UNIT 2 EXAM - ANATOMY

IgD

- Antigen receptor on B cells - Important in B cell activation

Compliment fixation

- Cellular antigens such as bacteria or mismatched blood transfusion - Cell lysis - Also; increase in the inflammatory response and promote phagocytosis

Spleen

- Contains lymphocytes to help in immune system function - Macrophages to filter and clean the blood by removing debris and old RBCs - Can be removed, but them immunity to infection is decreased

Antigen-presenting Cells (APCs)

- Engulf and destroy antigens, and present fragments on their surfaces to be recognized by T cells - Usually monocytes (or macrophages)

IgE

- Important in chemical mediation of inflammation - Secreted by plasma cells - Allergic response and parasitic infections cause an increase

Thymus gland (primary lymphatic organ)

- Located in the thoracic cavity along the trachea - Large in children, but small and often absent in adults - T-lymphocytes (a type of leukocyte) mature here - Produced physic hormones (thymosin) that help the T-lymphocyte maturation process

Antibody-mediated immunity

- Macrophages engulf bacteria and present their antigens on their proteins on the surface. (release interleukin-1 - Helper-T cell that fits finds the macrophage, t-cell now releases interleukin-2 - Stimulates B-cells - B cells produce plasma proteins which make antibodies and they also produce memory B-cells. - The antibodies can neutralize the pathogen by surrounding it, they can induce a compliment system by enhancing other immune system processes or cell lysis, etc. - Regulatory-T-cells stop the process when it is no longer needed.

Adaptive (specific) immune response

- Main cells are lymphocytes (WBC / leukocyte) - Divided into B-lymphocytes and T-lymphoctes - Both are produced in the bone marrow B-cells act in the humoral response T-cells act in the cell mediated response - Helper T-cells - Cytotoxic T-cells Humoral Response - Extracellular

IgM

- Multiple binding sites for large pathogens - Important in compliment activation - Secreted by plasma cells - produced in the spleen - biggest immunoglobin - first antibody to appear in the response to an initial antigen

IgA

- Secretory immunoglobin - Found in inscriptions such as sweat, milk, intestinal juices, etc. - Protects body surfaces

Neutralization

- Simplest - Antibodies block sites on viral or bacterial endo/exotoxins to cause loss of toxic effect and then .. - Eventual destruction of phagocytes

Red bone marrow (primary lymphatic organ)

- Site of origination of all blood cells (Hematopoietic stem cells) - B cells mature here

What is a vaccination?

- Vaccines contain modified pathogens or boxing that can no longer produce disease but can stimulate an immune response (Attenuation) - This stimulates the production of memory cells, which function in the secondary immune response. - Gives immediate protection - Sometimes wears off = Boosters needed

Agglutination

- X - linking of cells with more than one antigen binding site - Forms large web-like lattices and eventual clumping (agglutination)

Precipitation

- X-linkage of soluble molecules into large complexes - Settle out of solution, and are more easily phagocytized

Respiratory Zone

1. Alveolar ducts 2. Alveoli Where gas exchange occurs Bronchioles end up as alveolar ducts which turn into alveolar sacs where the bulk of gas exchange occurs aka. Alveoli are on the branches of respiratory bronchioles Individual alveoli have thin wet membranes made of simple squamous epithelium - Oxygen molecules dissolve across the membrane entering the bloodstream. - Also where CO2 diffuses out of the blood and goes back up the nose and mouth where it's exhaled. - Macrophages filter the alveoli

What are the functions of the respiratory system?

1. CO2 and O2 exchange 2. Olfaction and speech 3. Regulation of blood pH

1. What circumstance(s) would stimulate a greater cell-mediated immune response? 2. How about a stronger antibody mediated response?

1. If an antigen was inside of a body cell (small, intracellular infectious microbes) 2. An extracellular pathogen.

What are the functions of the lymphatic system

1. Remove excess tissue fluid & return it to the bloodstream 2. Transport of lipoproteins from he intestinal villa to the bloodstream 3. Defense against disease

Innate (non-specific) immune response

1st line of defense Barriers - skin - stomach acid -etc. Natural barriers that keep things out of the body 2nd line of defense - still non-specific - doesn't necessarily know what kind of pathogen or bacteria...just know it's sketchy - inflammatory response & phagocytes (WBCs / Leukocyte)

What is the normal range of the blood pH?

