Unit 2
Augustus Caesar
63 BCE-14 CE. Name given to Octavian (grandnephew of Julius Caesar). He ultimately rose to power and became emperor, ending Rome's existence as a republic. Under his reign, Rome became an empire with a common coinage system, rule of law, and secured travel for merchants.
Silk Road
A major trade route over land from China to the Roman Empire. The road took months to travel, and pastoral communities along the route provided shelter and supplies to traveling merchants in exchange for payment. Several diseases were also carried along the Silk Road (and similar trade routes), including smallpox and measles.
Moche
A pre-Inca culture that flourished on the coast of Peru in the 1st to 7th centuries C.E.
Buddhism
A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE), has no supreme being. Instead, it adheres to the Four Noble Truths, which are that: all of life is suffering; suffering is caused by desire; one can be free of this desire; the Eightfold path frees one of desire. All of this is in pursuit of nirvana, or perfect peace and harmony. Importantly, this religion was not dependent of the caste System.
China and the Search for Order
A. China had a state-building tradition that went back to around 2000 B.C.E. 1. idea of Mandate of Heaven was established by 1122 B.C.E. (foundation of the Zhou dynasty) 2. breakdown into the chaos of the "age of warring states" (403-221 B.C.E.)
Classical Empires and the Twentieth Century
A. Classical empires continue to be used as models and inspirations. 1. Mao Zedong compared himself to Shihuangdi 2. Modern Indians pride themselves on Ashoka's nonviolence and tolerance 3. Great Britain celebrated its empire as a modern Roman Empire 4. Mussolini regarded Italian expansion as the creation of a new Roman Empire 5. recent question: are Americans the new Romans? B. There is a danger of misusing historical analogies, but history is vital to understanding the complexities of contemporary life.
Roman and Chinese
A. The Roman and Chinese empires had little direct contact but interesting similarities. 1. both flourished ca. 200 B.C.E.-200 C.E. 2. were of similar size (about 1.5 million square miles) 3. both had 50 million to 60 million people 4. between them, they controlled nearly half the world's population 5. interesting variations on imperial theme
Justinian
Also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine/Roman Emperor from 527-565 A.D. During his reign, Justinian tried to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost provinces of the Western Roman Empire. Established a unified law code and made Greek the official language of the Byzantine Empire. He also emphasized Christianity and fought to extinguished Greco-Roman paganism.
Ashoka
An Indian Emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian Subcontinent from 269 BC to 232 BC.
Senate
Assembly of Roman aristocrats; advised on policy within the republic.
Legalism
Practices by some in China, specifically during the Qin dynasty. It was based upon the belief that peace and order could only be obtained through a centralized government, harsh punishment, and unquestioned authority. Legalists did not trust in human nature to sustain a viable society without harsh regulations. They prized farming and military as the two most worthy professions.
Constantine
Roman emperor from 312-337 CE; established second capital of the Roman Empire in Constantinople (formerly the Greek city of Byzantium); Made Christianity the official religion of the empire in an attempt to unify the empire spiritually. Upon his death the empire divided again. Constantinople was the center of the thriving eastern half, and Rome was the center of the declining western half.
Julius Caesar
Roman general responsible for the conquest of Gaul; brought army back to Rome and overthrew the republic; assassinated in 44 BCE by conservative senators (et tu Brutus).
Monsoons
Seasonal winds crossing Indian subcontinent and southwest Asia; during summer they bring rains.
Teotihuacan
Site of classical culture in central Mexico; urban center with important religious functions; supported by intensive agriculture in surrounding areas; population as high as 200,000.
Tang Empress Wu
Tang Empress Wu, born Wu Zetian, was a Chinese sovereign, who ruled officially under the name of her self-proclaimed "Zhou dynasty", from 690-705. She is the only woman to rule China in her own right.
Nirvana
The Buddhist state of enlightenment and perfect peace and tranquility.
Syncretism
The blending or attempted blending of different religions, cultures or schools of thought.
Dharma
The caste position and career determined by a person's birth; Hindu culture required that one accept one's social position and perform occupation to the best of one's ability in order to be reincarnated into a better life.
Hinduism
The common religion of India, based upon the religion of the original Aryan settlers as expounded and evolved in the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad-Gita, etc., having an extremely diversified character with many schools of philosophy and theology, many popular cults, and a large pantheon symbolizing the many attributes of a single god. Buddhism and Jainism are outside the Hindu tradition but are regarded as related religions.
Hellenistic Period
The culture associated with the spread of Greek influence as a result of Alexander the Greats conquest.
