some of the keenest minds in the history of Western thought took on the Monumental tasks of synthesizing Aristotle's philosophy and Christian theology and showing what implications that synthesis had for living one's life. This synthesis came to be called Scholasticism. 1) Represents the re-entry point of Aristotle's thought into the mainstream of religious thought in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 2) Aristotle's writings are integrated into Christian theology. 3) The downside is that Aristotle's work became an unassailable part of religious dogma, and Aristotle's views - whether correct or incorrect - became required beliefs for obedient Christians. 4) The upside is that the introduction of Aristotle's writings into Christian thought may have paved the way for later developments in the Renaissance.

Rational or Irrational Views of Behaviour: Rationalistic

Emphasises the importance of logical, systematic, and intelligent thought processes.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: Four Causes with the Entelechy, Scala Naturae, and the Unmoved Mover

Entelechy: The built-in purpose of things that exist in nature is called entelechy. Entelechy keeps an object moving or developing in its prescribed direction until its full potential is reached. Scala Naturae: refers to the idea that nature is arranged in a hierarchy ranging from neutral matter to the unmoved mover. The closer to the unmoved mover something is, the more perfect it is. Although Aristotle did not accept evolution, his Scala Naturae does create a phylogenetic scale of sorts, making it impossible to study "lower" animals in order to understand humans. Unmoved Mover: is pure actuality and the cause of everything in nature. For Aristotle, the unmoved mover is what gives all natural objects their purposes.

Briefly describe the life and work of Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911). Describe his work and beliefs with respect to (a) the measurement of intelligence, (b) eugenics, (c) nature versus nurture, (d) the word association test, (e) mental imagery, (f) anthropometry, and (g) statistical correlation (as well as regression toward the mean). (pp. 302-307)

Erasmus Darwin, The Physician, philosopher, poet, and early evolutionary theorist, was the grandfather of both Charles Darwin and Francis Galton. Darwin's cousin Galton was born near Birmingham, England on February 16th, the youngest of seven children. Receiving his Early Education at home, Galton could read and write by the age of two and a half. At age 5, he could read any book written in English and by age 7, he was reading. At age 16, he was taken out of boarding school and sent to Birmingham General Hospital to study medicine; after this practical experience, he transferred to King's College in London. He then moved to Cambridge University, where he obtained his degree in 1843. After Consulting with a phrenologist who recommended an active life, Galton decided to join the Royal geographical Society on a trip to South West Africa. The trip lasted 2 years, and for Galton's creation of a map of previously unexplored areas in Africa (now called Namibia), the Royal geographical Society honored him in 1853 with its highest medal, Galton was 32 at the time. To further illustrate his passion for measurement, here are a few of his other endeavors: - in his effort to measure and predict the weather, he invented the weather map and was the first to use the terms highs, lows, and Fronts. - he was the first to suggest that fingerprints could be used for personal identification--a procedure later adopted by Scotland Yard. - he attempted to determine the effectiveness of Prayer (he found it ineffective). - he tried to determine which country had the most beautiful women. - he measured the degree of boredom at scientific lectures. (a) the measurement of intelligence: Galton assume that intelligence is a matter of sensory acuity because humans can know the world only through the senses. Thus, the more acute the senses, the more intelligent person was presumed to be. Furthermore, because sensory acuity is mainly a function of natural endowment, intelligence is inherited. And if intelligence is inherited, as he assumed, one would expect to see Extremes in intelligence run in families. He argued that The Offspring of illustrious individuals were far more likely to be illustrious then where The Offspring of non industrious individuals. He also observed, however, that Zeal and vigor would be coupled with inherited capacity before Eminence can be attained. (b) eugenics: Galton's conclusion raised a fascinating possibility: 'selective breeding.' If intelligence is inherited, could not be general intelligence of a people be improved by encouraging the mating of bright people and discouraging the meeting of people who were less bright? His answer was yes. He called the Improvement of living organisms through selective breeding 'Eugenics' and advocated its practice. Darwin gave credit to Galton for calling to his attention the fact that allowing week members of a society to breed weakens the human stock. Thus, as we have noted, Darwin was not entirely adverse to what was called social Darwinism nor, as we have seen, was he entirely opposed to the idea of eugenics. (c) nature versus nurture: Although the questionnaire was very long, most of the scientists finished and returned it, and most believed that their interest in science was inherited. Galton notice, however, that a disproportionate number of the scientists were Scottish and that these scientists praised the broad and liberal Scottish educational system. Conversely, the English scientist had very unkind things to say about the English educational system. On the basis of these findings, Galton urged that English schools be reformed to make them more like Scottish schools; here Galton I was acknowledging the importance of the environment. His revised position was that the potential for high intelligence was inherited but that it must be nurtured by a proper environment. He clearly stated the nature-nurture controversy, which is still the focus of much attention in modern psychology. In his next book, inquiries into human faculty and its development, he further supported his basic nativistic position by studying twins. He found monozygotic (one egg) twins to be very similar to each other even when they were reared apart, and he found dizygotic (two egg) twins to be dissimilar even when they were reared together. (d) the word association test: In 'Inquiries', Galton devised psychology's first word association test. He wrote 75 words, each on a separate piece of paper. Then he glanced at each word and noted his response to it on another piece of paper. He went through the 75 words on four different occasions, randomizing the words each time. three things struck him about this study. First, responses to stimulus words tend to be constant; he very often gave the same response to a word all four times he experienced it. Second, his responses were often drawn from his childhood experiences. Third, he felt that such a procedure revealed aspects of the mind never revealed before. Whether he influenced Freud is not known, but his work with word association anticipated two aspects of psychoanalysis: the use of free association and the recognition of unconscious motivation. (e) mental imagery: Galton was also among the first, if not the first, to study imagery. In inquiries he reported the results of asking people to imagine the scene as they had sat down to breakfast. He found that the ability to imagine was essentially normally distributed, with some individuals almost totally incapable of imagery and others having the ability to imagine the breakfast scene flawlessly. He was amazed to find that many of his scientist friends had virtually no ability to form images. If Sensations and their remnants (images) were the stuff of all thinking, as the empiricists had assumed, why was it that many scientists seemed unable to form and use those images? He also found, not so surprisingly, that whatever a person's imagery ability was, he or she assumed that everyone else had the same ability. (f) anthropometry: Galton's desire to measure individual differences among humans inspired him to create what he called an "Anthropometric Laboratory" at London's International health exhibition in 1884. Here, in about 1 year, he measured 9337 humans in just about every way he could imagine. For example, he measured head size, arm span, standing height, sitting height, length of the middle finger, weight, strength of hand squeeze (measured by a dynamometer), breathing capacity, visual Acuity, auditory acuity, reaction time to visual and auditory stimuli, the highest detectable auditory tone, and speed of blow (the time it takes for a person to punch a pad). Some of these measures were included because he believed sensory acuity to be related to intelligence, and for that reason, his anthropometric laboratory can be viewed as an effort to measure intelligence. Incidentally, he measured head size because he believed it to be an indirect measure of brain size. Because his incredible amount of data existed long before there were computers or even calculators, much of it went on analyzed at the time. Since then, other researchers have analyzed portions of the previously unanalyzed data. (g) statistical correlation (as well as regression toward the mean): Galton defined correlation, or co-relation, as follows: Two variable organs are said to be correlated when the variation on one is accompanied on the average by more or less variation of the other, and in the same direction. After planting peas of varying sizes and measuring the size of their offspring, he observed that very large peas tended to have Offspring not quite as large as they were and that very small peas tended to have Offspring not quite as small as themselves. He called this phenomenon 'regression toward the mean', something he also found when he correlated Heights of children with Heights of their parents. In fact, he found regression whenever he correlated inherited characteristics. By visually displaying his correlation data in the form of Scatter Plots, he found that he could visually determine the strength of a relationship. It was Carl Pearson who devised a formula that produced a mathematical expression of the strength of a relationship. Pearson's formula produces the now-familiar 'coefficient of correlation (r).' In addition to introducing the concept of correlation, he also introduced the 'median' as a measure of central tendency. He found the 'mean' to be overly influenced by extreme scores in a distribution and prefer to use the middle most score (the median) in a distribution instead. Contributions: Galton's first include study of the nature-nurture question, the use of questionnaires, the use of the word association, test twin studies, the study of imagery, intelligence testing, and the development of the correlation technique.

Johannes Müller

Expanded the Bell-Magendie law by demonstrating that each sense receptor, when stimulated, releases an energy specific to that particular receptor. This finding is called the doctrine of specific nerve energies.

Herbert Spencer

First a follower of Lamarck and then of Darwin. His applied darwinian principles to society by saying that Society should maintain a laissez-faire policy so that the ablest individuals could prevail. His position is called social Darwinism.

Briefly describe the life and work of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), including his views on the appropriate methodology for psychology and his goal. (pp. 281-283)

For Edmund husserl, there are at least two types of introspection: one that focuses on intentionality and one that focuses on whatever process is a person experiences subjectively. Both types of introspection focus on phenomenological experience, but because the latter focuses on the Essences of mental processes, hustle referred to it as "pure phenomenology". When the term phenomenon is used to describe a mental event, it refers to a whole, intact, meaningful experience and not to fragments of conscious experiences such as isolated Sensations. In this sense, Wundt (as an experimentalist) and the earlier tichenor were not phenomenologists, whereas Brentano, Stumpf, and Husserl were. The point is that it is incorrect to use the terms subjective, cognitive, and mental as synonyms for phenomenological. Husserl did not deny that an experimental Psychology was possible; he simply said that it must be preceded by a careful, rigorous, phenomenological analysis. Husserl believed that it was premature to perform experiments on perception, memory, and feelings without first knowing the essence (the ultimate nature) of these processes. Without such knowledge, the experimenter does not know how the very nature of what he or she is studying made by us what is found or how the experiences are initially organized. Husserl's goal: Husserl's goal was to create a taxonomy of the mind. He wanted to describe the "mental Essences" by which humans experience themselves, other humans, and the world. He believed strongly that a description of such Essences must precede any attempt to understand the interactions between humans and their environment and any science of psychology. His position differ drastically from that of the structuralist in that he sought to examine meanings and Essences, not mental elements, via introspection. He and his subjects with us commit the dreaded stimulus error. He also differed from his teacher brentano and his colleagues dumped by insisting on a pure phenomenology with little or no concern for determining the relationship between subjective experience and this physical world.

Thomas Kuhn's Conceptions of science: Anomalies

For scientific paradigms to change, there must be persistent observations that the current paradigm cannot explain. New, alternate paradigms are created to account for all or most of the phenomena by scientists.

Phrenology: Franz Joseph Gall: Influence of Phrenology on Education in the Form of the Notion of Formal Discipline

Franz Joseph Gall accepted the widely held belief that faculties of the Mind acted on and transform to sensory information, but he made three additional claims that changed the history of Faculty psychology: 1) The mental faculties do not exist to the same extent in all humans. 2) The faculties are housed in specific areas of the brain. 3) If a faculty is well-developed, a person would have a bump or protrusion on the corresponding part of the skull. Similarly, if a faculty is underdeveloped, a Hollow or depression would be on the corresponding part of the skull. Thus, Gall believed that the magnitude of one's faculties could be determined by examining the bumps and depressions on one's skull. Such an analysis was called phrenology. His idea was not necessarily a bad one. In fact, he was among the first to attempt to relate certain personality traits and over Behavior patterns to specific brain functions. The problem was the type of evidence he accepted to demonstrate this relationship. He found that larger, better developed Cortices were associated with more intelligent behavior. In addition, he was the first to distinguish the functions of gray matter and white matter in the brain. Formal Discipline: This belief influenced a number of Educators to take a mental muscle approach to education. For them education meant strengthening mental faculties by practicing the traits associated with them. One could improve one's reasoning ability by studying mathematics. The belief that educational experiences could be arranged so that they strengthen certain faculties was called formal discipline. Although Edward L Thorndike systemically evaluated the educational claims of the phonologists and found them to be false.

Galen (ca. 130-200 AD): Extension of the Hippocratic four humors (Earth: black bile, Air: yellow bile, Fire: blood, Water: phlegm)

Galen associated the four humors of the body with four temperaments. If one of the humors dominates, the person displays the characteristics associated with that humor. Galen's extension of Hippocrates views created a rudimentary theory of personality, as well as a way of diagnosing illness that was to dominate medicine for the next 14 centuries and his ideas continue to be influential within personality theory.

Determinism: Physical

Genes, environmental stimuli, and cultural customs are all accessible and quantifiable for explaining behaviour.

Alcmaeon (fl. ca. 500 BC):

He believed that health was a balance of such qualities as warm and cold, moist and dry, and bitter and sweet. If one or more qualities dominates a person's system, sickness results. The physician's job is to help the patient regain a lost equilibrium, thereby regaining health. He also believed in the use of natural medicine. He was also the first to discover that the senses derived from the brain by dissecting a body.

Karl Popper's Conceptions of science: Objections to the traditional view of scientific activity:

He disagreed with the traditional description of science in two fundamental ways. 1) That scientific activity starts with empirical observation. He believed the problem with making observations and then trying to explain them is that observation is always selective. It needs a chosen object, a definite task, an interest, a point of view, a problem to cause observation and determines what is observed. Popper saw scientific method as involving three stages: problems, theories (proposed solutions), and criticism; 2) Is the vagueness of theorist's ideas. Vague theories are unrefutable due to the fact that the theories are so vague that anything can be claimed as verification (principle of falsifiability);

Thomas Kuhn's Conceptions of science: Puzzle Solving

He likened normal science to puzzle solving. Like puzzles, the problems of normal science have an assured solution, and there are "rules that limit both the nature of acceptable solutions and the steps by which they are to be obtained". He saw neither normal science nor puzzle solving as involving much creativity.

Thales (ca. 625-545 BC; Thales is pronounced Thay-leez.): An important philosopher; His beliefs; Famous Practical Accomplishments; Critical tradition he originated:

He was considered an important philosopher for three main reasons. 1) His cosmology postulated that things in the universe consist of natural substances and are governed by natural principles; not the gods. The universe is therefore knowable and within the realm of human understanding. 2) He also searched for that one substance or element from which everything is derived. The Greeks called such a primary element or substance a 'physis', and those who sought it were 'physicists'. Thales concluded that the physis was water, which is, in a way, still true today. 3) Thales also predicted eclipses, developed methods of navigation based on the stars an planets, and applied geometric principles to the measurement of such things as the heights of buildings. This helped him corner the market on olive oil by predicting the weather patterns. Such practical accomplishments brought great fame to Thales and respectability to philosophy. The most important thing about Thales was the fact that he offered his ideas as speculations and welcomed criticism; inviting others to criticize and improve his teachings.

Hippocrates (ca. 460-377 BC):

He was proficient in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of disease; keeping detailed records of mumps, epilepsy, hysteria, arthritis, and tuberculosis. He concluded that all disorders were caused by natural factors such as inherited susceptibility to disease, organic injury, and an imbalance of bodily fluids. He also brought great accomplishments to the development of naturalistic medicine to new heights. Hippocratics agreed with Empedocles that everything is made up of four elements (fire, water, air, earth) and that humans are made up of those elements too. However, they also associated the four elements with four humors in the body (Earth: black bile, Air: yellow bile, Fire: blood, Water: phlegm). Individuals for whom the humors are properly balanced are healthy; an imbalance among the humors results in illness. They believed that the body has the ability to heal itself and that the physician's job is to facilitate the natural healing of the body.