7.35 - 7.45

What is interferon?

A family of related proteins secreted by viral-infected body cells to protect neighboring cells (In innate immunity)

What effect does the thoracolumbar nervous system have on the respiratory system? On the heart?

Accelerate heart rate force of contraction and blood pressure and widen bronchial passages. Increases respiratory rate.

What is acidosis? What is alkalosis?

Acidosis - pH below 7.35 Alkalosis - pH above 7.45

What is the difference between active and passive immunity?

Active immunity Occurs after a person is ... 1. Infected with a pathogen 2. Immunization (vaccination) - Vaccine contains modified pathogens or boxing that can no longer produce disease but can stimulate an immune response (Attenuation) - This stimulates the production of memory cells, which function in the secondary immune response - Gives immediate protection - Sometimes wears off = Boosters needed Passive Immunity - Prepared antibodies (immunoglobins) are given to fight a microbe - Immediate but temporary - As soon as the antibodies (proteins) begin to degrade, susceptibility returns! - Use antigens to fight a pathogen they've never seen before - Passive immunity provides immediate protection, but the body does not develop memory, therefore the patient is at risk of being infected by the same pathogen later unless they acquire active immunity or vaccination

Adaptive (specific) vs innate (non-specific) immunity

Adaptive (specific) immunity - When nonspecific (innate) defenses have failed - Antigen-specific immune response. The adaptive immune response is more complex. The antigen is processed and recognized, then the adaptive immune system creates immune cells specifically designed to attack that antigen. It also has a "memory" that makes futures responses against a specific antigen more efficient. - Adaptive immune response is systemic - not restricted to the initial infection site - Two-pronged attack involving lymphocytes (leukocytes): - Cell mediated immune response: involves T-cells - Antibody-mediated immune response (humoral response): Involves mainly B-cells Antibody (humoral) mediated - A macrophage (or other APC) engulfs and destroys a pathogen (phagocytosis) - The macrophage displays fragments of the pathogen's antigens on it's own surface - A T-helper cell (CD4) with matching receptors encounters the macrophage - The macrophage releases interleukin-1 - This triggers the T-helper (CD4) to releases interleukin-2 - Interleukin-2 stimulates B-cells to become activated and divide many times producing plasma cells to mass-produce antibodies specific for the antigen (monoclonal antibodies - All produced by the same B-cell and all the same type) - These antibodies bind to the antigen to inactivate it or trigger it's destruction by non-specific defenses - Neutralization, agglutination, compliment fixation, precipitation - Suppressor (regulatory) T-cells shut down the immune response after an infection has been overcome. Cell Mediated Immune Response - - CD4 (T4 cells) = Helper T cells (Th) Simulate proliferation of other T cells and B cells Release cytokines to stimulate other immune cells - CD5 (T8 cells) = Cytotoxic T cells (Tc) ... AKA killer T cells Directly attack and destroy other cells Target viral infected cells, cells infected with other intracellular pathogens, and other . Secrete cytokines such as performs, granzymes, lymphotoxin, interferon that have variable effect on the target cells (mostly cell lysis) - Suppressor T cells (Ts or regulatory T cells) Mop up crew Both parts are controlled by a type of T-cell called a helper T-cell (CD4 cell) **Both parts occur simultaneously The strength of each response depends on the pathogen (intra or extra-cellular) Has "memory" - recognizes previously encountered pathogens and mounts a faster and even stronger attack on them. ------------- Innate (non-specific) immunity - Innate immunity is nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. They include physical barriers such as skin, mucous membranes, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body. SKIN - Physical barrier - Break in the skin will allow entry - Extensive damager may be life threatening Ex. Burns Some skin bacteria are beneficial, and inhibit the growth of pathogens. - Sweat, oil, waxes - released by the skin - IgA - secretory antibody (immunoglobins) is also found in skin secretions Contain chemicals toxic to many bacteria/fungi Ex. Sweat contains lysozyme which can destroy bacterial cell walls. Mucous membranes: Innate defense - Mucous - Bacteriocidal chemicals (HCl low pH) - +/- Cilia Fever is a widespread, systemic response to invasion (BUT fever is an innate (non-specific) response) - Abnormally high body temperature (>36.5 C) - Reset of the body thermostat (located in the hylothalamus) due to pyrogens - chemicals secreted by WBCs exposed to pathogens - Causes the liver / spleen to sequester store iron which are required for bacterial replication and growth