Shinto religion
The earliest Japanese religion. The Japanese worshipped the kami (natural spirits and forces). Shinto believers want to become part of the kami by following certain rituals and customs. Shintoism also stresses obedience and proper behavior. The Yamato clan maintained that the emperor was a direct descendent of the sun goddess.
Aristocracy
The highest class in certain societies, especially those holding hereditary titles or offices. A form of government in which power is held by the nobility.
Modern fascination with empires
1. earliest empires developed in era of First Civilizations a. Akkadian Empire b. Babylonian Empire c. Assyrian Empire 2. empires have been central to world history for 4,000 years
Chinese Empire
(2100 BCE - 1911 CE) Since the end of the Warring States Period in 221 BC, China has functioned as an Empire. Although the Dynasties have changed several times, the basic government structure remained the same until the 20th century. The Chinese also have extensive written record of their culture, which heavily empathizes history, philosophy, and a common religion. 1. creation of empire regarded as a restoration a. Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties had created a Chinese state b. system fell apart by 500 B.C.E. c. age of warring states: seven competing kingdoms d. multiple states were regarded as unnatural 2. unification by Shihuangdi, ruler of Qin (r. 221-210 B.C.E.) a. adopted Legalism as political philosophy: clear rules and harsh punishments to enforce state authority b. Shihuangdi means "first emperor" 3. expansion of empire into northern Vietnam and Korea and into steppes to northwest 4. creation of empire was brutal a. military force b. execution of scholars, book burning c. hundreds of thousands of laborers built Great Wall d. Shihuangdi's monumental tomb, with about 7,500 life-size ceramic statues e. standardized weights, measures, currency, written Chinese, and even axle lengths for carts 5. Qin dynasty collapsed in 206 B.C.E.; followed by Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) a. kept Qin centralization b. less harsh
Confucianism
...
Daoism
1) Daoism Practiced by some in China from 500 BCE to the present. It is a belief system based on the abstract concept that there is an eternal principle governing all the workings of the world. This Dao is passive and yielding; it does not do anything, but accomplishes everything. It coexists with Buddhism, Confucianism and Legalism in China.
. In 2004, China celebrated the 2,555th birthday of Confucius, despite Communism.
1. Buddhism and Christianity also growing rapidly in China 2. part of enduring legacy of the classical world
Hinduism as a Religion of Duty and Devotion
1. Buddhism was gradually reincorporated into Hinduism in India 2. Mahayana Buddhism in particular spread elsewhere in Asia 3. first millennium C.E.: development of a more popular Hinduism a. expressed in epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana b. action in the world and performance of caste duties provide a path to liberation c. bhakti (worship) movement began in south India
In the period around 500 B.C.E., there was a great emergence of durable cultural traditions that have shaped the world ever since.
1. China : Kong Fuzi (Confucius) and Laozi 2. India : Hinduism and Buddhism 3. Middle East: development of monotheism a. Persia : Zoroastrianism (prophet Zarathustra) b. Israel : Judaism (prophets such as Isaiah) 4. Greece : rational humanism (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, et al.) 5. all sought an alternative to polytheism, placating of gods through ritual and sacrifice a. quest for source of order and meaning in the universe b. guide humans to personal moral or spiritual transformation (especially development of compassion) c. the questions they pose still trouble and inspire humankind d. they defined their distinctive cultures
Creating Institutions
1. Christianity developed a male hierarchical organization to replace early "house churches" a. women were excluded from priesthood b. concern for uniform doctrine and practice c. emergence of bishop of Rome (pope) as dominant leader in Western Europe contributed to Roman Catholic/Eastern Orthodox split d. doctrinal controversies 2. Buddhism clashed over interpretation of the Buddha's teachings a. series of councils did not prevent divisions b. less sense of "right" and "wrong" than with Christian conflicts 3. Buddhism did not develop an overall church hierarchy
The Confucian Answer
1. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) was an educated, ambitious aristocrat a. spent much of life looking for a political position to put his ideas into practice b. Confucius's ideas had enormous impact on China and the rest of East Asia c. his teachings were collected by students as the Analects d. elaboration and commentary on his ideas by later scholars, creating Confucianism as a body of thought 2. principle: the moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder a. society consists of unequal relationships b. duty of the superior member to be sincere and benevolent c. will inspire deference and obedience from the inferior member 3. humans have capacity for improvement: education is the key a. advocated a broad liberal arts education b. application of liberal arts education to government problems c. need for ritual and ceremonies 4. after Legalism was discredited, Confucianism became the official ideology of the Chinese state 5. the family as a model for political life, with focus on filial piety a. defined role of women as being humble, serving husbands b. woman writer Ban Zhao (45-116 C.E.): Lessons for Women 6. emphasized the great importance of history a. ideal good society was a past golden age b. "superior men" had outstanding moral character and intellect; not just aristocrats c. created expectations for government: emperors to keep taxes low, give justice, and provide for material needs 7. Confucianism was nonreligious in character a. emphasis was practical, focused on this world b. did not deny existence of gods and spirits, but the educated elite had little to do with them
The Lives of the Founders
1. Gautama was royal; Jesus was from a lower-class family 2. both became spiritual seekers a. both were mystics: claimed personal experience of another level of reality b. based life's work on their religious experience 3. both were "wisdom teaC.E.s" a. challenged conventional values b. urged renunciation of wealth c. stressed love or compassion as the basis of morality d. called for personal transformation of their followers 4. important differences a. Jesus had Jewish tradition of single personal deity b. Jesus' teaching was more social and political than Gautama's c. Jesus was active for about three years; Gautama for over forty d. Jesus was executed as a criminal; Gautama died of old ag
The Legalist Answer
1. Han Fei was a leading Legalist philosopher 2. principle: strict rules, clearly defined and strictly enforced, are the answer to disorder 3. pessimistic view of human nature; only the state can act in people's long-term interest 4. promotion of farmers and soldiers, who performed the only essential functions in society 5. Legalism inspired the Qin dynasty reunification of China
Eurasian empires of the classical era include:
1. Persian Empire 2. Greek empire of Alexander the Great 3. Roman Empire 4. Chinese empire (Qin and Han dynasties) 5. India (Mauryan and Gupta empires)
Roman Republic
510 - 47 BCE. Featured an aristocratic Senate, a panel of magistrates, and several popular assemblies. Representatives were voted in to office by Roman citizens. Rule of law.
Alexander and the Hellenistic Era
1. Philip II of Macedon completed conquest of Greece by 338 B.C.E. a. political unification of Greece by force b. plan for great Greek expedition against Persia 2. Alexander's expedition against Persia (333-323 B.C.E.) a. created a massive Greek empire that reached from Egypt and Anatolia to Afghanistan and India b. defeat of Persian Empire, destruction of Persepolis c. Alexander anointed as pharaoh of Egypt, declared to be "son of the gods" 3. Alexander died in 323 B.C.E.; empire divided into three kingdoms, ruled by Macedonian generals 4. Alexander's conquests were most important in terms of world history for creation of the Hellenistic era (323-30 B.C.E.) a. dissemination of Greek culture through much of Asia and Egypt b. role of Hellenistic cities in spread of Greek culture c. Alexandria in Egypt had enormous harbor, library of 700,000 volumes, and the Museum 5. A simplified form of Greek was widely spoken from Mediterranean to India a. Indian monarch Ashoka published some of his decrees in Greek b. many Jews were attracted to Greek culture; Pharisees developed their own school system to counter the influence 6. Hellenistic cities were much more culturally diverse than original Greek city-states a. were not independent, but part of conquest states b. Macedonians and Greeks formed the elite c. cultural interaction and blending were still possible 7. Roman rule replaced that of Greeks in western part of Hellenistic world
Collapse of Empires
1. Why do they fall? a. Han dynasty ended in 220 C.E. b. traditional date for fall of western Roman Empire is 476 C.E.; eastern half survived as Byzantine Empire 2. common factors a. excessive size, overextension, too expensive for available resources b. no great technological breakthrough to enlarge resources c. tax evasion by large landowning families d. tax burden fell heavily onto the poor e. rivalry between elite factions created instability f. epidemic disease g. threat from nomadic or semi-agricultural peoples on frontier: China dealt with Xiongnu; Roman Empire, with Germanic-speaking peoples 3. effects of imperial collapse a. decline of urban life b. population decline c. reduction of international trade d. vast insecurity 4. most important difference between collapse of Han and Roman empires: what happened next a. China: about 350 years of disorder, then creation of a similar imperial state (Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties) b. Europe: no large-scale imperial system has ever been successfully established in Western Europe since Romans c. Why was China more successful in restoration?