Briefly describe the life and work of Henry Herbert Goddard (1866-1957), including his study of the Kallikak family and his involvement in the testing of immigrants to the United States during the early twentieth century. (pp. 315-317)

Henry Herbert Goddard, after being a high school teacher and then principal for several years, enrolled in the doctoral program in psychology at Clark University to pursue his interest in education and psychology. Goddard did his doctoral dissertation, which investigated the psychological factors involved in faith healing, under the supervision of G Stanley Hall. After completing his degree in 1899. It was Goddard who translated the Binet-Simon scale into English. Although initially skeptical of scale, he found it to be very effective in classifying children in terms of their degree of retardation. However, although accepting Binet's testing procedures, guard accepted the Galton-Cattell-Spearman view of the nature of intelligence rather than Binet's. He was shocked to find that many of the public school students performed below the Norms of their ages. This especially Disturbed Goddard because of his belief that intelligence was largely inherited. Study of the "Kallikak" family. Goddard decided to investigate the relationship between family background and intelligence more carefully. In 1911 he administered the Binet-Simon scale to a young woman he called Deborah Kallikak, who had been living at the training school since 1897. Although Debra's chronological age was 22, her test performance yielded a mental age of 9, producing an IQ of the boat 41. Deborah's retardation resulted from her ancestor Martin Kallikak sr. and a feeble-minded barmaid who born a less intelligent Martin Kallikak Jr. Along with Goddard, several leading scientists of the day urged that those with mental deficiencies be sterilized or segregated from the rest of society. Mental testing and immigration. In the years from 1905 to 1913, millions of individuals emigrated from Europe to the United States, and there was growing concern that many of these immigrants might have mental deficiencies. The question was how to know for certain. Goddard administered the Binet Simon scale. On the bases of the test results, many immigrants were labeled "mentally defective," and thousands were deported. As with his earlier work, Goddard assumes that the immigrants' test performance was due mainly to inherited intelligence and not to educational, cultural, or personal experience--all factors that were later found to influence test performance. Furthermore, the tests were administered by a translator who's accuracy and translating the test into the immigrants' native tongue was taken on faith. In his later years, however, Goddard radically changed his beliefs, embracing many of Binet's views. For example, he finally agreed that the proper treatment for individuals who scored low on intelligence test was special education, not segregation or sterilization. But he had already done so much damage.

Briefly describe the life and work of Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), including his view of biological evolution and social evolution. Describe the Spencer-Bain principle. (pp. 294-297)

Herbert Spencer never received a formal education. At age 17, Spencer went to work for the railroad and for the next 10 years worked at jobs ranging from surveyor to engineer. In 1848 he gained employment in London as a journalist--first as a junior editor of the journal 'The Economist' and then as a freelance writer. Spencer's interest in Psychology and in evolutionary theory came entirely from what he read during this time. One especially influential book was John Stuart Mill's 'System of Logic'. Spencer's education was also enhanced by small group of intellectuals he befriended. Spencer's view of evolution. An early follower of Lamarck (and later Darwin), Spencer took the notion of evolution and applied at not only to animals but also to the human mind and human Societies. In fact, he applied the notion of evolution to everything in the universe. Everything, according to Spencer, begins as an undifferentiated hole. The fact that we now have complex nervous systems allow us to make a greater number of associations; the greater the number of associations and organism can make, the more intelligent it is. Are highly complex nervous system allows us to make an accurate neurophysiological (and thus mental) recording of events in our environment, and this ability is conducive to survival. In his explanation of how associations are formed, Spencer relied heavily on the principle of contiguity. Environmental events that occur either simultaneously or in close succession are recorded in the brain and give rise to ideas of those events. Through the process of contiguity, our ideas come to map environmental events. To explain the differential existence of various behaviors, Spencer accepted Bain's explanation of voluntary Behavior. Spencer placed Bain's observation within the context of evolutionary theory by asserting that a person persist in behaviors that are conducive to survival (those that cause Pleasant feelings) and abstain from those that are not (those that cause painful feelings). Spencer's synthesis of the principle of contiguity and evolutionary theory has been called "evolutionary associationism". The contention that the frequency or probability of some Behavior increases if it is followed by a pleasurable event and decreases if it is followed by a painful event came to be known as the 'Spencer-Bain principle.' The Next Step that Spencer took tied his theory directly to Lamarck's. Spencer claimed that an offspring inherited the cumulative association's its ancestors had learned. Those associations that preceding Generations had found to be conducive to survival were passed on to the next Generation that is, there is an inheritance of acquired associations. When Darwin's work appeared, Spencer merely shifted his emphasis from acquired characteristics to Natural Selection. The concept of the 'survival of the fittest' (a term Spencer introduced in 1852 that was later adopted by Darwin) applied in either case. Social Darwinism. There was a basic difference between Spencer and Darwin and how they viewed Evolution. To Spencer Evolution meant progress. That is, evolution has a purpose; it is the mechanism by which Perfection is approximated. Darwin believed No Such Thing. Spencer's application of his notion of the survival of the fittest to society came to be called social Darwinism. Clearly, Spencer's idea were compatible with the US capitalism and individualism. In the United States, Spencer's ideas were taught in most universities, and his books sold hundreds of thousands of copies. Indeed, when Spencer visited the United States in 1882, he was treated like a hero. As might be expected, social Darwinism was especially appreciated by US industrialist. It was Spencer, however, who featured such thinking and emphasized the belief that societies, like individuals, what approximate Perfection if natural forces were allowed to operate freely.

Briefly describe the life and work of Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909), especially his methods of studying remembering and the basic findings of this work. (pp. 286-288) Comment: Ebbinghaus's work with nonsense syllables provided interesting findings regarding how people learn. However, Ebbinghaus's method is also a source of a problem in psychology: studying verbal learning using artificial stimuli (i.e., nonsense syllables) rather than meaningful material. Although nonsense syllables permitted Ebbinghaus to minimize the effect of meaningfulness on learning, the end product was a study of verbal learning in a way that does not occur when, for example, students read from a book. Although this is not a problem in and of itself, later researchers followed Ebbinghaus's lead and also used nonsense syllables in their research. Such an emphasis has, in effect, deprived us of a science of meaningful verbal learning relevant to the way in which learning occurs with real students reading real books in real classrooms. This is only one example of how psychologists have studied problems under artificial laboratory conditions that have prevented their results from being applied and understood in such enormously important fields as education.

Hermann Ebbinghaus received his Doctorate from the University of Bonn in 1873. Unaware of Wundt's belief that the higher mental processes could not be studied experimentally, Ebbinghaus proceeded to systematically study learning and memory. It was the first time that the processes of learning and memory had been studied as they occurred rather than after they had occurred. Furthermore, they were investigated experimentally. As testimony to Ebbinghaus's through this, many of his findings are still cited in modern psychology textbooks. Hoffman, Bringmann, Bamberg, and Klein list eight major conclusions that ebbinghaus reached about learning and memory; most are still valid today and are being expanded by current researchers. Ebbinghaus was also the first to publish an article on the testing of school children's intelligence. He devised a sentence completion task for the purpose, and it later became part of the Binet-Simone scale of intelligence. In 1909 Ebbinghaus developed pneumonia and he died on February 26th at the age of 59. Nonsense Material: To study learning as it occurred, ebbinghaus needed material that had not been previously experienced. For this, he created a pool of 2300 "nonsense syllables". Hoffman pointed out that the standard discussion of Ebbinghaus's syllables is incorrect. It was not his syllables that had little or no meaning; it was a series of syllables that was essentially meaningless. That is, referring to Ebbinghaus's syllables as nonsense syllables is a misnomer. Many of Ebbinghaus's syllables were actual words, and many others closely resembled words. At various time intervals following Mastery, Ebbinghaus relearn did the group of syllables. He recorded the number of exposures it took to relearn the material and subtracted that from the number of exposures it took to initially learn the material. He called the difference between the two savings. By plotting savings as a function of Time, Ebbinghaus created psychology's first retention curve. He found that forgetting was most rapid during the first few hours following a learning experience and relatively slow there after. And he found that if he over learned the original material (if he continued to expose himself to material after he had attained mastery), the rate of forgetting was considerably reduced. Ebbinghaus also studied the effect of meaningfulness on learning and memory.

Determinism: Psychical

However, some scientific psychologists emphasise the importance of cognitive and emotional experience in their explanation of human behaviour. For them, the most important determinants of human behaviour are subjective and include a person's beliefs, emotions, sensations, perceptions, ideas, values, and goals.

Ontological Argument for the Existence of God: The Reconciliation of the use of reason and Christian faith as represented in the beliefs of St. Anselm (ca. 1033-1109)

In 'Faith Seeking Understanding,' St Anselm argued that perception and reason can and should supplement Christian faith. St. Anselm exemplified how reason could be used within the Christian faith with his famous 'ontological argument for the existence of God'. This is a complex argument, but essentially it says that if we can think of something, something must be causing the thought. That is, when we think of things, there must exist real things corresponding to those thoughts (reification).

Renaissance: Four Themes

Individualism: There was great concern with human potential and achievement. The belief in the power of the individual to make a positive difference in the world created a spirit of optimism. Personal religion: Although all renaissance humanists were devout Christians, they wanted religion to be more personal and less formal and ritualistic. They argued for a religion that could be personally experienced rather than one that the church hierarchy imposed on the people. Intense interest in the past: The Renaissance humanists became enamored with the past. Renaissance scholars wanted to read what the ancients had really said, instead of someone's interpretation. They sought to assign correct authorship to old manuscripts because the authorship of several manuscripts had been assigned incorrectly, and they attempted to expose forgeries. Anti-Aristotelianism: Many of the humanists believed that the church had embrace Aristotle's philosophy to too great an extent--to the point where Aristotle's philosophy was as authoritative as the Bible. To the humanists, this was ridiculous because Aristotle had been only human, and like any human, he was capable of error.

Induction and Deduction:

Induction: The method of reasoning that moves from the particular to the general period after a large number of individual instances are observed, a theme or principle common to all of them might be inferred. Deductive reasoning starts with some assumption, whereas inductive reasoning does not. Inductive reasoning precedes from the particular to the general. Deduction: The method of reasoning by which conclusions must follow from certain assumptions, principles, or concept. If there are 5 people in a room, for example, 1 can deduce that there are also four; or if it is assumed that everything in nature exist for a purpose, then one can conclude that humans, too, exist for a purpose. Deductive reasoning proceeds from the general to the particular.

Determinism: Sociocultural

Is a form of environmental determinism that emphasizes the cultural or societal rules, regulations, customs, and beliefs that govern human behaviour.

Briefly describe the life and work of James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944). (pp. 307-308) Comment: Cattell and Wissler's data showed little correlation between the tests they had developed and student academic performance. This led them to abandon their work in mental testing. Although it is perhaps unusual to think of this as an accomplishment, what we have here is a case study that testifies to the virtue of empiricism and empirical validation of tests. Since Cattell's tests did not pass the empirical test of having predictive power, the tests were abandoned. The important thing here is that this was an indication of scientific advance in psychology because it was using empirical grounds to determine the success of a particular approach, something that philosophy generally could not do, at least not efficiently.

James McKeen cattell entered Lafayette College before his 16th birthday and stood first in his class without much effort. Among his favorite subject were mathematics and physics. After graduation from Lafayette in 1880, he traveled to Germany to study with the kantian physiologist R H Lotze. Cattell returned home a year after his death and wrote a paper on philosophy that won him a fellowship at the Johns Hopkins University. Well at Johns Hopkins, he did research in G Stanley Hall's new psychology laboratory and decided to become a psychologist. Cattell received his degree in 1886. Cattell became aware of Galton's anthropometric laboratory in London and began a correspondence with Galton, mainly concerning the measurement of reaction time. Soon could tell applied for and received a two-year research fellowship at Cambridge University, where he worked with Galton. In Galton, Cattell finally found someone who shared his intense interest in individual differences. Galton confirmed Cattell's conviction that individual differences were important and that they could be objectively measured. Under his influence, Cattell came to believe that intelligence was related to sensory acuity and was therefore largely inherited. In 1889, he founded the first psychology laboratory designed for undergraduate students at the University of Pennsylvania. It was also in this article that Cattell described 10 mental tests that he believed could be administered to the general public and a total of 50 tests that he believed should be administered to a university students. The 10 mental tests were mainly Galtonian, but Cattell also added a few measurements he learned in Wundt's Laboratory. Among the ten tests were hand strength, two point threshold, amount of pressure required to cause pain, ability to discriminate between weights, Reaction Time, accuracy of bisecting a 50cm line, accuracy and judging a 10-second interval, and ability to remember a series of letters. Implicit in Cattell's testing program was the assumption that if a number of his tests were measuring the same thing (intelligence), performance on those tests should be highly correlated. Also implicit was the assumption that if test for measuring intelligence, they should correlate highly with academic success in college. In 1901 Clark Wissler, one of Cattell's graduate students, tested Cattell's assumptions. Armed with Pearson's newly perfected correlation coefficient, Wissler measured the relationships among Cattell's tests and between performance on various tests and academic performance. Wissler's results were disastrous for Cattell's testing program.

Briefly describe the life and work of Lewis Madison Terman (1877-1956), including his (a) work in developing the Stanford-Binet tests, (b) beliefs regarding the inheritance of intelligence, and (c) study of gifted children. (pp. 317-321) Comment: Terman perpetuated the myth that intelligence is not subject to modification due to an enriched environment. However, his longitudinal study of high-IQ youths provided a real service by dispelling the myth that intelligent people are somehow maladjusted and flawed in other broad domains of humanness and human competence. Terman's study found that the gifted are generally well adjusted. Even today intelligence is sometimes stereotyped in movies and television, with gifted individuals portrayed as evil geniuses. In North America, it has also become commonplace for intelligent students in K-12 schools to be disparaged, often because intelligence is taken as a sign of not fitting in with social groups.