Where are the peripheral chemoreceptors located?

Aorta and carotid arteries

Understand how the lymphatic vessels are similar to the venous system. Know SPECIFICALLY where lymph empties into the cardiovascular system.

Both lymph vessels and the venous system have valves, and both the movement are dependent on skeletal muscle contractions. They are also both a one way system. Lymph empties fluids that have leaked from the blood back to the blood.

Asthma

Bronchioles constrict and the diameter of the lumen is decreased so it is more difficult to get enough air and difficult to exhale

Know the process of capillary exchange ... Fluid pressure vs protein pressure etc. as well as the effect of hypertension, liver disease, and protein losing problems on capillary exchange (and edema formation). What is edema?

Capillary Exchange - the exchange of material from the blood into the tissues in the capillary Tissue Fluid - The plasma minus the plasma proteins Atrial End Carries O2 and nutrients to the cell The blood pressure is higher than the protein pressure here (which is osmotic pressure), so fluid and small molecules are pushed out. (Filtration) Large molecules such as RBCs and plasma proteins stay inside. Middle Section This is where diffusion occurs Amino acids, glucose, O2 diffuse into the tissues CO2, waste products move out of the tissues H2O moves out by osmosis Venous End Fluid re-enters the capillaries carrying waste, enzymes, hormones, etc. Blood pressure is low here Hypertension would cause higher blood pressure Edema is a swelling that is caused by excess fluid in the tissues. It can constrain blood-flow. This can be caused by liver disease which makes it harder for blood to return through the venous system from the legs or abdomen.

What is the main way that antibodies destroy cellular antigens?

Cell Mediated Immune Response - CD4 (T4 cells) = Helper T cells (Th) Simulate proliferation of other T cells and B cells Release cytokines to stimulate other immune cells CD5 (T8 cells) = Cytotoxic T cells (Tc) ... AKA killer T cells Directly attack and destroy other cells Target viral infected cells, cells infected with other intracellular pathogens, and other . Secrete cytokines such as performs, granzymes, lymphotoxin, interferon that have variable effect on the target cells (mostly cell lysis) Suppressor T cells (Ts or regulatory T cells) - Mop up crew

Conducting Zone

Consists of ... 1. Nose 2. Nasal cavity 3. Mouth 4. Pharynx 5. Larynx Nose - Hyaline cartilage - Hair and mucous help filter out dust and particles - Warms and moistens incoming air so it doesn't dry out incoming lung cells that must remain wet Epiglottis - little trap door of elastic cartilage which covers the larynx and directs food/water towards your esophagus and keeps them out of your lungs Esophagus - Heads to the stomach - Flexible - stratified squamous epithelium Trachea - Rigid with cartilage rings that keep it open - ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with many goblet cells - secretes mucous - cilia take dust and debris out of the trachea R and L bronchial trees - Take mucous out of the lungs MAIN function is to filter, moisturize, and warm the air.

Lymph nodes

Contains macrophages (Tissue monocytes) to clean and filter the lymph prior to bringing it back into the CV system Located at certain points along the lymphatic vessels - Swollen, painful lymph nodes may be a sign of infection - Swollen, non-painful lymph nodes can be cancerous

What effect does the craniosacral nervous system have on the respiratory system? On the heart?

Decrease heart rate force of contraction and blood pressure and decreases diameters of bronchial passages. Decreases respiratory rate.

What does increased CO2 do to the blood pH? What does decreased CO2 do to blood pH?

Decrease in CO2 causes an increase in blood pH. Increase in CO2 causes a decrease in blood pH.