Common problems of classical empires:
1. Would they try to impose their culture on varied subjects? 2. Would they rule conquered peoples directly or through local elites? 3. How should they extract wealth while maintaining order? 4. all eventually collapsed
The Daoist Answer
1. associated with the legendary Laozi (sixth century B.C.E.), author of the Daodejing (The Way and Its Power) 2. Daoism was in many ways the opposite of Confucianism a. education and striving for improvement was artificial and useless b. urged withdrawal into the world of nature 3. central concept: dao: the way of nature, the underlying principle that governs all natural phenomena 4. elite Chinese often regarded Daoism as a complement to Confucianism 5. Daoism entered popular religion a. sought to tap the power of the dao for practical purposes (magic, the quest for immortality) b. provided the ideology for peasant rebellions (e.g., Yellow Turbans)
Consolidating the Roman and Chinese Empires
1. both empires defined themselves in universal terms 2. both invested heavily in public works 3. both claimed supernatural sanctions a. deceased Roman emperors as gods b. Chinese emperor as Son of Heaven 4. both absorbed a foreign religious tradition a. development of Christianity in Roman Empire b. introduction of Buddhism into China by traders 5. relationships with societies they governed a. Romans were always a minority in empire b. ethnic Chinese had much larger cultural heartland 6. role of language differed in the two empires a. Latin (alphabetic language) gave rise to Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian b. Chinese characters (which represented words or ideas) could not be transferred easily to other languages 7. Roman Empire's peoples maintained separate cultural identities far more than in China 8. Bureaucracy was much more elaborate in China than in Roman Empire a. Chinese emperor Wudi (r. 141-87 B.C.E.) established an academy to train officials based on works of Confucius b. Roman administration relied on regional elites and army
The Eurasian classical era saw a flowering of second-wave civilizations.
1. civilizations did not usually encounter each other directly 2. Mediterranean world and Middle East were the important exceptions a. Persians and Greeks were neighbors b. very important cultural encounter
The 2007 book Are We Rome? asked if the United States has become the new Roman Empire.
1. collapse of the Soviet Union 2. overextension of the United States 3. sense of unique, global mission 4. commitment to military dominance 5. reminder of continuing relevance of a long-dead empire
Judaism
1. developed among the Hebrews, recorded in the Old Testament a. early tradition of migration to Palestine, led by Abraham b. early tradition of enslavement in Egypt and escape c. establishment of state of Israel ca. 1000 B.C.E. 2. Judean exiles in Babylon retained their cultural identity, returned to homeland 3. distinctive conception of God a. Yahweh demanded exclusive loyalty b. relationship with Yahweh as a covenant (contract) c. lofty, transcendent deity—but communication was possible 4. foundation for both Christianity and Islam
The Buddhist Challenge
1. developed side by side with philosophical Hinduism 2. Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 566-ca. 486 B.C.E.) a. spiritual journey led to "enlightenment" (insight) at age 35 b. his followers saw him as the Buddha, the Enlightened One 3. central Buddhist teaching: life is suffering a. sorrow's cause is craving for individual fulfillment, attachment to self b. "cure" it with modest and moral life, meditation c. goal is achievement of enlightenment or nirvana (extinguishing of individual identity) 4. large elements of Hinduism are present in Buddhist teaching a. life as an illusion b. karma and rebirth c. overcoming demands of the ego d. practice of meditation e. hope for release from the cycle of rebirth 5. much of Buddhism challenged Hinduism a. rejection of Brahmins' religious authority b. lack of interest in abstract speculation c. need for individuals to take responsibility for their own spiritual development d. strong influence of Indian patriarchy 6. appealed especially to lower castes and women in India a. teaching was in local language, not classical Sanskrit b. linked to local traditions with establishment of monasteries and stupas (shrines with relics of the Buddha) c. state support from Ashoka (268-232 B.C.E.) 7. the split within Buddhism a. early Buddhism (Theravada, or Teaching of the Elders) b. by early in the Common Era, development of Mahayana (Great Vehicle)
The Greek Way of Knowing
1. flourished 600-300 B.C.E. (same time as city-states flourished) 2. key element: the way questions were asked (argument, logic, questioning of received wisdom) 3. best example: Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.) of Athens a. constant questioning of assumptions b. conflict with city authorities over Athenian democracy c. accused of corrupting the youth, executed 4. earliest classical Greek thinkers a. applied rational questioning to nature b. application to medicine 5. application of Greek rationalism to understand human behavior a. Herodotus: why did Greeks and Persians fight each other? b. Plato (429-348 B.C.E.) outlined design for a good soC.E.y (Republic) led by a "philosopher-king" c. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) emphasized empirical observation
The Greek Legacy
1. many people continued traditional religious beliefs and practices 2. Greek rationalism spread widely a. helped by Roman Empire b. Christian theology was expressed in Greek philosophical terms c. classical Greek texts preserved in Byzantine Empire d. Western Europe: neglect of classical scholarship after fall of Roman Empire e. part of Islamic culture
The Greco-Persian Wars
1. point of collision was Ionia (Greek settlements on Anatolian seacoast) a. in 499 B.C.E., some Ionian Greeks revolted against Persia b. were supported by Athens 2. Persia responded with expeditions against Greeks in 490 and 480 B.C.E. a. Greeks astonishingly defeated Persians on land and sea b. Greeks believed they won Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.E.) because they were motivated by Greek freedoms 3. notion of East/West divide as dominant theme in European thought a. Greece = Europe, freedom b. Persia = Asia, despotism 4. victory radicalized Athenian democracy: poor rowers received full citizenship a. fifty-year Golden Age of Greek culture after Persian Wars b. beginnings of imperialism c. Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.)