Lewis Madison Terman, at the age of 15, left to attend Central Normal College in Danville, Indiana. At age 17, he began teaching and a rule School. Within six years after leaving home, Terman had taught school and earned three undergraduate degrees: one in arts, one and Sciences, and one in pedagogy. In 1901, he pursued a master's degree in pedagogy. Under the supervision of Edmund C Sanford, Terman isolated a group of bright students and a group of dull students and then attempted to determine what types of test could be used to differentiate between members of the two groups. Terman was unaware that Binet and Simon had done essentially the same thing earlier. In 1910 Terman updated an appointment to the education department at Stanford University, where he spent the rest of his career. He became chair of the psychology department in 1922, a position he held until his retirement in 1942. It was coincidental with his arrival at Stanford that Terman and became aware of the Binet-Simon intelligence scale (through goddard's translation). Terman begin immediately to work with the scale and found that it could not be use accurately on US children without modifications. (a) work in developing the Stanford-Binet tests: Terman found that when the Binet Simon scale was administered to u.s. children, the results were uneven. That is, the average scores of children of various ages were either higher or lower than the chronological age of the age group being tested. Terman deleted existing items and added new items. Each age group tested, the average mental age would equal groups chronological age. Terman and child's published their first revision of the binet-simon test in 1912, and in 1916 terminalone published a further Revision. In 1916 revision became known simply as the Stanford-Binet. It was in 1916 that Turman adopted Stern's "intelligence ratio" and suggested that the ratio be multiplied by 100 to remove the decimal and to call the ratio IQ. The Stanford-Binet, which made Terman both rich and famous, was revised in 1937 and again in 1960 (after Terman's death). (b) beliefs regarding the inheritance of intelligence: Throughout his career, Terman believed that intelligence was largely inherited. Furthermore, Terman, like Goddard, believed about low intelligence was the cause of most criminal and other forms of antisocial Behavior. For Terman, a stupid person could not be a moral person. Terman validated the Stanford-Binet by correlating test performance with teacher ratings of academic performance, teacher estimations of intelligence, and school grades. He found fairly High correlations in each case, but this was not surprising because the traits and abilities that schools and teachers valued highly and students wear the same traits and abilities that yielded high scores on the Stanford-Binet. Nonetheless, the correlations meant that academic performance could be predicted with some success from test performance. Whether the tests were truly measuring native intelligence, however, Terman never determined. (c) study of gifted children: As is First Step, Terman defined genius as a score of 135 or higher on his test. Next, he and his colleagues administer the test 2012 California school children, and he isolated 1528 gifted children. He began his study in 1921 and reported the first results in "Genetic Studies of Genius." The term 'genetic' can have two meanings. First, it can mean developmental. When the term is being used in the sentence, a genetic study is one that traces how something varies as a function of maturation, or time. Second, genetic can the genes or chromosomes responsible for various traits. Terman used the term in the developmental sense. Terman found that the children in his study (who refer to themselves as termites') had Parents with above-average educational backgrounds, had learned to read at an early age, participated in a wide range of activities, and produced school work that was usually excellent. These studies indicated that test scores were still in the upper one percent of the general population, that members of the group still participated in a wide variety of activities and excelled in most of them, and that they were still outstanding academically. 70% of the men and 67% of the women had finished college, and 56% of the men and 33% of the women had gone on for at least one Advanced degree. In any case, Terman's longitudinal study of gifted individuals clearly show that individuals who score high on so-called measures of intelligence early in life do not deteriorate later in life. In fact, his results showed that those who Fare best in you've also tend to fare best as mature adults.

Mind-Body Views of Behaviour: Dualists

Many psychologists accept the existence of both physical and mental events and assume that the two are governed by different principles. Such a position is called dualism. Once it is assumed that both a physical and mental realm exist, the question becomes 'how are they related'. There are several different types of dualisms; refer below.

Philosophy of William of Occam (ca. 1290-1350): Turning Point in Philosophy

Marks the end of scholasticism. Despite the church's efforts to suppress them, Occam's views were widely taught and can be viewed as the beginning of modern empirical philosophy.

Mind-Body Views of Behaviour: Monists

Materialists are also called this because they attempt to explain everything in terms of one type of reality--matter. Idealists are also considered monists because they attempt to explain everything in terms of consciousness. Monists believe there are no mind-body problem.

personal equations

Mathematical formulae used to correct for differences in reaction time among observers.

Why is it difficult to provide a definition of psychology?

No single definition of psychology considers the wide variety of activities engaged in by APA members and others.

Mind-Body Views of Behaviour: Idealists

Opposite of the scale, psychologists say that even the so-called physical world consists of ideas. They're also considered monists because they attempt to explain everything in terms of consciousness.

Briefly describe the life and work of Paul Broca (1824-1880). What is Broca's area? (pp. 248-250)

Paul Broca, using the clinical method, cast doubt on flourens's conclusion that the cortex acted as a whole. Subsequent research confirmed Broca's observation that a portion of the left cortical hemisphere is implicated in speech articulation or production, and this area has been named Broca's area. In 1874, just over a decade after broke his Discovery, the German neurologist Carl Wernicke discovered a cortical area, near Broca's area, responsible for speech comprehension. This area on the left temporal lobe of the cortex has been named Wernicke's area. Broca's localizing of a function on the cortex supported the phrenologists and damaged Flourens's contention that the cortex acted as a unit. Unfortunately for the phrenologists, however, broca did not find the speech area to be where the phrenologists had said it would be.

Compare and contrast Stocking's (1965) notions of Presentism and Historicism:

Presentism: The approach of looking at the way psychology is today and then attempting to show how it became that way. Historicism: The study of the past for its own sake without attempting to show the relationship between the past and the present.

Thomas Kuhn's Conceptions of science: Normal Science

Provides what Kuhn called a "mopping-up" operation for a paradigm. While following a paradigm, scientists explore in depth the problems defined by the paradigm and utilize the techniques suggested by the paradigm while exploring those problems.

Pythagoras's (ca. 580-500 BC): Proposed A Dualistic Universe

Pythagoreans assumed a dualistic universe in that there is one part abstract, permenant, and intellectually knowable, and the other empirical, changing, and known through the sense.

Briefly describe the life and work of Robert M. Yerkes (1876-1956), including his work in testing soldiers. (pp. 323-326)

Robert M. Yerkes went Harvard, where he became interested in animal behavior. Hence, in 1912 he took the job as the Director of psychological research at the roster and Psychopathic Hospital; it was here that Yerkes had his first experience with intelligence testing. At the hospital, the Binet-Simon scale was being used explored as an instrument to Aid clinical diagnosis. Yerkes's contribution to intelligence testing was his suggestion that all individuals be given all items on the Binet-Simon test and be given points for the items past. Thus, a person scored would be in terms of total points earned instead of an IQ. This removes age as a factor in scoring. In other words, using age as a frame of reference, the testing procedure was customized for each child. Yerkes's "point scale" procedure rendered all of this unnecessary. Yerkes's did point out, however, that point Norms could be established for various ages or for any group one wanted to compare. He believed that, besides being easier to administer, point-scorers were more amenable to statistical analysis than IQ scores. also, because with Point scorers all individuals take the same test without regard to their age or level, Yerkes's is method is conducive to group testing, whereas the Binet-Simon test has to be given to one person at a time. The Army testing program. When the United States entered World War 1 in 1917, Yerkes's was president of the APA. He called a special meeting of the association to determine how psychologists could help in the war effort. It was decided that psychologists could contribute by devising ways of selecting and evaluating recruits into the Armed Forces. He believed that, to be effective, the test used had to be a group test rather than an individual test, had to measure 'native' intelligence, and had to be easy to administer and score. Using his point-score method of scoring, the group created a test that met these criteria; however, they found that 40% of the recruits could not read well enough to take the test. Your group solved the problem by creating two forms of the test: the Army Alpha for literate individuals and the Army Beta for illiterate individuals or for those who spoke and read a language other than English.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Two Types of Experiments

Science Should Provide Useful Information. Bacon reached his celebrated conclusion, "knowledge is power." For Bacon, understanding nature precedes any attempt to command it. By "understanding nature," Bacon meant knowing how things are casually related; once these relationships are known, their practical implications could be explored. Bacon, then, proposed two different types of experiments: 'experiementa lucifera' (experiments of light) designed to discover causal relationships, and 'experimenta fructifera' (experiments of fruit) designed to explore how the laws of nature might be utilized.

Role is Scientific Activity: Scientific Theory and Confirmable Propositions

Scientists must make sense out of what he/she observes. The scientific theory has two main functions: (1) It organizes empirical observations and (2) it acts as a guide for future observations. The latter function of a scientific theory generates confirmable propositions. In other words, a theory suggests propositions that are tested experimentally. If the propositions generated are confirmed by experimentation, the theory gains strength (and vise versa). If the theory generates too many erroneous propositions, it must be either revised or abandoned.

Thomas Kuhn's Conceptions of science: Hergenhahn (author), at what stage is contemporary psychology?

Sees contemporary psychology as being in the pre-paradigmatic stage because it does not have one widely accepted paradigm but instead several competing schools that exists simultaneously.

Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision

Separate receptor systems on the retina are responsive to each of the three primary colors: red, green, and blue-violet. Also called the trichromatic theory.

The Dark Ages:

Some historians mark the beginning of that portion of the Middle Ages known as the Dark Ages with the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410; Others with the death of Augustine in 430; and others with the abdication of the last Roman emperor in 476.

Mind-Body Views of Behaviour: Materialists

Some psychologists attempt to explain everything in physical terms; for them, even 'mental' events are ultimately explained by the laws of physics or chemistry. They're called this because they believe that matter is the only reality, and therefore, everything in the universe, including the behaviour of organisms, must be explained in terms of matter.

Nondeterminism:

Some psychologists completely reject science as a way of studying humans because the most important causes of human behaviour is self-generated (humanistic/existential perspectives). By the person freely choosing courses of action, she/he alone is responsible for them.

Social Darwinism

Spencer's contention that, if given freedom to compete in society, the ableist individuals will succeed and the weaker ones will fail, and this is as it should be.

Briefly describe the work of Jean Lamarck (1744-1829). (p. 294)

The French naturalist Jean Lamarck noted that fossils of various species show that earlier forms were different from current forms; therefore, species changed over time. Lamarck concluded that environmental changes are responsible for structural changes in plants and animals. This theory was called the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Obviously, those adults members of species who did not adjust adequately to their environment would not survive and therefore would produce no Offspring. In this way, according to Lamarck, the characteristics of a species would change as the traits necessary for survival changed, thus, transmuting the species.

Historical Accounts: Great-Person Approach

The approach of emphasizing the works of individuals such as Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Darwin, or Freud.

presentism

The approach of looking at the way psychology is today and then attempting to show how it became that way.

Historical Accounts: Historical Development Approach

The approach of showing how various individuals or events contributed to changes in an idea or concept through the years.

general intelligence

The aspect of intelligence that, according to Spearman, is largely inherited and coordinates specific intellectual abilities. (g)

Precivilized Humans 15,000 Years Ago: Concept of Spirits

The attachment of 'spirits' were used to explain events because the logic behind it was the mind could conjure up anything and was assumed to be real; providing an array of demons, gods, etc. behind all natural events.

physiognomy

The attempt to determine a person's character by analyzing his or her facial features, bodily structure, and habitual patterns of posture and movement.

Karl Popper's Conceptions of science: Principle of Falsifiability

The demarcation criterion that distinguishes a scientific theory from a nonscientific theory. A scientific theory must be refutable.

empirical observation

The direct observation of nature.

Sophist: Protagoras (ca. 485-415 BC)

The first and best known Sophist, summarized the Sophists' position with his famous statement: "Man is the measure of all things--of things that are, that they are, and of things that are not, that they are not." This has many meanings: First, truth depends on the perceiver rather than on physical reality. Second, because perceptions vary with the previous experiences of the perceiver, they will vary from person to person. Third, what is considered to be true will be, in part, culturally determined because one's culture influences one's experiences. Fourth, to understand why a person believes as he or she does, one must understand the person. Therefore, each of the preceding philosophers was presenting his subjective viewpoint rather than objective truth about physical reality.

Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt

The founder of experimental psychology as a separate discipline and of the school of voluntarism.

kinesthesis

The sensations caused by muscular activity.

psychophysics

The systematic study of the relationship between physical and psychological events.

eugenics

The use of selective breeding to increase the general intelligence of the population.

Some people believe that a history of psychology should begin at about the time it became a separate science, around the middle of the nineteenth century. Cite Hergenhahn's (Author) counter-arguments to this view:

This approach is unsatisfactory for two reasons: 1) It ignores the vast philosophical heritage that molded psychology into the type of science that it eventually became; 2) It omits important aspects of psychology that are outside the realm of science.

Philosophy of William of Occam (ca. 1290-1350): Occam's Razor

This belief that extraneous assumptions should be 'shaved' from explanations or arguments came to be known as 'Occam's Razor.'

Briefly describe the life and work of Oswald Külpe (1862-1915), including his concepts of imageless thought and mental sets. Describe the other findings of the Würzburg school. (pp. 283-285)

Under Wundt's supervision, Kulpe received his Doctorate in 1887, and he remained Wundt's assistant for the next eight years. He dedicated his book outlines of psychology to Wundt. During his time as Wundt's assistant, Kulpe met and roomed with Titchener, and although the too often disagreed, they maintained the highest regard for one another. In fact, Titchener later translated several of Kulpe's Works into English. In 1894 Kulpe move to the University of Wurzburg, where for the following 15 years he did his most influential work in psychology. In 1909 he left Wurzburg and went to the University of Bonn and then went to the University of Munich. After he left Wurzburg, his interest earned more and more to philosophy. He was working on a piston a logical questions when he died of influenza on December 30th, in 1915. He was only 53 years old. (a) Imageless thought: Kulpe disagreed with Wundt that all thought had to have a specific referent--that is, a sensation, image, or feeling. He believed that some thoughts were imageless. Furthermore, he disagreed with Wundt's contention that the higher mental processes could not be studied experimental e, and he set out to do so using what he called systematic experimental introspection. His more elaborate introspective technique indicated that there were indeed "imageless thoughts" such as searching, doubting, confidence, and hesitation. There appeared to be a mental Act of judging that was independent of what was being judged. Marbe concluded that such an act was imageless. Incidentally, these pure (imageless) processes, such as judging, where the very things that Husserl was seeking to describe with his pure phenomenology. (b) Mental sets: The most influential work to come out of the Wurzberg school was that on Einstellung, or mental set. It was found that focusing subject on a particular problem created a determining tenancy that persisted until the problem solved. Furthermore, although this tendency or set was operative, subject for unaware of it; that is, it operated on the unconscious level. (c) Other findings of the Würzburg school: In addition to showing the importance of mental sets in problem-solving, members of the school showed that problems have motivational properties. Somehow, problems caused subject to continue to apply relevant mental operations until a solution is attained. The school showed that the higher mental processes could be studied experimentally and that the certain mental processes occur independently of content (that is, they are imageless). The school also claimed that associationism was inadequate for explaining the operations of the Mind. Members of the school made the important distinction between thoughts and thinking, between mental contents and mental acts. In elaborating these distinctions, members of the school moved closer to brentano because both were interested in how the mind worked instead of what static elements it contains.