What effect will decreased CO2 in the blood have on respiratory rate?

Decreases respiratory rate

What chemical(s) (ions or molecules) depress the central chemoreceptors

Depressed by decrease in H+ ions and decrease CO2

Also know what BASIC type of tissue (and SPECIFIC TISSUES) make up the tracheal C-shaped rings, laryngeal cartilages, costal cartilages, epiglottis, etc.?

Epiglottis is made up of connective, elastic cartilage tissue. The C-shaped tracheal rings are made of of hyaline cartilage, swell are the laryngeal cartilages.

What does excess H+ ion do to the blood pH? Low H+ ion?

Excess H+ causes a decrease in blood pH, an decrease of H+ will cause an increase of blood pH.

Define external, internal, and cellular respiration.

External respiration - Exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) between the capillaries and alveoli Internal respiration - Exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) between the capillaries and tissues Cellular respiration - Production of ATP aerobically (usually O2 and giving off CO2) in the mitochondria of cells

Tonsils

First line of defense against pathogens entering the nose and mouth

Langerhan's cells

Found in epidermis

IgG

Gamma globulins - Main, most abundant antibody - Plasma protein

What determines the specific substances that our own immune systems recognize and reacts to?

Genetics and environment

Review the three (3) granulocytic leukocytes and the two (2) agraulocytes:

Granulocytes Neutrophil - Most common type of phagocyte - Neutrophilia - increase in neutrophils - First responder - Part of purulent discharge (pus) Eosinophil - Phagocyte - Increase - eosinophilia - Parasitic reaction - Allergic reaction Basophil - Release histamine and other inflammatory mediators - Increase with allergy and parasitic infection Agranulocytes Monocytes - Macrophage when they leave the tissue - Phagocytes and help signal lymphocytes (APCs) Lymphocytes - NOT a direct phagocyte - Important in specific (adaptive) immunity

What is HCO3-, and why is it important in this chapter?

HCO3- is bicarbonate ion and it's how MOST CO2 is carried in the bloodstream - Changed from CO2 to HCO3- within the ERYTHROCYTES - How the respiratory system helps maintain blood pH (which is between 7.35-7.45 ... slightly alkaline) - NOTE: Main control of blood pH is the excretory system

What immunoglobulin (antibody type) is passed in breast milk and other body secretions (the secretory immunoglobulin)?

IgA

What type of antibody (immunoglobulin) increases in response to a parasitic infection? What is the leukocyte seen most frequently in that circumstance?

IgE Eosinophil

List the five (5) immunoglobulin classes:

IgG - Gamma globulins - Main, most abundant antibody - Plasma protein IgD - - Antigen receptor on B cells - Important in B cell activation IgE - - Important in chemical mediation of inflammation - Secreted by plasma cells - Allergic response and parasitic infections cause an increase IgM - Multiple binding sites for large pathogens - Important in compliment activation - Secreted by plasma cells IgA - - Secretory immunoglobin - Found in inscriptions such as sweat, milk, intestinal juices, etc. - Protects body surfaces

Which antibody (immunoglobulin) has multiple binding sites, and why is this important?

IgM, it's useful in destroying large pathogens and important in compliment activation.

What effect will decreased O2 in the blood have on respiration?

Increase rate and depth of breathing.

What effect does increased CO2 in the blood have on respiratory rate?

Increases respiratory rate

What happens to RV with emphysema or other obstructive diseases?

It can cause the lung to fill with useless air

Where does the CO2 in the blood come from?

It's a byproduct of cellular respiration.

HIGH CO2 & H+ =

LOW pH

What is the term used to denote low blood CO2? High blood CO2?

Low blood CO2 levels = Hypocapnia and high blood CO2 levels = Hypercapnia

What is the agranulocyte responsible for specific immunity?

Lymphocyte

Where is the breathing control center (including the central chemoreceptors) located?

Medulla oblongata (most caudal part of the brainstem) and the pons

Which agranulocyte functions in phagocytosis, and helps to activate specific lymphocytes?

Monocytes

How is CO2 carried in the blood?