Establishing New Religions
1. probably neither intended to C.E.te a new religion, but both did 2. followers transformed both into gods 3. how Christianity became a world religion a. process began with Paul (10-65 C.E.) b. women had more opportunities (but early Christianity still reflected patriarchy of time) c. early converts were typically urban lower class and women d. attraction of miracle stories e. attraction of Christian care for each other 4. Roman persecution of Christians as "atheists" for their antagonism to all divine powers except their one god a. ended with conversion of Emperor Constantine in early fourth century C.E. b. later Roman emperors tried to use Christianity as social glue c. Theodosius ordered closure of all polytheistic temples d. spread of Christianity throughout Europe, parts of Africa, Middle East, Asia 5. Buddhism: Ashoka's support helped, but Buddhism was never promoted as India 's sole religion
What is an empire?
1. simple answer: empires are political systems with coercive power 2. more typical: larger, more aggressive states a. conquer other states b. use their resources c. usually include multiple peoples and cultures under a single political system 3. no clear line between empires and small multiethnic states
Why have empires always been so fascinating?
1. size was imposing 2. blood and violence of conquest 3. satisfaction in witnessing the fall of the mighty when they collapse 4. contrast to nonimperial civilizations 5. empires were important a. majority of humans before twentieth century lived in empires b. stimulated exchange of ideas, cultures, and values c. peace and security encouraged development, commerce, and cultural mixing
Why did all these traditions emerge at about the same time?
1. some historians point to major social changes a. iron-age technology led to higher productivity and deadlier war b. growing cities, increasing commerce c. emergence of new states and empires d. new contacts between civilizations 2. it's a mystery why particular societies developed particular answers
Classical Greece did not create an enduring religious tradition.
1. system of polytheism, fertility cults, etc., remained 2. Greek intellectuals abandoned mythological framework a. world is a physical reality governed by natural laws b. humans can understand those laws c. human reason can work out a system for ethical life 3. perhaps was caused by diversity and incoherence of mythology a. intellectual stimulation of great civilizations b. possible influence of growing role of law in Athenian political life
South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to Philosophical Speculation
1. widely recognized sacred texts provided some common ground within the diversity of Indian culture and religion 2. the Vedas (poems, hymns, prayers, rituals) a. compiled by Brahmins (priests), transmitted orally b. were not written down (in Sanskrit) until around 600 B.C.E. c. provide a glimpse of Indian civilization in 1500-600 B.C.E. d. role of Brahmins in practicing elaborate ritual sacrifices gave them power and wealth 3. the Upanishads (mystical, philosophical works) developed in response to dissatisfaction with Brahmins a. composed between 800 and 400 B.C.E. b. probe inner meaning of Vedic sacrifices—introspection c. central idea: Brahman (the World Soul) as ultimate reality d. Brahmin priests and wandering ascetics spread Hindu teachings
Han Dynasty
201 BCE - 220 CE. During this dynasty the Chinese developed paper, very accurate sundials, and calendars. It also developed the civil service system based on the teachings of Confucius; this ensures that government officials will be highly educated and great communicators. To ensure great candidates, they established a rigorous civil service examination. During this dynasty, Buddhism spread and trade thrived along the Silk Road to the Mediterranean.
Qin Dynasty
221 -206 BCE. The dynasty was short lived, but was best known for unifying China after the Warring States period and connecting the separate fortification walls that eventually became the Great Wall of China. The empire was well organized, centralized and territorial. The dynasty's first emperor, Qin Shihuangdi, standardized laws, currencies, weights, measures, and writing system, and refused to tolerate any dissent from his subjects (legalism)
Paul
3-67CE. One of the first Christian missionaries; moved away from insistence that adheres of the new religion follow Jewish law; use of Greek as language of the church (not Latin, which was for the upper class); responsible or spreading Christianity throughout the Roman Empire.