Briefly describe the life and work of Franz Clemens Brentano (1838-1917), including his work in act psychology. (pp. 278-280)

When Franz Clemens brentano was 17, he began studying for the priesthood, but before being ordained he obtained his Doctorate in philosophy from the University of tuebingen in 1862. He was ordained a priest two years later and in 1866 became a teacher at the University of Wurzburg. Brentano eventually left the church because of his disagreement with the doctrine of the Pope's infallibility, his favorable attitude toward Comte's positivism, his criticisms of scholasticism, and his desire to marry. Brentano agreed with Wundt about the limitations of experimental psychology. Like Wundt, Brentano believed that over emphasizing experimentation (systematic manipulation of one variable and noting its effect on another) diverted the researchers attention from the important issues. Brentano disagreed, however, with Titchener over the importance of knowing the physiological mechanisms behind mental events. Finally, he agreed with Wundt that the search for mental elements implied aesthetic view of the mind that was not supported by the fact. According to Brentano, the important thing about the mind was not what was in it but what it did. In other words, Brentano felt that the proper study of the Mind should emphasize the mind's processes rather than its contents. Brentano's views came to be called "acting psychology" because of his belief that mental processes are aimed at performing some function. Brentano used the term "intentionality" to describe the fact that every mental act incorporates something outside of itself. Intentionality of course was meant to refer to. Brentano used the very type of "phenomenological introspection"--introspective analysis directed toward intact, meaningful experiences--that Titchener allowed into his program only toward the end of his life. Clearly, Brentano, like Wundt, followed in the tradition of rationalism. Brentano influenced many people personally. One of his many students who later became famous was Sigmund Freud, who took his only non-medical courses from Brentano. Much of what became Gesalt psychology and modern existential psychology can be traced to Brentano.

Sophist: Xenophanes (ca. 560-478 BC)

Xenophanes attributed human invention to religion and the characteristics of their gods. He is regarded as an early Sophist in that he believed that humans create whatever 'truth' exists. He was not considered an atheist, though, because he postulated a supreme god with characteristics unlike those of the times.

Charles Darwin

devised a theory of evolution that emphasized a struggle for survival that results in the natural selection of the most fit organisms. By showing the continuity between human and non-human animals, the importance of individual differences, and the importance of adaptive Behavior, he strongly influenced subsequent psychology.

structuralism

the School of Psychology founded by Titchener, the goal of which was to describe the structure of the Mind.

absolute threshold

the smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected

Empiricism: Alexander Bain (1818-1903): His Laws of Association and His Ideas Regarding Voluntary Behavior

(b) his laws of association: 1) The Mind had three components: feeling, volition, and intellect. The intellect was explained by the laws of Association. 2) Stressed the law of contiguity as the basic associative principle. He supplemented the law of contiguity with the law of frequency. 3) The laws of contiguity and frequency was his suggestion that both laws had their effects because of neurological changes, or what we call changes in the synapses between neurons. 4) Like John Stuart Mill, he accepted the law of similarity as one of his associative principles. The law of contiguity associates events that are experienced at the same time or in close succession, the law of similarity explains why events separated in time can come to be associated. 5) Added two laws of Association: the law of compound Association and the law of constructive Association. The law of compound states an idea is usually associated with several other ideas either through contiguity or similarity. If the idea is associated with many elements and several of those elements are present, the idea will be recalled. He thought that this law suggested a way to improve memory and recall. His law of constructive, he inserted a creative element into associationism. Both he and Hume insisted that the Mind had an imaginary powers. It accounted for the creativity shown by Poets, artists, inventors, and the like. (c) his ideas regarding voluntary behavior: 1) He made an important distinction between voluntary and reflexive Behavior. Reflexive Behavior occurred automatically in response to some external stimulus because of the structure of an organism's nerve system. Conversely, organisms sometimes simply act spontaneously. 2) In the terminology of modern Skinnerians, he was saying that some behavior is emitted rather than elicited. Spontaneous activity is one ingredient of voluntary Behavior; the other ingredient is hedonism. 3) Accepted the fundamental importance of Pleasure and Pain in his psychology. 4) The thought of combining spontaneous Behavior and the emotions of Pleasure and Pain occurred when he observed the first few hours of the life of a lamb. 5) Spontaneous actions associated with pleasure are repeated; others associated with pain are reduced in frequency of occurrence. In accordance with the law of frequency, the tendency to repeat pleasurable/avoid painful responses increase with the frequency of pleasurable/painful consequences. 6) Like Hartley, voluntary did not mean free. So-called voluntary Behavior was as deterministically controlled as reflexive Behavior; it was just controlled differently. 7) The development of voluntary Behavior: a) When some need such as hunger or the need to be released from confinement occurs, there is random or spontaneous activity. b) Some of these random movements will produce or approximate conditions necessary for satisfying the need, and others will not. c) The activities that bring need satisfaction are remembered. d) The next time the organism is in a similar situation, it will perform the activities that previously brought about need satisfaction. Actions that are performed because of their previous Effectiveness in a given situation are voluntary rather than reflexive.

Physiology: Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894): Color vision, Auditory Perception, Signs, and Contributions to Psychology

(e) color vision: 1) Based on Thomas Young's proposed theory of color vision and paired it with experimental evidence. The theory we present here has come to be called the Young-Helmholtz Theory of color vision (also called the Trichomatic Theory). 2) He expand Muller's doctrine of specific nerve energies by postulating three different types of color receptors on the retina (instead had one specific nerve energy), each with its own specific energy. 3) It was already known that various combinations of three colors--red, green, and blue-violet, the additive primary colors--could produce all other colors. Helmholtz speculated that there are three types of color receptors corresponding to the three primary colors. 4) If all these primaries are shown at once, one experiences white. A non-primary color would stimulate combinations of the three receptors, resulting in a subjective color experience corresponding to the combination of wavelengths present. 5) The Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision was extremely helpful in explaining many forms of colorblindness. (f) auditory perception: 1) For audition, he refined Muller's doctrine of specific nerve energies. He found that the ear was not a single sense receptor but a highly complex system of many receptors. 2) The auditory system contains thousands of types of nerve fibers, each with its own specific nerve energy. He found that when the basilar membrane of the inner ear was removed and uncoiled, it was shaped much like a harp. He speculated that the different fibers along the basilar membrane are sensitive to differences in the frequency of sound waves. 3) The short fibers respond to the higher frequencies, the longer fibers to the lower frequencies. A wave of a certain frequency causes the appropriate fiber of the basilar membrane to vibrate, that's causing the sensation of sound corresponding to that frequency. This process was called sympathetic vibration. 4) He assumed that a similar process occurs in the middle ear. This theory is referred to as the 'resonance place theory of auditory perception.' (g) signs: 1) View of the Mind differed from that of Kant and that of most of the British empiricists and French sensationalist. For him, the mind's job was to construct a workable conception of reality given the incomplete and props distorted information furnished by the senses. (h) Contributions to psychology: 1) Postulate an active mind; accepted the empirical explanation of the origins of the contents of the Mind. 2) In his explanations of sensation (the mental event that results from sensory stimulation) and perception (sensation + unconscious inference), he was emphatically empirical. 3) In studying physiological and psychological phenomena, he was unequivocally scientific. He showed that nerve transmission is not instantaneous but that it is rather slow and reflects the operation of physical processes. 4) He brought physics, chemistry, physiology, and psychology closer together. 5) In doing so, it paved the way for the emergence of experimental psychology.

Sophists: Beliefs

A group of philosophers who concluded that there was not just one truth but many. In fact, they believed that anything is true if you can convince someone that it is true. Nothing, they said, is inherently wrong or right, but believing makes it so. These people were professional teachers of rhetoric and logic who believes that effective communication determined whether an idea was accepted rather than the idea's validity. Truth was considered relative, and therefore no single truth was thought to exist. Protagoras, Gorgias, and Xenophanes were Sophists.

method of constant stimuli

A stimulus is presented at different intensities along with a standard stimulus, and the observer reports if it appears to be greater than, less than, or equal to the standard.

interactionism

A type of dualism; claims that the mind and body interact. That is, the mind influences the body, and the body influences the mind.

Conceptualism:

Abelard proposed it as a compromise between Realism and Nominalism. He argued that universal essences do not exist but similarities among categories of experiences do.

fitness

According to Darwin, an organism's ability to survive and reproduce.

Determinism: Freud's Overdetermined POV

Behaviour is seldom, if ever, caused by a single event or even a few events. Rather a multitude of interacting events typically causes behaviour. Second, some causes of behaviour may be fortuitous

method of adjustment

An observer adjusts a variable stimulus until it appears to be equal to a standard stimulus.

Plato's (ca. 427-347 BC): Influence on the development of science

Because science depends on an empirical observation, His philosophy did little to promote science and much to inhibit it. Plato created a dualism that divided the human into a body, which was material and imperfect, and a mind (soul), which contained pure knowledge

Edmund Husserl

Called for a pure phenomenology that sought to discover the essence of subjective experience.

intentionality

Concept proposed by Brentano, according to which mental acts always intend something. That is, mental acts embrace either some object in the physical world or some mental image (idea).

Pierre Flourens

Concluded that the cortical region of the brain acts as a whole and is not divided into a number of faculties, as the phrenologists had maintained.

Temple Medicine

Could most closely be related to faith healing because most often the rituals, ceremony, and medicines did not actually heal as modern day medicine does.

David Ferrier

Created a more detailed map of the motor cortex than Fritsch and Hitzig had. He also mapped cortical areas corresponding to the cutaneous senses, audition, olfaction, and vision.

Gustav Theodor Fechner

Expanded Weber's law by showing that, for just noticeable differences to vary arithmetically, the magnitude of a stimulus must vary geometrically.

Paul Broca

Found evidence that part of the left frontal lobe of the cortex is specialized for speech production or articulation.

Weber's law

Just noticeable differences princess correspond to a constant proportion of a standard stimulus.

inheritance of acquired characteristics

Lamarck's contention that adaptive abilities developed during an organism's lifetime are passed on to the organism's offspring.

stimulus error

Letting past experience influence an introspective report.

Scientific Law: Causal Laws

More powerful of laws, specify how events are causally related. It allows prediction and control of events.

Thomas Kuhn's Conceptions of science: Three Stages of Scientific Development

Pre-Paradigmatic Stage: Prior to the development of a paradigm, a number of competing views exist. Kuhn referred to as prescientific. It is characterized by a number of rival schools that results in random fact gathering. Then one school succeeds in defeating its competitors and becomes a paradigm. This period of normal science is then continuously replaced by new paradigms. Paradigmatic Stage: is the time when the puzzle-solving activity called normal science occurs. Revolutionary Stage: is the time in which an existing paradigm is displaced by another paradigm.

Christine Ladd-Franklin

Proposed a theory of color vision based on evolutionary principles.

Jean Lamarck

Proposed that adaptive characteristics acquired during an organism's lifetime were inherited by that organism's offspring. This was the mechanism by which species were transformed.

Carl Stumpf

Psychologist who was primarily interested in musical perception and who insisted that psychology study intact, meaningful mental experiences instead of searching for meaningless mental elements.

Role is Scientific Activity: Rationalism

Rationalists believe that mental operations or principles must be employed before knowledge can be attained. For example, the rationalist says that the validity or invalidity of certain propositions can be determined by carefully applying the rules of logic.

Leta Stetter Hollingworth

Rejected the belief, popular at the time, that women achieve less than males do because they are intellectually inferior to males; instead her explanation emphasized differences in social opportunity. Her career focused on improving the education of both subnormal and gifted students.

Lewis Madison Terman

Revised Binet's test of intelligence, making it more compatible with U.S. culture. He, along with Goddard and Yerkes, was instrumental in creating the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests. He also conducted a longitudinal study of gifted children and found that, contrary to the belief at the time, gifted children tended to become healthy, gifted adults.

intelligence quotient

Stern's suggested procedure for quantifying intelligence. The intelligence quotient is calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age.

adequate stimulation

Stimulation to which a sense modality is maximally sensitive.

correlation

Systematic variation between two variables.

differential threshold

The amount that stimulation needs to change before a difference in that stimulation can be detected.

Historical Accounts: Zeitgeist Approach

The approach of emphasizing the influence of nonpsychological factors as developments in other sciences, political climates, technological advancements, and economic conditions. Together, it creates a spirit of the times, which is important to understanding historical development.

nature-nurture controversy

The debate over the extent to which important attributes are inherited or learned.

principle of conservation of energy

The energy within a system is constant; therefore, it cannot be added to or subtracted from but only transformed from one form to another.

reaction time

The period of time between presentation of and response to a stimulus.

Precivilized Humans 15,000 Years Ago: Anthropomorphism

The projection of human attributes onto nature.

Hergenhahn's (author) definition of psychology:

The psychology defined by the professional activities of psychologists. Which are characterized by a diversity of methods, topics of interest, and assumptions of human nature.

two-point threshold

The smallest distance between two points of stimulation at which the two points are experienced as two points rather than one.

Broca's area

The speech area on the left frontal lobe side of the cortex (the inferior frontal gyrus).

Neoplatonism: Provided a Platform for Christianity

The step from Neoplatonism to early Christianity was not a large or difficult one. To the Christian, the Other World of the Neoplatonists became the kingdom of God to be enjoyed after death.

interactionism

The version of dualism that accepts the separate existence of a mind and a body and claims that they interact.

Bell-Magendie Law

There are two types of nerves: sensory nerves carrying impulses from the sense receptors to the brain and motor nerves carrying impulses from the brain to the muscles and glands of the body.

What do animism, anthropomorphism, magic, religion, philosophy, and science have in common?

They all tend to have a measure of belief and subjectivity behind its driving motive to explain, understand, and control the natural events we observe.

Realism:

Those claiming that universals and essences had a real, independent existence.

adaptive features

Those features that an organism possesses that allow it to survive and reproduce.

context theory of meaning

Titchener's contention that a sensation is given meaning by the images it elicits. That is, for Titchener, meaning is determined by the law of contiguity.

Nominalism:

To them, what others called universals are nothing more than convenient verbal labels that summarize similar experiences. The debate was profound because both the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle accepted Realism. Nominalism was much more in accordance with empirical philosophy than it was with rationalism. The main thrust of Abelard's argument was that we should not confuse words with things. Abelard argued that logic and physics were two different disciplines, and he wanted to keep them sharply separate. Abelard accused William of confusing the two disciplines, and in the process, committing the fallacy of reification (believing that if you can name something, there must necessarily be something real that corresponds to the name).

Heisenberg's: Uncertainty Principle

Uncertainty Principle: refers to the inability to make valid observations of certain ideas (electrons in Karl Heisenberg's case) because the very act of observing influences the activity and casts doubt upon the validity.

Franciscus Cornelius Donders

Used reaction time to measure the time it took to perform various mental acts.