Most CO2 is carried in the plasma as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), but some is dissolved in the plasma, and a very little bit is carried in the RBCs

Difference between Natural and artificial immunity?

Natural Passive Immunity - From mom to babies across the placenta, and in breast milk Artificial Passive Immunity - Gamma globulins (antibodies) taken from someone who has recovered from an illness and injected into someone who has been exposed to the same illness - Short term immunization

What are the four (4) ways that antibodies use to indirectly destroy antigen-antibody complexes?

Neutralization - Simplest - Antibodies block sites on viral or bacterial endo/exotoxins to cause loss of toxic effect and then .. - Eventual destruction of phagocytes Agglutination - X - linking of cells with more than one antigen binding site - Forms large web-like lattices and eventual clumping (agglutination) Compliment fixation - Cellular antigens such as bacteria or mismatched blood transfusion - Cell lysis - Also; increase in the inflammatory response and promote phagocytosis Precipitation - X-linkage of soluble molecules into large complexes - Settle out of solution, and are more easily phagocytized

Which granulocyte is considered the "first responder"?

Neutrophil

How is O2 carried in the blood?

O2 attaches to hemoglobin (Hb) in the RBCs

Understand the exchange of respiratory gases:

O2 is supplied to body cells for cell respiration but inhalation and eliminates CO2 (given off as a by-product) by exhalation.

What process do gases use to cross the respiratory membrane? Passive or active?

Passive

How is passive immunity obtained?

Prepared antibodies are given to fight a microbe.

Dendritic cells

Present antigens and secrete protein to activate T cells. Found in CT

Macrophages (and monocytes)

Present antigens and secrete proteins to activate T cells

Describe the primary and secondary immune response:

Primary Immune Response - The first time a pathogen is encountered - Then, some B and T cells remain forever a memory cell - A body's long term protection against re-infection against a specific pathogen - Response of a memory cells to a subsequent infection by the same pathogen Secondary Immune Response - Much faster and more powerful - Only protect against a pathogen that the immune system has already encountered

Understand pulmonary ventilation (respiration, inspiration, expiration) ... which is passive and which is active and the major muscle groups involved.

Pulmonary ventilation is the mechanics of breathing. Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure Boyle's Law - P1V1 = P2V2 There are two phases Inspiration/inhalation (ACTIVE) - Flow of air into lungs Expiration/exhalation (PASSIVE) - Air leaving lung ____ the major muscle groups involved are the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

Where do B cells become immunocompetent

Red bone marrow

What type of response do memory cells function in?

Secondary immune response

What chemical(s) (ions or molecules) stimulate the central chemoreceptors?

Stimulated by increase H+ ions and increase CO2 ...NOT decrease O2

Lymphocytes

T or B cells

Cell-mediated immune response

T-cells (lymphocyte) go after body cells that have been hi-jacked by things like viruses or bacteria or become cancerous. - cause inflammation - activate macrophages - get other T-cells fired up Helper T cells activate cells who can help and call the shots for the adaptive immune response, they raise that alarm that tell other immune cells. The release cytokines, when these encounter another T cell that cell starts dividing making more memory T cells, which release more cytokines Cytotoxic T cells do the killing of the cells that go bad. They roam the lymph for cells "asking to be killed" they display proteins of the virus thats destroying them. The T cell binds to the antigen and releases enzymes that punch holes in the cells membrane killing the cell and whatever is inside. ___ Pathogens (disease causing organism) have unique molecules on their cell surfaces called antigens. - Pathogen enters cell where it disassembles - Antigens appear on surface of the infected cell - Some macrophages eat pathogens before they can affect cells - Once a pathogen is destroyed, pieces of the antigens are displayed on the macrophages - A site on the surface of a helper T-cell recognizes the antigen on the macrophage - Once the helper T-cell binds to the macrophage, the macrophage sends a chemical signal to the helper-T cell - The helper T-cell is stimulated to divide many times - Now each helper T-cell has the antigen recognition of it's parent - Now these helper T-cells release chemicals which activate killer-T cells - The activated killer-T cells recognize the antigens on the infected cells releasing perferin which makes holes in the cell wall, the cytoplasm erupts and the cell is destroyed - Once they're done, suppressor T-cells release a chemical to inactivate the killer-T cells

How does the respiratory system help regulate blood pH?