Peloponnesian war
431-404 B.C.E; Between Athens And Sparta For Dominance Of Southern Greece; Resulted In Spartan Victory But Failed To Achieve Political Unification Of Greece.
Sophocles
496-406 BCE. One of the most famous Greek writers of tragedies; author of Oedipus Rex (Antigone is one of three stories).
Mandate of Heaven
Chinese belief that said that heaven would grant an emperor power only as long as its rulers governed justly and wisely. Originated with the Zhou Dynasty (1100-256 BCE)
Axum and Ethiopia
Christian kingdoms that developed in the highlands of Ethiopia.
Coptic Christian
Christian sect in Egypt later tolerated after Islamic takeover. Still exists today.
Mayan Civilization
Dominated southern Mexico and parts of Central America from 300 BCE - 800 CE. Their civilization was a collection of city-states ruled by the same king. They constructed pyramids, used hieroglyphics, developed a complex calendar system, and built tremendous cities. Their belief system was tied to their agricultural lifestyle: They believed the gods created humans from maize and that gods maintained agricultural cycles in exchange for sacrifices and bloodletting rituals.
Mauryan Dynasty
Dynasty established in Indian subcontinent in 4th century BCE following the invasion of Alexander the Great.
Byzantine Empire
Eastern half of the Roman Empire following the collapse of the western half of the old empire; capital in Constantinople. Spoke Greek. Its brand of Christianity became an entirely separate branch known as Orthodox Christianity.
Cyrus the Great
Established massive Persian Empire by 550BCE; sucessor state to Mesopotamian empires
Roman Empire
Existed from 27 BCE to about 400 CE. Conquiered entire Mediterranean coast and most of Europe. Ruled by an emperor. Eventually oversaw the rise and spread of Christianity. 1. started as small, unimportant city-state in central Italy in eighth century B.C.E. 2. overthrew monarchy and established a republic ca. 509 B.C.E. 3. conflict between patricians (wealthy class) and plebeians (poorer classes) 4. pride in republican values: rule of law, citizens' rights, lack of pretension, morality—"the way of the ancestors" 5. creation of the empire a. began in 490s B.C.E. with wars to control Italian peninsula b. 264-146 B.C.E.: Punic Wars with Carthage c. conquest of Greece, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and present-day Spain, France, and Britain d. reached greatest geographical extent in early second century C.E. e. gradual, unplanned pursuit of opportunities f. skill and brutality of Roman army g. usually generous treatment of conquered peoples 6. political crisis of first century B.C.E. a. rise of military leaders (Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Julius Caesar) b. decline of republican values c. Caesar Augustus (r. 27 B.C.E.-14 C.E.) was first emperor 7. establishment of pax Romana (Roman peace) a. security b. relative prosperity
Chandragupta Maurya
First emperor to unify India into one state. Ruled from 322-298 BCE. Founded Mauryan Empire.
Caste System
First used in ancient India by Aryans, it was used to divide society into separate groups called castes. These castes are, in order from top to bottom: Brahmins (priest class, considered closest to the gods), warriors, landowners, and peasants. Below these castes were the "untouchables", or outcasts. Movement between castes was allowed in the early days of the system, but over time mobility became restricted and you could only rise between castes when you died and were reincarnated.
Gupta Dynasty
Hindu dyansty established in 320 C.E. by Chandragupta I in Bihar. At one stage it ruled most of the north of the Indian subcontinent, but it began to disintegrate toward the end of the 5th century.
Shiva
Hindu god of destruction and reproduction; worshipped as the personification of cosmic forces of change.