Briefly describe the life and work of Ernst Heinrich Weber [i] (1795-1878), especially with respect to (a) the sensation of touch, (b) kinesthesis, and (c) the relative versus absolute nature of psychophysical judgments (including Weber's law). Define a two-point threshold and a just noticeable difference (jnd). (pp. 251-252)

Weber obtained his Doctorate from the University of lipsig in 1815 and talk there until his retirement in 1871. He was a physiologist who was interested in the senses of touch and kinesthesis (muscle sense). Most of the research on sense-perception before Weber had been confined to vision and audition. Weber's research consisted largely in exploring new Fields, most notably skin and muscle Sensations. Whatever was among the first to demonstrate that the sense of touch is not one but several senses. (a) the sensation of touch: For the sensation of touch, Weber attempted to determine the least spatial separation at which two points of touch on the body could be discriminated. Using a compass like device consisting of two points, he simultaneously applied to points of pressure to a subject's skin. The smallest distance between the two points at which the subject of reported sensing two points instead of one was called the 'two-point threshold.' He assumed that the differences and thresholds at different places on the body resulted from the anatomical arrangement of the sense receptors for touch--the more receptors, the finer the discrimination. (b) kinesthesis: It was while investigating Kinesthesis that Weber ran his important weight discrimination experiments. In general, he sought to determine the smallest difference between two weights that could be discriminated. To do this, he had his subjects lift one weight (the standard), which remained the same during a series of comparisons, and then lift other weights. Viber was able to determine the 'just noticeable difference' (jnd) between the standard and the variable wait. It is important to note that, although Weber did not label them as such, JNDs were psychological experiences that may or may not occur depending on the relationships between standard and variable weights. (c) the relative versus absolute nature of psychophysical judgments (including Weber's law): During his research on kinesthesis, Weber made the startling observation that the jnd is a constant fraction of the standard weight. For lifted weights, the fraction is 1/40; 4 Non lifted weights, it is 1/30. Weber observed that discrimination does not depend on the absolute difference between two weights but on the relative difference between the two, or the ratio of one to the other. Weather extended his research two other sense modalities and found evidence that suggested that there is a constant fraction corresponding to JND's for each sense modality. The finding that jnds correspondent to a constant fraction of a standard stimulus was later called 'Weber's law,' and it can be considered the first quantitative law in psychology's history. This was the first statement of a systematic relationship between physical stimulation and a psychological experience. But because Weber was a physiologist, Psychology was not his primary concern. It was Fechner who realize the implications of Weber's work for psychology and he saw in it possible resolution of the mind-body problem. (d) Define a two-point threshold and a just noticeable difference (jnd).

Objective or Subjective Views of Behaviour: Naive Realism

What we experience mentally is exactly the same as what is presented physically.

James McKeen Cattell

Worked with Galton and developed a strong interest in measuring individual differences. Cattell brought Galton's methods of intelligence testing to the United States.

sensation

a basic mental experience that is triggered by an environmental stimulus.

preestablished harmony

a type of dualism; claims a harmony between bodily and mental events. That is, the two types of events are different and separate but are coordinated by some external agent.

Alfred Binet

found that following Galton's methods of measuring intelligence often resulted in falsely concluding that deaf and blind children had low intelligence. He attempted to measure directly the cognitive abilities he thought constituted intelligence.

perception

mental experience that occurs when Sensations are given meaning by the memory of past experiences.

Karl Popper's Conceptions of science: Risky Predictions

Predictions that run a real risk of being incorrect. Theories that do not make risky predictions or that explain phenomena after they have already occurred are not scientific.

Oswald Külpe

Applied systematic, experimental introspection to the study of problem solving and found that some mental operations are imageless.

Renaissance Humanists: Philosophy of Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592): Stimulation of Bacon and Descartes

Montaine's Skepticism stimulated a number of attempts to disprove it. For example, Popkin argues that both Francis Bacon and René Descartes responded to Montaigne's doubts concerning human knowledge by creating philosophical systems they believed were impervious to such doubt.

Hergenhahn's (author) conclusion regarding whether psychology is a science:

That in psychology today, there is inquiry on all levels. Some concepts have a long philosophical heritage and are ready to be treated scientifically; other concepts are still in their early stages of development and are not ready for scientific inquiry. All these levels and types of inquiry appear necessary for the growth of psychology, and all sustain one another.

formal discipline

The belief that the faculties of the mind can be strengthened by practicing the functions associated with them. Thus, one supposedly can become better at reasoning by studying mathematics or logic.

Determinism: Environmental

Stresses the importance of environmental stimuli as determinants of behaviour.

Robert M. Yerkes

Suggested that psychology could help in the war effort (World War I) by creating tests that could be used to place recruits according to their abilities and to screen the mentally unfit from military service. The testing program was largely ineffective and was discontinued soon after the war.

Mechanical Laws Views of Behaviour: Mechanism

The behaviour of all organisms, including humans, can be explained in the same way that the behaviour of any machine can be explained--in terms of its parts and the laws governing those parts.

panpsychism

The belief that everything in the universe experiences consciousness.

associationism

The belief that one or more laws of association can be used to explain the origins of ideas, the phenomena of memory, or how complex ideas are formed from simple ones.

William James's: Hard Determinism

The causes of human behaviour are thought to function in an automatic, mechanistic manner and thus render the notion of personal responsibility meaningless.

Scientific Law:

The consistently observed relationship between two or more classes of empirical events. A scientific law is general and, because it describes a relationship between empirical events, it is amenable to public observation.

Clever Hans phenomenon

The creation of apparently high-level intelligent feats by nonhuman animals by consciously or unconsciously furnishing them with subtle cues that guide their behavior.

phrenology

The examination of the bumps and depressions on the skull in order to determine the strengths and weaknesses of various mental faculties.

mental orthopedics

The exercises that Binet suggested for enhancing determination, attention, and discipline. These procedures would prepare a child for formal education.

Describe the nature of the debate about intelligence testing that ensued after World War I and which continues, as reflected in Herrnstein and Murray's 1994 book, The Bell Curve (as cited in Hergenhahn, 2001). (pp. 325-326)

The list of the Army Alpha and Beta test rekindled concerned about the deterioration of the nation's intelligence level. About half of the white males tested in the Army had made of intelligence equal to that of a 13-year-old or lower, and the situation was even worse for black soldiers. Goddard's response was that people with low mental ability should not be allowed to vote. Along with Goddard, Terman and Yerkes's were very concerned about the deterioration of the nation's intelligence, which they believed was caused by immigration and the fact that 'intellectually inferior' individuals were reproducing faster than normal or above normal individuals. However, as we have seen, this extremely nativistic position that Goddard, Terman, and Yerkes's represented did not go unchallenged. More and more, people realized that performance on so-called intelligence test could be at least partially explained by such factors as early experience and education. Herrnstein and Murray organize their book around 6 conclusions, or points, about intelligence that are beyond dispute. By beyond dispute, they mean the following: 1) there is such a thing as a general factor of cognitive ability on which human beings differ. 2) all standardized test of academic aptitude or achievement measure this General factor to some degree, but IQ tests expressly designed for that purpose measure most accurately. 3) IQ scores match, to a first degree, whatever it is that people mean when they use the word intelligent or smart in ordinary language. 4) IQ scores are stable, although not perfectly so, over much of a person's life 5) properly administered IQ tests are not demonstrably biased against social, economic, ethnic, or racial groups. 6) cognitive ability is substantially heritable, apparently no less than 40% and no more than 80%.

mental chronometry

The measurement of the time required to perform various mental acts.

act psychology

The name given to Brentano's brand of psychology because it focused on mental operations or functions. Act psychology dealt with the interaction between mental processes and physical events.

survival of the fittest

The notion that, in a struggle for limited resources, those organisms with traits conducive to survival under the circumstances will live and reproduce.

Spencer-Bain principle

The observation first made by Bain and later by Spencer that behavior resulting in pleasurable consequences tends to be repeated and behavior resulting in painful consequences tends not to be.

Describe the world of precivilized humans 15,000 years ago:

The practices of precivilized humans relied on very unscientific terms by which to explain observations. Both Animism and Anthropomorphism were used to make sense of natural occurrences.

sensation

The rudimentary mental experience cause when sense receptors are stimulated by an environmental stimulus.

clinical method

The technique that Broca used. It involves first determining a behavior disorder in a living patient and then, after the patient had died, locating the part of the brain responsible for the behavior disorder.

regression toward the mean

The tendency for extremes to become less extreme and one's Offspring. For example, The Offspring of extremely tall parents tend not to be as tall as the parents.

resonance place theory of auditory perception

The tiny fibers on the basilar membrane of the inner ear are stimulated by different frequencies of sound. The shorter the fiber, the higher the frequency to which it responds.

inclusive fitness

The type of Fitness that involves the survival and perpetual motion of copies of one's genes in two subsequent generations. With this expanded definition of Fitness, one can be fit by helping his or her can survive and reproduce as well as by producing one's own offspring.

phenomenological introspection

The type of introspection that focuses on mental phenomena rather than on isolated mental elements.

pure phenomenology

The type of phenomenology proposed by Husserl, the purpose of which was to create a taxonomy of the mind. Husserl believed that before a science of psychology would be possible, we would first need to understand the essences of those mental processes in terms of which we understand and respond to the world.

The difficulties in identifying causes:

To determine cause is often a complex matter, as it requires the knowledge of all the many differing factors that take place to influence the cause.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: Causation and Teleology

To truly understand anything, we must know four things about it: 1) Material cause is the kind of matter of which an object is made; 2) Formal cause is the particular form, or pattern, of an object; 3) Efficient cause is the force that transforms the matter into a certain form; 4) Final cause is the purpose for which an object exists. The final cause (a thing's purpose) actually precedes the other three causes. Aristotle's philosophy exemplified teleology because, for him, everything in nature exists for a purpose.

Ernst Heinrich Weber

Using the two-point threshold and the just noticeable difference, was the first to demonstrate systematic relationships between stimulation and sensation.

Völkerpsychologie

Wundt's 10-volume work, in which he investigated higher mental processes through historical analysis and naturalistic observation.

tridimensional theory of feeling

Wundt's contention that feelings vary along three dimensions: pleasantness-unpleasantness, excitement-calm, and strain-relaxation.

Parmenides' (fl. ca. 515 BC): Zeno's Paradox and Implications for the usefulness of Rationalism and Empiricism?

Zeno's paradox refers to the illusion of motion because of the infinite number of point between any two points that prevent it from ever reaching the 'end' (point B). The paradox postulated that either logic, mathematics, and reason were correct or information provided by the senses were, which they concluded it was logic. However this misconception is similar to rationalism and empiricism.

occasionalism

a type of dualism; claims that when a desire occurs in the mind, God causes the body to act. Similarly, when something happens to the body, God causes the corresponing mental experience.

will

according to Wundt, that aspect of humans that allows them to direct their attention anywhere they wish. Because of his emphasis on will, Wundt's version of Psychology was called voluntarism.

Christianity: St. Augustine's ideas concerning the will and the ways in which one can know God.

"The Will" God speaks to each individual through his/her soul, but the individual need not listen. Individuals are free to choose between the way of the flesh (Satan), which is sinful, and the way of God. People have an 'internal sense' that helps them evaluate their experiences by providing an awareness of truth, error, personal obligation, and moral right. Deviation from this internal sense causes the feeling of guilt. This results in behaviour being controlled internally through personal feelings of virtue or guilt rather than externally through rewards and punishments. In most cases, the 'predestination' doctrine was rejected in favor of the belief that all humans can earn salvation by accepting Christ as their savior and by avoiding sin during their lifetime. 'Augustine's Confessions' Instrumental in shifting the locus of control of human behaviour from the outside to the inside. For him, the acceptance of free will made personal responsibility meaningful. 'Knowing God' It was not necessary to wait for the death of the body to know God; knowledge of God was attainable within an individual's lifetime. A second way of knowing God (the first being the scriptures) was introspection, or the examination of one's inner experiences.

René Descartes (1596-1650): The Process of Discovering Philosophical Truth; Innate Ideas

(a) The Process of Discovering Philosophical Truth: 1) Everything he had ever learned was useless, especially philosophy. Philosophers had been seeking Truth for centuries but had been unable to agree among themselves about anything; he concluded that nothing in philosophy was beyond doubt. This realization thrust him into deep depression. (b) Innate Ideas: 1) Included ideas of unity, Infinity, Perfection, the axioms of geometry, and God. 2) Concluded (1) that rational processes were valid and that knowledge of the physical world gained through the senses could be accepted because God would not deceive us, but (2) even sensory information had to be analyzed rationally in order to determine its validity.

Positivism: Auguste Comte (1798-1857): Humanistic Religion, and The Hierarchy of The Sciences

(c) humanistic religion: 1) By the late 1840s, he discussed positivism as if it were religion. 2) Science was all that one needed to believe in and all that one should believe in. 3) described a utopian society based on scientific principles and beliefs and whose organization; similar to the Roman Catholic Church. Humanity replaced God, and scientists and philosophers replaced priests. 4) Disciples of the new religion would be drawn from the working classes and especially from among women. (d) the hierarchy of the sciences: 1) Arranged the Sciences in a hierarchy from the first developed and most basic to the last developed and most comprehensive as follows: mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, physiology and biology, and sociology. 2) Psychology did not appear on his list of Sciences. Science, for him, dealt with what could be publicly observed, and that excluded introspective data. 3) Two methods were available by which the individual could be studied objectively. One way was to embrace phrenology, which related mental events to brain anatomy and processes (i.e. reduced psychology to physiology). The second way was to study the mind by its products--to study the mind by studying overt Behavior, especially social behavior. So, the first objective way of studying humans reduced psychology to physiology and second reduced it to Sociology.

Romanticism: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): The General Will, and Education

(c) the general will: 1) He conceded that to live in civilized societies, humans had to give up some of their primitive Independence. 2) The 'General will' describes what is best within a community, and it is to be sharply distinguished from an individual's will or even a unanimous agreement among individuals. 3) Individuals have both a tendency to be selfish (private will) and a tendency to act in ways beneficial to the community (General will). To live in harmony with others, each person is obliged to act in accordance with his or her General will and inhibit his or her private will. (d) education: 1) Education should take advantage of natural impulses rather than distort them. 2) Education should create a situation in which a child's natural abilities and interests can be nurtured. 3) The child naturally has positive instincts, and the best education allows these impulses to become actualized. 4) Carl Rogers expressed a philosophy of education very similar to that of him.

Empiricism: David Hume (1711-1776): Analysis of Causation, Analysis of Mind and Self, Conception of The Role of Emotions in Determining Behavior, and Influence on The Development of Psychology

(e) analysis of causation: 1) "A causes B" was to State something of the essences of A and B. He completely disagreed, for him, we can never know that two events occur together unless we have experienced them occurring together. In fact, a causal relationship is a consistently observed relationship and nothing more. Causation is not a logical necessity; it is a psychological experience. 2) He described the observations that need to be made in order to conclude that two events are causally related: a) the cause and effect must be continuous in space and time. b) the cause must be prior to the effect. c) there must be a constant Union betwixt the cause and effect. It is chiefly this quality that constitutes the relation. d) the same cause always produces the same effect, and the same effect never arises but from the same cause. 3) Thus, it is on the basis of consistent observations that causal inferences are drawn. Predictions based on such observations assume that what happened in the past will continue to happen in the future, but there is no guarantee of that being the case. 4) According to Hume then, it is not rationality that allows us to live effectively lives, it is the cumulative experience, or what human called custom. (f) analysis of mind and self: 1) All beliefs result from recurring experiences and are explained by the laws of Association. 2) All metaphysical entities, such as God, soul, and matter, are products of the imagination as are the so-called laws of nature. 3) Extended his skepticism to include the concept of mind that was so important to many philosophers, including Descartes, Locke, and Berkeley. According to Hume, the mind is no more than the perceptions we are having at any given moment. 4) There is no mind independent of apperceptions, there is also no self independent of perceptions. (g) conception of the role of emotions in determining behavior: 1) All humans possess the same passions but not in the same degree and, because different individuals possess different patterns of passions, they will respond differently to situations. 2) The pattern of passions that a person possesses determines his or her character, and it is character that determines Behavior. 3) It is a person's character that allows for his or her consistent interactions with people. Through individual experience certain Impressions and ideas become associated with certain emotions. It is the passions elicited by these Impressions and ideas that will determine one's Behavior. 4) This is another application of the laws of Association, only in this case the association's are between various experiences and the Passions and between passions and behavior. In general, we can say that individuals will seek experiences associated with pleasure and avoid experiences associated with pain. (h) influence on the development of psychology: 1) Increased the importance of psychology. In fact, he reduced philosophy, religion, and science to psychology. Everything that humans know is learned from experience. 2) Humans can be certain of nothing. It is for this reason that humans are sometimes referred to as the Supreme skeptic. 3) Accepted only two types of knowledge: demonstrative and empirical. Demonstrative knowledge relates ideas to ideas such as in mathematics. Such knowledge is true only by accepted definitions, entirely abstract and the product of the imagination, and based entirely on deduction from one idea to another; therefore, it does not say anything about empirical events. Empirical knowledge is based on experience, and it alone can furnish knowledge that can effectively guide our conduct in the world. For knowledge to be useful, it must be either demonstrative or empirical; if it is neither, it is not real knowledge and therefore is useless. 4) Insistence that all propositions must be either demonstrably or empirically true places him clearly in the positivistic tradition of Bacon.