The blood carries carbon dioxide to the lungs where it is exhaled. When carbon dioxide accumulates in the the blood the pH of the blood decreases. By adjusting the speed and depth of breathing, the brain and lungs are able to regulate the blood pH.

What does it mean for B and T cells to become immunocompetent?

The cells "learn" to recognize and respond to specific pathogens - Once the cells become immunocompetent they are committed - can only react to a specific antigenic determinant - but are still immature - T cells constantly circulate to chances of encountering antigens - Most programmed lymphocytes are never called into service - Once programmed, the cells travel to the 2 primary lymphoid organs to encounter antigens, and complete their maturation into fully functional antigen-activated T and B cells

What is the conducting zone (what are the conducting zone structures)? Understand their various functions.

The conducting zone consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. These structures form a continuous passageway to air to move in and out of the lungs. Nose (nares) - - ...Warm and filter air - Two nasal cavities separated by a... Septum (bone and CT) - Odor receptors (cranial nasal cavity w/in the mucosa) - Special ciliated cells with nerve ending leading to the brain -> smell (olfaction) - Lachrymal glands (tears) drain into ducts here - Cranial sinuses - Air-filled spaces in the skull lined with mucous membrane - Sinuses communicate with the nasal passages - Reduce weight of the skull - Help with resonance of the voice - Blocked ducts can lead to sinusitis (inflammation of the sinuses) -> sinus headache Pharynx (throat) - - Passage connecting the nasal and oral cavities Three parts: Nasopharynx - Cranial portion of the pharynx - Nasal cavities empty here - Auditory (eustachian or pharyngotympanic) tubes open here and lead to the middle ear - Help equilibrate pressure in middle ear - Air enters here - Closed off by the soft palate and uvula when swallowing - Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) - Contains within the posterior aspect Oropharynx - Where the oral cavity opens - Air AND food enter here therefore epithelium is more protective (stratified squamous) - Palatine and linguine tonsils within the walls Laryngopharynx (distal-most) - Where the larynx and trachea (airway) opens Tonsils (three major sets) ring the oral cavity and the pharynx -> defense against oral and air-borne pathogens ...The larynx and trachea are normally open The esophagus is usually closed and opens only when food enter ... Then the epiglottis covers the glottis Larynx - NINE cartilages (most are hyaline) - Triangle-shaped, with "Adam's Apple" ... or thyroid cartilage .. at the top - Adam's apple = More prominent in men, but present in both sexes - Glottis - opening of the larynx which is closed off by the epiglottis during swallowing Arytenoid cartilages - Anchor the vocal cords Vocal ligaments -> Vocal folds (vocal cords) - - Mucosal folds + elastic tissue stretched across the glottis - Air passes over -> vibrations -> sound - Pitch is changed by changing length and tension on the vocal cords: usually increases tension = higher pitch - Loudness depends on force of air entering - Sound quality depends on many structures including pharynx, oral, nasal, and sings cavities + tongue, soft palate, and lips - Laryngitis - Inflammation of the vocal folds (and other laryngeal structures) Conducting zone structures - NO GAS EXCHANGE! From external nares (nose) to the terminal bronchioles Trachea (windpipe) - - Located ventral (anterior) to the esophagus - A tube lined with ciliated, pseudostratified epithelium (mucous membranes), leading from the larynx to the primary bronchi - Lots of goblet cells (modified epithelium cells) here - Held open by C-shaped cartilaginous rings, open part facing the esophagus -> Allows expansion (for swallowing) - Walls reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage which prevent collapse of the trachea - Ciliated mucosa beat continuously; trachea expels mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from the lungs Bronchial tree - - Division of the trachea at the lower end - R and L primary bronchi -> R and L lungs -> many bronchioles -> Alveoli (air sacs) - Terminal bronchioles have very thin walls without the C-shaped cartilage + small amount of smooth muscle instead - Asthma - construction of the smooth muscle in the terminal bronchiole walls cause construction of the smooth muscle in terminal bronchiole walls cause contraction of the lumen -> no air through -> wheezing -> death

Know the signs of inflammation, and what specific body response causes them.