Chapter 6 Eurasian social hierarchies
I. Opening Vignette A. Caste continues to be central to present-day India . B. The period 1750-present has challenged many social structures once thought to be immutable. 1. series of revolutions destroyed monarchies and class hierarchies 2. abolition of slavery 3. women's movement 4. Gandhi's effort to raise status of "untouchables" C. Patterns of inequality generated social tensions during the "second-wave" civilizations, too. D. Classical civilizations were hierarchical and patriarchal, but they varied in how they organized their societies. II. Society and the State in Classical China A. Chinese society was shaped more by state actions than were other societies. 1. immense social prestige and political power of state officials 2. officials as cultural and social elite B. An Elite of Officials 1. world's first professional civil service 2. 124 B.C.E.: Wudi established an imperial academy for officials a. around 30,000 students by end of Han dynasty b. written examinations used to select officials c. system lasted until early twentieth century 3. favored the wealthy, who could educate sons a. closeness to the capital, family connections important b. it was possible for commoners to rise via education 4. system developed further in later dynasties 5. bureaucrats had great prestige and privileges C. The Landlord Class 1. by first century B.C.E., small-scale peasant farmers had been displaced by large landowners and tenant farmers 2. state opposed creation of large estates throughout Chinese history, without much success a. large landowners could often evade taxes b. large landowners sometimes kept independent military forces that could challenge imperial authority c. land reforms by usurper Wang Mang (r. 8-23 C.E.) impossible to enforce 3. landowners benefited both from wealth and from prestige of membership in the bureaucracy ("scholar-gentry") D. Peasants 1. in Chinese history, most of population have been peasants a. some relatively prosperous, some barely surviving b. tenant farmers in Han dynasty owed as much as two-thirds of crop to landowners 2. periodic peasant rebellions a. Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 C.E. provoked by flooding and epidemics b. peasant revolts devastated the economy and contributed to overthrow of Han dynasty c. Chinese peasant movements were often expressed in religious terms E. Merchants 1. Chinese cultural elite disliked merchants a. stereotyped as greedy and profiting from work of others b. seen as a social threat that impoverished others 2. periodic efforts to control merchants a. sumptuary laws b. forbidden to hold public office c. state monopolies on important industries (salt, iron, alcohol) d. forced to make loans to the state 3. merchants often prospered anyway a. won their way to respectability by purchasing estates or educating their sons b. many officials and landlords were willing to work with them III. Class and Caste in India A. Caste as Varna 1. the word "caste" comes from Portuguese word casta meaning "race" or "purity of blood" 2. caste may have evolved from encounter between Aryans (light-skinned) and natives (dark-skinned) a. certainly grew from interaction of culturally diverse peoples b. development of economic and social differences between them c. economic specialization and culture apparently more important than notions of race 3. ca. 500 B.C.E., there was clear belief that society was divided into four great classes ( varna), with position determined by birth a. three classes of pure Aryans (the "twice-born"): Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas b. far below them were the Sudras, native peoples in very subordinate positions 4. varna theory: the four groups were formed from the body of the god Purusha; immutable a. reality: considerable social change in ancient India b. frequent conflict between Brahmin and Kshatriya groups c. absorption of "tribal peoples" within Aryan groups d. Vaisya varna evolved into business class e. Sudra varna became peasant farmers f. emergence of untouchables below Sudras B. Caste as Jati 1. social distinctions based on specific occupations, organized as guilds (jatis) a. blended with varna system to create full caste system b. thousands of jatis as primary cell of social life c. each of four great classes divided into many jatis (sub-castes) 2. clearly defined social position a. marriage and eating together only permitted within individual's jati b. each jati has particular duties, rules, obligations 3. ideas of ritual purity and pollution applied to caste groups 4. inherent inequality supported by idea of karma, dharma, and rebirth a. birth into a caste determined by good or bad deeds (karma) of a previous life b. rebirth in a higher caste is determined by performance of present caste duties (dharma) 5. threat of social ostracism for violating rules of the jati 6. individuals couldn't raise social status, but whole jatis could improve social standing C. The Functions of Caste 1. caste was very local, so it focused loyalties on a restricted territory a. made empire building very difficult b. caste as a substitute for the state 2. caste provided some social security and support (care for widows, orphans, the destitute) 3. caste was a means to accommodate migrants and invaders 4. made it easier for the wealthy and powerful to exploit the poor IV. Slavery in the Classical Era: The Case of the Roman Empire A. Why did slavery emerge in the First Civilizations? There are various theories: 1. domestication of animals provided a model for human slavery 2. war, patriarchy, and private property ideas encouraged slavery 3. women captured in war were probably the first slaves 4. patriarchal "ownership" of women may have encouraged slavery B. Slavery and Civilization 1. slavery as "social death": lack of rights or independent personal identity 2. slavery was long-established tradition by the time of Hammurabi (around 1750 B.C.E.) 3. almost all civilizations had some form of slavery a. varied considerably over place and time b. classical