Empiricism: John Locke (1632-1704): Association of Ideas, Education, and Government

(h) association of ideas: 1) Association is the fundamental principle of mental life, in terms of which even the higher thought processes are explained. According to this definition, it is possible to reject associationism and still accept the fact that associative learning does occur. 2) Association explained the faulty beliefs that can result from accidents of time or circumstance. He called the beliefs that resulted from associative learning a degree of Madness because they were in opposition to reason. 3) In addition to ideas that are clustered in the mind because of some logical connection among them, some ideas are naturally Associated. 4) Safe and sure types of associations are determined by natural relationships. The types of associations that constitute a degree of Madness or learned by chance, custom, or mistake. These associations lead to errors in understanding, whereas natural associations cannot. (i) education: 1) His book had a long lasting influence on education throughout the Western World. By insisting that nurture was much more important than nature for character development. 2) Important education took place both at home and at school. He encouraged parents to increase stress tolerance of their children. The advice given for dealing with irrational fears was remarkably similar to the kind of behavioral therapy employed many years later by Mary Cover Jones. (j) government: 1) He attacked not only the notion of innate ideas but also the notion of innate moral principles. 2) He believed that much Dogma was built on the Assumption of One innate moral Truth Or Another and that people should seek the truth for themselves rather than having it imposed on them. 3) His political philosophy was accepted enthusiastically by the 19th century utilitarians, and it was influential in the drafting of the US declaration of independence.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): Science of Conscious Experience

1) Because so much of our conscious experience consists of secondary qualities, and because such qualities can never be described and understood mathematically, he believed that Consciousness could never be studied by the objective methods of science. 2) He excluded from science much of what is now included in Psychology. There have been many efforts to quantify cognitive experience these efforts have been successful; His conclusions about the measurement of secondary qualities were incorrect. 3) Aristotle was Galileo's prime target. Using empirical observation and mathematical reasoning, he discredited one Aristotelian 'truth' after another. 4) Was brought before the Inquisition and made to recant his scientific conclusions. He lived his remaining years under house arrest and, although his Works had been condemned, he continued to write in secret.

Plato's (ca. 427-347 BC): Allegory of the Cave

1) In his story of prisoners who lived their lives in the depths of a cave, the allegory of the cave, represents the journey of learning the 'good' knowledge; 2) The bound prisoners represent humans who confuse the shadowy world of sense experience with reality; 3) The prisoner who escapes represents the individual whose actions are governed by reason instead of sensory impressions; 4) The escaped prisoner sees the real objects (forms) responsible for the shadows and the objects in the cave (sensory information) and thus embraces true knowledge; 5) After such an enlightening experience, an effort is often made to steer others away from ignorance and toward wisdom.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): Objective and Subjective Reality

1) Made a sharp distinction between objective and subjective reality. 2) Objective reality exists independently of anyone's perception of it. Primary qualities are absolute, objective, and capable of precise mathematical description. They include quantity, shape, size, position, and motion or rest (which constitute physical reality). 2) Subjective reality is created by the sensing organism; it consists of what came to be called secondary qualities. Secondary qualities are purely psychological experiences and have no counterparts in the physical world. Examples of secondary qualities include the experiences of color, sound, temperature, smell, and taste. Secondary qualities are relative, subjective, and fluctuating. 3) Of primary qualities we can have true knowledge; of secondary qualities, there is only opinion and illusion. 4) It was physical reality, not subjective reality, that could be and should be studied scientifically.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: Emotions and Selective Perception

1) Postulates that emotions have the function to amplify/provid motive for any existing tendency/action (i.e. running faster when scared); 2) The emotions may also influence how people perceive things; that is, they may cause 'selective perception.'

Philosophy of Neoplatonism:

1) Stressed the most mystical aspects of Plato's philosophy and minimized its rational aspects. 2) One brand combined Platonic philosophy with Judaism and, in so doing created two things lacking in the prevailing religions and philosophies-- a concern with individual immortality and human passion.

Galileo and Kant claim:

1) That psychology can't be a science because of its concern with subjective experience; 2) Science came into existence to answer questions of nature by examining nature directly rather than by depending on church dogma, past authorities, superstition, or abstract thought processes alone; 3) To be useful, observation must be organized, the similarities and differences of observations noted, and explained; 4) Science, is characterized as having two major components: (1) empirical observation and (2) theory;

Pythagoras's (ca. 580-500 BC): Philosophy

1) The basic explanation for everything in the universe was found in numbers and in numerical relationships; 2) Although abstract, numbers and numerical relationships were real and exerted influence on the empirical world; 3) However, perfection is only found in the abstract mathematical world that lies beyond the sense and therefore can be embraced only by reason.

Romanticism: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Life, Feelings Versus Reason, and The Noble Savage

1) Usually thought of as the father of Romanticism. 2) At 15, he met Madame de Warens, a Swiss baroness who was 28 became his lover and tutor. He lived with her (and her mother) the rest of his life, and they had five children, all of whom were sent to a foundling home. 3) The 1762 publication 'The Social Contract' and 'Emile', Within a month of the publication, had the city of Paris condemn them, and his hometown of Geneva issued a warrant for his arrest. He was forced to spend the next four years as a refugee. In 1765, David Hume offered him refuge. Eventually, opposition to his ideas faded and he to return to Paris, where he remained until his death. (a) feelings versus reason: 1) The only justifiable government was one that allowed humans to reach their full potential and to fully Express their free will. 2) The best guide for human conduct is a person's honest feelings and inclinations. He distrusted reason, organized religion, science, and societal laws as guides for human conduct. 3) His philosophy became a defense for protestantisme because it supported the notion that God's existence could be defended on the basis of individual feeling and did not depend on the dictates of the church. 4) His Trust of inner feelings as guides for Action was shared by the humanist psychologist Carl Rogers. (b) the noble savage: 1) For Hobbes, human nature was animalistic and selfish and needed to be controlled by government. He completely disagreed, saying instead that humans were born basically good. 2) He reversed the doctrine of original sin by insisting that humans are born good but are made by societal institutions. He claimed that if a 'noble savage' could be found (a human not contaminated by Society), we would have a human whose Behavior was governed by feelings but who would not be selfish. 3) If humans were permitted to develop freely, they would become happy, fulfilled, free, and socially minded.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727): Life, Science, and Religion

1) Was a mediocre student but showed great aptitude for building mechanical contrivance's such as windmills and water clocks. 2) Entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1661 under the tutelage of Isaac Barrow, professor of mathematics, and obtained his degree for years later. 3) Greatest work, 'The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy' was written in 18 months and was immediately hailed as a masterpiece. Although we remember Newton most for his scientific achievements, he wrote much more about Theology and Alchemy than about science. For Newton, the three topics were inseparable. 3) like Galileo, he conceived of the universe as a complex, lawful machine created by God. 4) Developed differential and integral calculus, developed the universal law of gravitation, and did pioneer work in Optics. 5) Created a conception of the universe that was to Prevail in physics and astronomy for more than two centuries, until Einstein revised it. 6) His methods of verification, like those of Galileo, included observation, mathematical deduction, and experimentation. 7) Initiated a complete reversal of the earlier Faith-oriented way of knowing God: Because God made the universe, studying it objectively was a way of understanding God. In this he agreed with most of the Scholastic's and with Copernicus and Kepler. 8) Soon 'deism', the belief that God created the universe but then abandoned it, became popular. For the deist, the design of the universe was God's work, but Revelation, religious Dogma, prayer, and all forms of Supernatural Commerce with God were considered fruitless. 9) According to the law of gravitation, all objects in the universe attract each other. The amount of Attraction is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This single law was able to explain the motion of all physical bodies everywhere in the universe.

Ten Persistent Questions in Psychology:

1) What is the nature of human nature? It covers the attempt to specify what all humans are equipped with at birth. Such as aggression; 2) How are the mind and body related? (Materialists, Idealists, Dualists, Monists) 3) To what extent are human features inherited or due to experience? (Nativists and Empiricists) 4) Is human behavior completely explicable in terms of mechanical laws? (Mechanism and Vitalism) 5) Are the determinants of human behavior rational causes or irrational ones? (Rationalistic and Irrationalism) 6) How are humans related to nonhuman animals? 7) What is the origin of human knowledge? (Epistemology; Passive Mind; Active mind)** 8) What is the difference between objective and subjective reality? (Naive Realism and Reification) 9) What is the nature of the self? 10) What is the nature of universal versus relative truth? (Universalism and Relativism)**

method of limits

A stimulus is presented at varying intensities along with a standard (constant) stimulus to determine the range of intensities judged to be the same as the standard.

imageless thoughts

According to Kulpe, the pure mental acts of, for example, judging and doubting, without those acts having any particular referents or images.

mental age

According to Stern, a composite score reflecting all the levels of the Binet-Simon test that a child could successfully pass.

principle of the heterogony of ends

According to Wundt, the fact that goal-directed activity often causes experiences that modify the original motivational pattern.

Eduard Hitzig

Along with Fritsch, discovered motor areas on the cortex by directly stimulating the exposed cortex of a dog.

Gustav Fritsch

Along with Hitzig, discovered motor areas on the cortex by directly stimulating the exposed cortex of a dog.

Christianity: Jesus (ca. 4 BC-AD 30)

Christian religion is centered around Jesus. He taught, among other things, that knowledge of good or evil is revealed by god and that, once revealed, such knowledge should guide human conduct. In any case, those who claimed that Jesus was the son of God came to be called Christians. But before it was to become a dominant force in the western world, Christianity needed a philosophical basis, and this was provided to a large extent by Plato's philosophy.

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) Philosophy: Laws of Association

Contiguity: The most basic law of association, which states that when we think of something, we also tend to think of things that were experienced along with it. Similarity: states that when we think of something, we tend to think of things similar to it. Contrast: states that when we think of something, we also tend to think of things that are its opposite. Frequency: which states that the more often experiences occur together, the stronger will be their association.

Democritus (ca. 460-370 BC): Atomic Theory, Theory of Perception, Beliefs about life after death, Elementism, and Reductionism

Democritus believed that everything was made up of atoms and the differences among things were based on the size, shape, number, location, and arrangement of atoms. Elementism: His view also incorporated elementism because no matter how complex something was, he believed it could be explained in terms of atoms and their activity. Reductionism: His theory also exemplified reductionism because he attempted to explain objects and events on one level (observable phenomena) in terms of events on another level (atoms and their activity).

Precivilized Humans 15,000 Years Ago: Use of Magic

Elaborate methods of 'magic' were used to influence said spirits when they provided much or little of the event; giving the belief that humans had some control over their fate.

Briefly describe the work of Gustav Fritsch (1838-1927), Eduard Hitzig (1838-1907), and David Ferrier (1843-1928) in biopsychology. (p. 250)

Electrically stimulating the exposed cortex of dog, Gustav Fritsch and Edward Has made two important discoveries. First, the cortex is not insensitive, as had been previously assumed. Second, they found that when a certain area of the cortex is stimulated, muscular movements are elicited from the opposite side of the body. Stimulating different points in this motor area of the brain stimulated movements from different parts of the body. Thus, another function was localized on the cortex. David Ferrier referring to the cortical research performed by the other two. Using monkeys as subjects and finer electrical stimulation, he was able to produce a more articulated map of the motor cortex. Ferrier then mapped cortical regions corresponding to the cutaneous senses, audition, olfaction, and eventually vision.

Inheritance or Experience Views of Behaviour: Nativists

Emphasises the role of inheritance in his or her explanations of the origins of various human attributes, where as the empiricist emphasises the role of experience. Those who consider some aspect of human behaviour instinctive or who take a stand on human mature as being good, bad, gregarious, and so on are also nativists.

Determinism: Biological

Emphasizes the importance of physiological conditions or genetic predispositions in the explanation of behaviour.

Role is Scientific Activity: Empiricism

Empiricists maintain that the source of all knowledge is sensory observation. True knowledge, therefore, can be derived from or validated only by sensory experience.

Briefly describe the life and work of Hans Vaihinger (1852-1933). (pp. 285-286) Comment: Vaihinger's book The Philosophy of "As If" (1911, as cited in Hergenhahn, 2001) is available from the Athabasca University Library. Vaihinger's fictionalism is an interesting approach. Vaihinger points out that many of the concepts and words we use in everyday life are fictional in nature but serve a useful purpose. To name a few examples, the statistical concept of the mean, the idea of what is possible, hypotheses we hold about what might be true, and metaphors are all fictions. They do not exist, but it is helpful if we behave "as if" they were real or true to achieve certain pragmatic outcomes. In science, hypotheses are frequently used to provide a focus for scientific investigation and to frame a problem in such a way that the proper investigative methods can be brought into play to prove or disprove this fictional hypothesis. From a larger perspective, it is interesting to reflect on the extent to which much of human action is based on Vaihinger's fictions.

In his book, Hans Vaihinger sided with the Machian positivist, saying that all we ever experienced directly our Sensations and the relationships among Sensations; therefore, all we can be certain of our Sensations. It was his next step, however, that made his position unusual. According to him, societal living requires that we give meaning to our Sensations, and we do that by inventing terms, Concepts, and theories and then acting as if they were true. That is, although we can never know if our fictions correspond to reality, we act as if they do. There is a similarity between his fictionalism and the philosophy of pragmatism. Both fictionalism and pragmatism evaluate ideas in terms of their usefulness. However, he believed that there was an important difference between his position and pragmatism. For the pragmatist, he said, truth and usefulness were inseparable. If an idea was useful, it was considered true. However, he rejected this notion. For him a concept could be demonstrably false and still be useful.

Stoicism: Roman Empire Contribution

In the Roman Empire, Stoicism won out over Epicureanism, perhaps because Stoicism was compatible with the Romans emphasis on law and order. The widespread appeal of Stoicism can be seen in the fact that it was embraced by Seneca, a philosopher; Epictetus, a slave; Maruc Aurelius, an emperor.

Free Will:

Is contrary to the determinist perspective as behaviour is though to be freely chosen and independent of physical or psychical causes.