The inflammatory response - - Prevents spread of potentially dangerous agents - Disposes of pathogens/debris - Begins tissue repair Injury occurs -> damaged cells release chemical messengers (inflammatory mediators) - Histamine - Cytokine to attract WBCs to the area -> Fluid and WBCs pass through to injured area - Prostaglandins - Complement These chemicals increase blood flow to injury (hyperemia - heat and redness), increases capillary permeability (exudate - fluid - seeps from the blood into interstitial spaces = swelling) Exudate causes pressure on free nerve endings = pain ... If blood vessels are injured, platelets are called, and clotting seals off injured area. Signs of inflammation - Pain - Heat - Swelling - Redness - +/- pus (Pus is neutrophils and bacteria) - +/- joint immobilization **Cells release chemical messengers (inflammatory mediators) such as basophils releasing histamine. These chemicals increase blood flow to injury which is hyperemia - heat and redness. Swelling is caused by capillary permeability (exudate - fluid - seeps from the blood into interstitial spaces) The exudate causes pressure on free nerve endings = pain. Also, pus is neutrophils and bacteria.

What is herd immunity?

The resistance of the spread of a contagious disease within a population if a high proportion of people are immune to the disease, mostly through vaccination.

What is the respiratory zone (what are the respiratory zone structures)?

The respiratory zone is where gas exchange occurs. - Respiratory bronchioles - Alveoli Alveolar duct Alveolar sac Alveolus (alveoli) Respiratory membrane - simple squamous epithelium Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli (only place gas exchange occurs)

How are endotoxins inactivated by antibodies (immunoglobulins)?

Through neutralization, antibodies black sites on viral or bacterial endo/exotoxins to cause loss of toxic effect and then they are eventually destroyed by phagocytes.

Understand any hormonal control of immune system events (thymocin, erythropoietin, etc.)

Thymocin - produced in the thymus gland and helps T-lymphocytes mature Erythropoietin - stimulates red blood cell production and produced in the kidneys

Where do T cells become immunocompetent

Thymus

Define tidal volume, vital capacity, and residual volume (RV).

Tidal volume - normal amount of air moved in and out during one breath (~500ml) Vital capacity - Maximum amount of air that can be moved in and out with one breath ... varies with age, sex, fitness, smoker, etc... Residual volume - The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled following a tidal volume breath

Cell layers of the alveoli

Type 1 cells: simple squamous epithelium (allow gas exchange) Type 2 cells: Cuboidal epithelium - secrete surfactant (lowers surface tension within the alveolar fluid ((water based - water has high surface tension)) so the walls can open up, it's a mixture lipid and proteins.

What are some of the variables involved with vital capacity volumes?

Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air that can be moved in and out with one breath ... varies with age, sex, fitness, smoker, etc.

Why do we need O2? (What's it used for in the body?)

We need O2 for cellular respiration in order for our cells to produce energy.

What chemical(s) (ions or molecules) stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors?

When O2 levels decrease, these tell the central respiratory center to increase rate and depth of breathing. decreased O2 levels (and also to some extent increase CO2 and increase H+ ions)

What are the two ways active immunity can be obtained?

When a person is infected with a pathogen or by immunization (vaccination)

If a child is breastfed for the first six months of her life, does she really need vaccinations? Why or why not?

Yes, they still need to be vaccinated. They get antibodies from across the placenta from their mother (IgG)(Passive immunity). These protect the fetus from viral and bacterial illnesses. They are born with these IgGs but they are temporary and disappear. Another type of passive immunity for babies is through breast milk (IgA). But these immunoglobins only pass through their gastrointestinal tract - which means they don't protect the rest of their body. This is why they need to still be vaccinated which contains IgGs.

Activated B-cells

produce antibodies

What is normal RV? (Don't forget units!)

~1,000

What is normal tidal volume? (Don't forget units!)

~500ml