Public Observation:

Is important in that all scientific claims must be verifiable by any interested person. In science, there is no secret knowledge available only to qualified authorities.

Precivilized Humans 15,000 Years Ago: Animism

Is looking at all of nature as though it were alive (the sky is angry).

Indeterminism:

Is similar to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle in that many psychologists believe that human behaviour can not be accurately measured because the very act of observing can influence the behaviour and cast doubt upon its validity.

Karl Popper's Conceptions of science: Views on Theories

It is a theory's incorrect predictions, rather than its correct ones, that cause scientific progress. All scientific theories will eventually be found to be false and will be replaced by more adequate theories. For this reason, the highest status that a scientific theory can attain is 'not yet disconfirmed'. He used falsification as a demarcation between scientific and non scientific theories but not between useful and useless theories.

Literal meaning of psychology:

It is the study of the psyche, or mind, and this study is as old as the human species.

How did the Crusades lead to the rediscovery of Aristotle's work?

It was during those 'holy wars' that Aristotle's writings were rediscovered. When the Romans invaded the Greek empire, Greek scholars, carrying the works of Aristotle, fled into territories later conquered by the Muslims. They were preserved in the great Islamic universities and mosques and were used to develop Islamic philosophy, religion, mathematics, and medicine. The Muslim armies moved west, and the Christian armies moved east. The clash between the two resulted in the bloody holy wars, but it also brought the West back into contact with Aristotle's philosophy. At first, church authorities welcomed Aristotle's writings; then, after more careful analysis, they banned the works. It was clear that for Aristotle's thoughts to be "accepted," they needed to be Christianized.

Mechanical Laws or Vital Force Views of Behaviour: Vitalism

Life can never be completely reduced to material things and mechanical laws. Living things contain a vital force that does not exist in inanimate objects. In ancient times, this force was referred to as a soul, spirit, or breath of life and the departure of such from the body caused death.

Ewald Hering

Offered a nativistic explanation of space perception and a theory of color vision based on the existence of three color receptors, each capable of a catabolic process and an anabolic process. Hering's theory of color vision could explain a number of color experiences that Helmholtz's theory could not.

Six reasons Hergenhahn (author) cites for studying the history of psychology: Description

Perspective: Seeing ideas in their historical perspective allows the student to more fully appreciate the subject matter of modern psychology. Deeper Understanding: With a knowledge of history, the student knows where psychology's subject matter came from and why it is considered important. Fads/Fashions: Emotional/societal factors in accumulating knowledge, places currently accepted knowledge into a realistic perspective. The process through which a body of knowledge is accepted as important or as "true" is partially subjective. As Zeitgeists change, so does what is considered fashionable in science and psychology. Rep/Mistakes: Studying the mistakes of previous individuals and sciences prevent the repetition of mistakes and in best case, wastes valuable time and effort on rediscovering successes. Valuable Ideas: Studying history allows rediscovery of previously developed ideas that remained dormant. Many ideas in psychology are waiting to be tried again under new, more receptive, circumstances. Curiosity: Wanting to know as much as possible about a topic or person of interest, including a topic's or a person's history is natural. Psychology is not an exception.

Thomas Malthus

economist who wrote 'Essay on the Principle of Population', which provided Darwin with the principal he needed to explain the observations that he had made while aboard the Beagle. The principle stated that because more individuals are born than environmental resources can support, there is a struggle for survival and only the fittest survive.

Sir Francis Galton

influenced by his cousin, Charles Darwin, was keenly interested in the measurement of individual differences. Galton was convinced that intellectual ability is inherited and therefore recommended Eugenics, or the selective breeding of humans. He was the first to attempt to systematically measure intelligence, to use a questionnaire to gather data, to use a word association test, the study mental imagery, to define and use the concepts of correlation and median, and to systematically study twins.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

voluntarism

the name given to Wundt's School of Psychology because of his belief that, through the process of apperception, individuals could direct their attention toward whatever they wished.

St. Bonaventure

One of the most influential voices of conservatism was St. Bonaventure, who condemned the works of Aristotle.

psychophysical parallelism

A type of dualism; claims that an environmental experience causes both mental events and bodily responses simultaneously and that the two are totally independent of each other.

Karl Popper:

A prominent philosopher of determinism that takes issue with some aspects of the traditional view of science.

Briefly describe the life and work of Charles Darwin (1809-1982). Describe the following aspects and elements of his work: (a) his voyage on the Beagle, (b) his life after the voyage, (c) his theory of evolution, and (d) his influence on science and psychology. (pp. 297-302)

After receiving his Early Education at home, Charles Darwin was eventually sent to school, where he did so poorly that his father predicted that someday he would disgrace himself and his family. Outside of school, he spent most of his time collecting and classifying plants, shells, and minerals. Academically, matters did not improve much when, at 16 years of age, Darwin entered medical school at the University of Edinburgh. He found the lectures boring and could not stand watching operations performed without benefits of anesthesia (which had not been invented yet). It was Darwin's passion for entomology (the study of insects) that brought him into contact with professors of Botany and geology at Cambridge, with whom he studied and did field research. Well at Cambridge, Darwin had befriended the botanist John Henslow, and it was Henslow who was first offered the position of naturalist aboard the 'Beagle'. Because of family commitments, Henslow had to decline the offer and suggested that Darwin go in his place. (a) his voyage on the Beagle: Thus, it was at the instigation of one of his instructors that Darwin signed on as an unpaid naturalist aboard the Beagle, which the British government was sending on a five-year scientific Expedition. There are several unusual facts about this trip. First, the captain of the beagle, Robert Fitzroy, who was a firm believer in the biblical account of creation, wanted a naturalist aboard so that evidence could be gathered that would refute the notion of evolution. Furthermore, Darwin himself begin the trip as a believer in the Bible's explanation of creation. It was only after reading Sir Charles lyell's 'Principles of Geology' aboard ship that he began to doubt the biblical account. A third fact almost changed the course of history: because Captain Fitzroy and believed in physiognomy, he almost rejected Darwin as the beagle's naturalist. The journey of the beagle began on December 27th, 1831, from Plymouth, England. Darwin was 23 years old at the time. He travel to and assess South America, the Galapagos Islands, several random Islands, Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia; and in October 1836, Darwin arrived back in England. (b) his life after the voyage: Even after Darwin returned to England, his observations remained disjointed; he needed a principal to tie them together. Reading Thomas Malthus's 'An Essay on the Principle of Population 'furnished Darwin with that principle. And economists, Malthus observed that the world's food supply increased arithmetically, whereas the human population tended to increase geometrically. He concluded that food supply and populations size were kept in Balance by such events as War, starvation, and disease. Darwin embellished Malthus's concept and applied it to animals and plants as well as to humans. Darwin delayed publication of his theory of evolution for more than 20 years. In fact, there is reason to believe that Darwin's theory would have been published only after his death if it had not been for a forceful demonstration that the time was right for such a theory. In June 1858 Darwin received a letter from Alfred Russel Wallace describing a theory of evolution almost identical to his own. Wallace, too, have been influenced by Malthus's essay, as well as by his own observations in the Amazon and in the Malay Archipelago. Public debates took place over the validity of Darwin's theory but it was his friend Thomas Huxley who effectively defended the theory. For this he was dubbed Darwin's Bulldog. Darwin died on April 19th, 1882. Incidentally, Wallace was one of the most outspoken opponents of social Darwinism. Rather than accepting a laissez-faire philosophy concerning human competition, Wallace believed that humans could, and should, dyed their own Evolution. For Wallace, this meant creating government programs that help those individuals less equipped to compete in a complex society. At the time, Wallace's view was very much in the minority. (c) his theory of evolution: The reproductive capacity of all living organisms allows for many more offspring than can survive in a given environment; therefore, there is a 'struggle for survival.' Among The Offspring of any species, there are vast individual differences, some of which are more conducive to survival than others. This results in the survival of the fittest (a term Darwin borrowed from Spencer). Thus, a 'natural selection' occurs Among The Offspring of a species. This natural selection of adaptive characteristics from the individual differences occurring among Offspring accounts for the slow transmutation of a species over the eons. Evolution, then, results from the natural selection of those accidental variations among members of a species that proved to have survival value. Darwin Defined 'Fitness' as an organism's ability to survive and reproduce. Fitness, then, is determined by an organism's features and its environment. Features that allow adequate adjustment to the an organism's environment are called adaptive. Those organisms possessing 'adaptive features' are fit; those that do not are not. Noticed that nothing is said about strength, aggression, and competitiveness. None of those features are necessarily conducive to Fitness. Adaptive features are those features that are conducive to survival in a given environment, whatever those features maybe. Also noticed that Darwin said nothing about progress or perfection. Evolution and the Earth's age. One of the earliest conflict's that Darwin had with the church was over the age of the Earth. As Darwin saw it, the process of Evolution occurred over millions of years. Within the church at the time, it was generally believed that the Earth was not nearly as old as was required by Darwin's theory and, therefore, the theory must be false. For their arguments against Darwin, Church officials Drew upon estimates of the Earth's Age based on biblical study. They concluded that the creation occurred at precisely 9 a.m. on Sunday, October 23rd, 4004 BC. Even In Darwin's time, there was considerable geological and fossil evidence indicating that the Earth was significantly older than was suggested by Church Authority s. Currently, many scientists estimate the Earth to be approximately 4.5 billion years old. Human Evolution. Darwin made his case that humans are also the product of evolution. Both humans and the great apes, he said, descended from a common, distant primate ancestor. He argued that human emotions are remnants of animal emotions that had once been necessary for survival. In the distant past, only those organisms capable of such things as biting and clawing survived and reproduced. Somewhat later, simply bearing of teeth or snarling were enough to discourage an aggressor and therefore facilitated survival. Darwin also noted that the expression of human emotions is culturally Universal. Darwin also influenced subsequent psychology when he carefully observed the development of his first son, William. He noted when various reflex and motor abilities first appeared, as well as various learning abilities. Although he delayed publication of his observations until William was 37, Darwin's report was among the first examples of what was later called child psychology. (d) his influence on science and psychology: To say the least, Darwin's theory was revolutionary. Its impact has been compared to that of the theories of Copernicus and Newton. He changed the traditional view of human nature and with it changed the history of philosophy and psychology. Topics in contemporary psychology clearly reveal is strong darwinian influence: developmental psychology, animal psychology, comparative psychology, cycle biology, learning, tests and measurements, emotions, behavioral genetics, abnormal psychology, and a variety of other topics Under The Heading of Applied psychology. In general, Darwin stimulated interest in the study of individual differences and showed that studying behavior is at least as important as studying the Mind. He entertained questionable or mistaken beliefs: -contemporary primitive people are the link between primates and modern humans (that is Europeans) and are therefore, inferior. -women are intellectually inferior to men. Alland says, Darwin at his worst is Darwin on women. - long practiced habits become heritable instincts; in other words, and explaining cultural differences among humans, Darwin accepted lamarckian Theory. Sociobiology attempts to explain the social behavior of organisms, including that of humans, in terms of evolutionary theory. Sociobiology can account for a wide array of human social behaviors. That is, according to sociobiology East, Fitness is determined by how successful one is at perpetuating one's genes but not necessarily how successful one is at producing offspring. By emphasizing the importance of perpetuating one's genes, the sociobiologists place great emphasis on kin, or genetic, relationships. Because one's kin carries one's genes, helping them survive and reproduce becomes an effective way of perpetuating one's genes. Armed with his conception of 'Inclusive fitness', sociobiologists attempt to explain such things as love, altruism, Warfare, religion, morality, mating systems, mate selection strategies, child-rearing strategies, xenophobia, aggressive behavior, nepotism, and indoctrinatability. What Wilson called sociobiology is now called 'evolutionary psychology' and is extremely popular in contemporary psychology.

Briefly describe the life and work of Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927). Describe the following aspects of his work: (a) his behavior toward women colleagues and students, (b) his view of psychology's goals, (c) his use of introspection, (d) mental elements, (e) the law of combination, (f) neurological correlates of mental events, (g) the context theory of meaning, and (h) the decline of structuralism. (pp. 272-278)

Born on January 11th in Chester, England, Edward Bradford Titchener attended Malvern College, a prestigious secondary school. He then went to Oxford from 1885 to 1890, where his academic record was outstanding. While at Oxford, he developed an interest in experimental psychology and translated the Third Edition of Wundt's 'principles of physiological psychology' into English. Following graduation from Oxford, Titchener went to Leipzig and studied for two years with him. In 1892 he accepted the offer from Cornell and soon developed the largest doctoral program in psychology in the United States. When Titchener arrived at Cornell, he was 25 years old, and he remains there for the rest of his life. For him, Psychology was experimental (as he to find it); and everything that preceded his version of Psychology was not psychology at all. When the school of behaviorism was introduced by John B Watson in the early 1900s, tichenor claimed that it was a technology of behavior but not part of psychology. He was also opposed to seeking psychological information for it applied value; science seeks pure knowledge, and psychology was a science. He was well aware of developments in abnormal, clinical, developmental, animal comparative, social psychology, and psychological testing, and he even supported investigations in these areas. In spite of their usefulness, however, he believed that they did not represent pure, experimental psychology. He was a charter member of the American Psychological Association. In 1904 he founded his own organization, the experimentalists, and until his death in 1927, he ran it according to his own ideas of what psychology should be. Membership was by his invitation only. He apparently felt the need to create an organization separate from the APA for two reasons. First, he was upset because the APA failed to expel one of its members who he believed to be guilty of plagiarism. Second, and probably most important, he believed that the APA was too friendly toward a variety of Applied topics and therefore was drifting away from pure experimental psychology. (a) his behavior toward women colleagues and students: Although the APA had admitted women as members almost from its Inception, when Titchener created the experimentalists, women were excluded. The ban on women lasted from the organization's Inception until its reorganization 2 years after Titchener's death in 1929. However, his first doctoral candidate was Margaret Floy Washburn who, in June 1894, became the first woman ever to receive a doctorate in Psychology. He was so impressed by Washburn's dissertation, which explored the influence of visual imagery on judgments of tactile distance and direction, that he took the unusual step of submitting it to Wundt for publication in his journal philosophical studies. Washburn went on to make significant contributions to comparative psychology and to be elected president of the APA in 1921. Other women to whom he taught his version of experimental psychology included Celestia Susanna Parish. Parrish, in 1894 and 1895, went on to establish the first psychology laboratory in the Southern United States at rmwc in Lynchburg, Virginia, and two chair the department of psychology and pedagogy at the state normal School in Georgia, which later became part of the University of Georgia. Including Washburn and Parrish, half of Titchener's first 12 doctorates were awarded to women, and of the 56 doctoral students he directed between 1894 and 1927, 19 were Roman. He took women into his graduate program at a time when universities such as Harvard and Columbia would not. (b) his view of psychology's goals: Titchener agreed with Wundt that psychology should study immediate experience--that is, Consciousness. He defined Consciousness as the sum total of mental experience at any given moment and mind as the accumulated experiences of a lifetime. He set as goals for psychology the determination of the what, how, and why of mental life. The what was to be learned through careful introspection. The goal here was a cataloging of the basic mental elements that account for all conscious experience. The how was to be an answer to the question of how the elements combine, and the Y was too involved a search for the neurological correlates of mental events. Titchener, accepting the positivism of Ernst Mach, believe that speculation concerning unobservable events has no place in science. It is interesting to note that he took the same position to where the use of theory as BF Skinner was to take many years later. For both, your Rising man entering the world of metaphysical speculation; and for both, science meant carefully describing what could be observed. However, whereas Skinner focused on the observable Behavior, Titchener focused on observable conscious events. It was the structure of the mind that Titchener wanted to describe, and this he named his version of psychology structuralism. (c) his use of introspection: was to describe the basic, raw, Elemental experiences from which complex cognitive experience was built. His subject therefore had to be carefully trained to avoid reporting the meaning of a stimulus. The worst thing introspectionist could do would be to name the object of their introspective analysis. For example, calling the object an apple would be committing what Titchener called the stimulus error. In this case, he wanted his subjects to report Sensations, not perceptions. (d) mental elements: From his introspective studies, he concluded that the elemental processes of Consciousness consist of Sensations (elements of perceptions), images (elements of ideas), and affections (elements of emotions). According to him, an element could be known only by listing its attributes. The attributes of Sensations and images (remnants of Sensations) equality, intensity, duration, clearness, and extensity. Extensity is the impression that a sensation or image is more or less spread out in space. Affections could have the attributes of quality, intensity, and duration but neither clearness nor extensity. Titchener did not accept Wundt's tri-dimensional theory of feeling. He argued that feelings occur along only one dimension, not three, as Wundt had maintained. According to him, feelings can be described only in terms of Wundt's pleasantness / unpleasantness they mention. He argued that the other two dimensions Wundt had suggested (tension / relaxation and excitement / calm) we're really combinations of Sensations and true feelings. The what of psychology, then, included the sensations and images that were described in terms of quality, intensity, duration, clearness, and extensity, as well as the feelings that varied in terms of pleasantness. (e) the law of combination: In explaining how elements of thought combined, Titchener rejected once notion of apperception and creative synthesis in favor of traditional associationism. Titchener made the law of contiguity his basic law of Association. For him attention was simply an attribute of a sensation. We do not make Sensations clear by attending to them as Wundt had maintained. Rather, we say we have attended to them because they were clearer than other Sensations in our consciousness. For him there is no underlying process of a perception that causes clarity; it is just that some Sensations are more Vivid and clear than others, and it is those that we say we attend to. The vague feelings of concentration and effort got a company attention or nothing more than the muscle contractions that accompany Vivid Sensations. For the how of mental processes, Titchener accepted traditional associationism, thus aligning himself with the British empiricists. (f) neurological correlates of mental events: Titchener referred to himself as a psychophysical parallelism concerning the mind-body relationship. Essentially, he believed that physiological processes provide a continuous substratum that give psychological processes a continuity they otherwise would not have. Thus, for him, although the nervous system does not cause mental events, it can be used to explain some of their characteristics. Ultimately then, neurophysiological processes are the why of mental life, if Y is understood to mean a description of the circumstances under which mental processes occur. (g) the context theory of meaning: What do we mean by the word meaning? His answer again involved associationism. Sensations are never isolated. In accordance with the law of contiguity, every sensation tends to elicit images of Sensations that were previously experienced along with the sensation. A vivid sensation or group of Sensations form a core, and the elicited images for me context that gives the core meaning. Titchener's "context theory of meaning" maintains his empiricist and associationist philosophy. (h) the decline of structuralism: Structuralism was essentially an attempt to study scientifically what had been philosophical concerns of the past. The major tool of the structuralist and even their opponents, was intersection. This, too, had been inherited from the past. Although it was now used scientifically, introspection was yielding different results depending on who was using it and what they were seeking. Although, there was a lack of agreement among highly trained introspectionists concerning the correct description of a given stimulus display. Other arguments against the use of introspection began to appear. Some pointed out that what was called introspection was really retrospection because the event being reported had already occurred. Therefore what was being reported was a memory of a sensation rather than the sensation itself. Although it was suggested that one could not interest backed on something without changing it--that is, that observation changed what was being observed. It was beginning to appear that those who claimed that a science of the Mind was impossible were correct. Structuralism excluded several developments that researchers outside the school of structuralism we're researching, such as the study of animal behavior, the study of abnormal behavior, and the study of Personality, learning, psychological development, and individual differences. Also damaging was the Structuralists' refusal to seek practical knowledge. Titchener insisted that he was seeking pure knowledge and was not concerned with applying the principles of psychology to the solution of practical problems. Most important to structuralism demise, however, was it an ability to assimilate one of the most important developments in human history--the doctrine of evolution. For all of these reasons, the school of structuralism was short-lived and essentially died with Titchener.

creative synthesis

The arrangement and rearrangement of mental elements that can result from apperception.

Positivism:

The belief that only those objects or events that can be experienced directly should be the object of scientific inquiry. The positivist actively avoids metaphysical speculation.

Objective or Subjective Views of Behaviour: Reification

The tendency to believe that because something has a name it also has an independent existence.

Empiricism: George Berkeley (1685-1753): Primary and Secondary Qualities, The Existence of External Reality, The Principle of Association, and His Theory of Distance Perception

(c) primary and secondary qualities: 1) In his discussion of primary and secondary qualities, referred to the former as the supposed attributes of physical things and to the ladder as ideas or perceptions. 2) He then rejected the existence of primary qualities. For him, only secondary qualities exist. His contention that " to be is to be perceived." He argued that materialism could be rejected because there was no physical world. (d) the existence of external reality: 1) He did not deny the existence of external reality. He denied that external reality consisted of inert matter, as the materialist maintained. 2) What create external reality is God's perception, which makes it stable over time and the same for everyone. The so-called laws of nature are ideas in God's mind. On rare occasions, God may change his mind and vary the " laws of nature," creating Miracles, but most of the time his perceptions remain the same. 3) If secondary qualities are understood as ideas whose existence depends on a perceiver, then all reality consists of secondary qualities. (e) the principle of association: 1) Each sense modality furnishes a different and separate type of information about an object. Through experience we learned that certain ideas are always associated with a specific object. 2) Thus, the object we name our Aggregates of Sensations that typically accompanied each other. Like Locke, he accepted the law of contiguity as his associative principle. Unlike Locke, he did not focus on fortuitous or arbitrate associations. 3) All Sensations that are consistently experienced together become associated. Objects are Aggregates of Sensations and nothing more. (f) his theory of distance perception: 1) Agreed with Locke that if a person who was born blind was later able to see, he or she would not be able to distinguish a cube from a triangle. Such discrimination requires the association of visual and tactile experiences. 2) Such a person would be also be incapable of perceiving distance. The reason is the same. The cues for distance are learned through the process of Association. Also, stimulation from other sense modalities become a cue for distance for the same reason. 3) His empirical theory of distance perception was refuting the theory held by Descarte and others that distance perception was based on the geometry of Optics. According to the ladder Theory, a triangle is formed with the distance between the two eyes as its base and the object fixated on as its apex. A distant object forms a long, narrow triangle, and a nearby object forms a short, broad triangle. The Apex angle of the triangle will vary directly with the distance of the object attended to; the greater the distance, the greater the Apex angle and vice versa. The convergence and Divergence of the eyes are important to this Theory, but only because it is such movement of the eyes that creates the geometry of distance perception. 4) The analysis of the perception of magnitude is the same as for distance perception. The meaning that any word has is determined by the sensations that typically a company that word.

Sophist: Gorgias (ca. 485-380 BC)

Also a Sophist, regarded the fact that knowledge is subjective and relative as proof that "all things are equally false." Furthermore, because the individual can know only his/her private perceptions, there can be no objective basis for determining truth. Both Gorgias and Protagoras positions exemplify 'nihilism' because it stated that there can be no objective way of determining knowledge or truth. The Sophist position also exemplifies 'solipsism' because the self can be aware of nothing except its own experiences and mental states. Gorgias concludes that "nothing exists; if it did exist, it could not be comprehended; and if it could be comprehended, it could not be communicated to another person. (1) 'Nothing exists" refers to the physical world; (2) if there is a physical world, we experience it through sense impressions, and the relationship between the physical world and sense impressions cannot be known; (3) We do not think in terms of sense impressions but in terms of the words used to describe those impressions; (4) because the meaning of the words that are used to express thoughts are unique to the individual, there is an unabridgable gap between one person's thoughts and another's.

Ontological Argument for the Existence of God: The Reconciliation of the use of reason and Christian faith as represented in the beliefs of Peter Lombard (ca. 1095-1160)

Also an Augustinian, he argued even more forcefully for the place of reason within Christianity than did St. Anselm. He insisted there were three ways to learn about God; faith, reason, and the study of God's works (the empirical world).

Karl Popper's Conceptions of science: Concept of Post-Diction

Another issue with many psychological theories is that they engage more in postdiction (explaining phenomena after they have already occured) than in prediction. Whether due to vagueness or the emphasis on postdiction, these theories make no risky predictions and are in no danger of being falsified. They are, therefore, unscientific.

Briefly describe the life and work of Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939), including her work in dispelling myths regarding women and people classified as mentally defective and her work with gifted children. (pp. 321-322)

Born Leta A Stetter, Hollingsworth attained her bachelor's degree from the University of Nebraska. In 1908 Hollingworth, who had been teaching school in Nebraska, accompanied her husband, Harry, to New York. Leta Hollingworth intended to continue teaching in New York but discovered that the city had a policy of not employing married women as teachers. She decided to enroll as a graduate student at Columbia University, where she took courses from Edward L Thorndike, who became her advisor. It was through Thorndike that she developed an interest in psychological testing. However, Hollingworth was also interested in the many misconceptions about women that were prevalent at the time. To her surprise, Thorndike agreed to supervise her dissertation on "Functional Periodicity", which investigated the notion that women are psychologically impaired during menstruation. She found no evidence of such an impairment. Hollingworth also challenged the widely accepted beliefs that intelligence is largely inherited and that women aren't intellectually inferior to males. at the time, Thorndike was among those who shared these beliefs. Hollingworth believed that women reach positions of prominence less often than males not because of intellectual inferiority but because of the social roles assigned to them. She also discussed with Terman her belief that more men than women are classified as gifted not because of differential intellectual abilities but because of social factors. Terman did eventually modify his nativistic position concerning gender differences in intelligence, allowing for social influences, but he maintained his belief that intelligence was primarily genetically determined. After receiving her master's degree in 1913, Hollingworth worked for a while as a clinical psychologist at the New York City Clearing-House for mental defectives. Her work at the Clearing-House made her realize that there were as many myths about so-called mentally defective individuals as there were about women. For example, she found that many individuals classified as 'defective' were in reality manifesting social and personal adjustment problems. She next concentrated her attention on the education of gifted children. She observed that simply classifying a child as gifted is not enough. Correcting such mistreatment of gifted children occupied Hollingworth for the rest of her career. In 1926 she published 'Gifted Children,' which became the standard text in schools of education for many years, and 'Children Above 180 IQ' was published posthumously in 1942.

Inheritance or Experience Views of Behaviour: Empiricists

Claim that humans are the way they are largely because of their experiences.

Rational or Irrational Views of Behaviour: Irrationalism

Claim that the true causes of behaviour are unconscious and as such cannot be pondered rationally.

Cyril Burt

Claimed that his studies of identical twins reared together and apart showed intelligence to be largely innate. Evidence suggested that Burt invented his data, and a major scandal ensued.

William James's: Soft Determinism

Cognitive processes such as intentions, motives, beliefs, and values intervene between experience and behaviour. The soft determinist sees human behaviour as resulting from thoughtful deliberation of the options available in a given situation. Because rational processes manifest themselves prior to actions, the person bears responsibility for those actions. Although soft determinism is still determinism, it is a version that allows uniquely human cognitive processes into the configuration if the causes of human behaviour. Soft determinism offers a compromise between hard determinism and free will--a compromise that allows for human responsibility.

William Stern

Coined the term mental age and suggested the intelligence quotient as a way of quantifying intelligence.

Hans Vaihinger

Contended that because sensations are all that we can be certain of, all conclusions reached about so-called physical reality must be fictitious. Although fictions are false, they are nonetheless essential for societal living.

Rationalism: Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716): Life, Innate Abilities, and Monadology

1) A great mathematician; developed differential and integral calculus at about the same time that Newton did 2) His Early Education included the Greek and Roman Classics and the works of Bacon, Descartes, and Galileo. He earned a doctorate in law at the age of 20. (a) innate abilities: 1) Locke's description of the Mind as a Tabula Rasa (blank slate), he attributed to Locke the belief that there is nothing in the mind that is not first in the senses. He misread Locke believing that if the ideas derived from experience were removed from the mind, nothing would remain. However, Locke actually postulated the Mind well-stocked with innate abilities. 2) Endeavored to correct Locke's philosophy as he understood it. He said that there is nothing in the mind that is not first in the senses, except the Mind itself. Instead of the passive mind that he believed Locke proposed, he postulated a highly active mind. 3) Completely rejected Locke's suggestion that all ideas come from experience, saying instead that no ideas come from experience. 4) Believed that nothing material (such as the activation of a sense receptor) could ever cause an idea that is non-material. 5) Our exploration would yield only interacting, physical parts. Because ideas cannot be created by anything physical like a brain, they must be innate. What is innate is the potential to have an idea. Experience can cause a potential idea to be actualized, but it can never create an idea. (b) monadology: 1) Combined physics, biology, introspection, and theology into a world view that was both strange and complex. 2) One of his goals was to reconcile the many new, dramatic scientific discoveries with a traditional belief in God. His proposed solution to the problem was more complex. 3) With the aid of the newly invented microscope, he could see that life exists everywhere, even where the naked eye cannot see it. He concluded that everything was living. 4) The universe consisted of an infinite number of Life units called monads. A monad (from the Greek monas, meaning single) is like a living atom, and all monads are active and conscious. There is a hierarchy in nature similar to the scala naturae Aristotle proposed. Although all monads are active and conscious, they vary in the clarity and distinctiveness of the thoughts they are capable of having. 5) On a scale of gradually increasing intelligence, come plants, microbes, insects, animals, humans, and God. All monads speak to clarify their thoughts, insofar as they are capable, because clear thinking causes pleasure. Here's an important point of agreement between Aristotle and him, each monad, and therefore all of nature, was characterized by a final cause or purpose. 6) Next t'god, humans possess the monads capable of the clearest thinking. Following Aristotle, he believed that each organism had a soul (mind) that dominated its system; it is this dominant monad that determines an organism's intellectual potential. It is the nature of humans dominant monad (soul) that provides them with intellectual potential inferior only to Gods. Monads can never be influenced by anything outside of themselves. Therefore the only way that they can change is by internal development--that is, by actualizing their potential.

mediate experience

Experience that is provided by various measuring devices and is therefore not immediate, direct experience.

Historical Accounts: Hergenhahn's (Author) Elected Approach

He decided to take an eclectic approach in which the approach that seems best to illuminate an aspect of the history of psychology is used.

Charles Spearman

using an early form of factor analysis, found that intelligence comprised specific factors (s) and general intelligence (g). He believed the ladder to be largely inherited.