Greece and Rome: slave emancipation was common c. Aztec Empire: children of slaves were considered to be free d. labor of slaves varied widely 4. minor in China (maybe 1 percent of population) a. convicts and their families were earliest slaves b. poor peasants sometimes sold their children into slavery 5. India : criminals, debtors, war captives were slaves a. largely domestic b. religion and law gave some protections c. society wasn't economically dependent on slavery C. The Making of a Slave Society: The Case of Rome 1. Mediterranean/Western civilization: slavery played immense role a. Greco-Roman world was a slave society b. one-third of population of classical Athens was enslaved c. Aristotle: some people are "slaves by nature" 2. at beginning of Common Era, Italy 's population was 33 to 40 percent slaves a. wealthy Romans owned hundreds or thousands of slaves b. people of modest means often owned two or three slaves 3. how people became slaves: a. massive enslavement of war prisoners b. piracy c. long-distance trade for Black Sea, East African, and northwest European slaves d. natural reproduction e. abandoned/exposed children 4. not associated with a particular ethnic group 5. little serious social critique of slavery, even within Christianity 6. slavery was deeply entrenched in Roman society a. slaves did all sorts of work except military service b. both highly prestigious and degraded tasks 7. slaves had no legal rights a. could not marry legally b. if a slave murdered his master, all of the victim's slaves were killed c. manumission was common; Roman freedmen became citizens D. Resistance and Rebellion 1. cases of mass suicide of war prisoners to avoid slavery 2. "weapons of the weak": theft, sabotage, poor work, curses 3. flight 4. occasional murder of owners 5. rebellion a. most famous was led by Spartacus in 73 B.C.E. b. nothing on similar scale occurred in the West until Haiti in the 1790s c. Roman slave rebellions did not attempt to end slavery; participants just wanted freedom for themselves V. Comparing Patriarchies of the Classical Era A. Every human community has created a gender system. 1. at least since the First Civilizations, the result has been patriarchy 2. men regarded as superior to women 3. men had greater legal and property rights 4. public life as male domain 5. polygamy was common, with sexual control of females of family 6. notion that women need male protection and control 7. patriarchy varied in different civilizations 8. interaction of patriarchy and class: greatest restrictions on upper-class women B. A Changing Patriarchy: The Case of China 1. in the Han dynasty, elite ideas became more patriarchal and linked to Confucianism a. thinking in terms of pairs of opposites described in gendered and unequal terms: yung (masculine, superior) vs. yin (feminine, inferior) b. men's sphere is public; women's sphere is domestic c. "three obediences": woman is subordinated to father, then husband, then son 2. woman writer Ban Zhao (45-116 C.E.): female inferiority reinforced by birth rituals 3. subordination wasn't the whole story a. a few women had considerable political authority b. some writers praised virtuous women as wise counselors c. honor given to the mothers of sons d. dowry was regarded as woman's own property e. value of women as textile producers f. a wife had much higher status than a concubine 4. changes following the collapse of the Han dynasty a. cultural influence of nomadic peoples/less restriction b. by Tang dynasty (618-907), elite women regarded as capable of handling legal and business affairs, even of riding horses c. major sign of weakening patriarchy: reign of Empress Wu (r. 690-705 C.E.) d. growing popularity of Daoism provided new women's roles C. Contrasting Patriarchies in Athens and Sparta 1. Athens and Sparta were substantially different in views about women 2. Athens: increasing limitations on women 700-400 B.C.E. a. completely excluded from public life b. represented by a guardian in law; not even named in court proceedings c. Aristotle: position justified in terms of women's natural "inadequacy" compared to males d. restricted to the home e. married in mid-teens to men 10-15 years older f. role in life: domestic management and bearing sons g. land normally passed through male heirs h. women could only negotiate small contracts i. most notable exception: Aspasia (ca. 470-400 B.C.E.) 3. Sparta: militaristic regime very different from Athens a. need to counter permanent threat of helot rebellion b. Spartan male as warrior above all c. situation gave women greater freedom d. women encouraged to strengthen their bodies for important task of childbearing e. men were often preparing for or waging war, so women had larger role in household 4. Sparta, unlike Athens, discouraged homosexuality a. other Greek states approved homoerotic relationships b. Greek attitude toward sexual choice was quite casual VI. Reflections: Arguing with Solomon and the Buddha A. What is more impressive about classical Eurasian civilizations: change or enduring patterns? 1. Ecclesiastes—basic changelessness and futility of human life 2. Buddhism—basic impermanence of human life B. Clearly, some things changed. 1. Greek conquest of the Persian Empire 2. unification of the Mediterranean world by the Roman Empire 3. emergence of Buddhism and Christianity as universal religions 4. collapse of dynasties, empires, and civilizations C. But the creations of the classical era have been highly durable. 1. China 's scholar-gentry class 2. India 's caste system 3. slavery largely unquestioned until nineteenth century 4. patriarchy has been most fundamental, durable, and taken-for-granted feature of all civilizations a. not effectively challenged until twentieth century b. still shapes lives and thinking of vast majority of people 5. religious and cultural traditions started in the classical age still practiced or honored by hundreds of millions of people
Chapter 7 Classical Era Variations Africa and the americas
I. Opening Vignette A. Caste continues to be central to present-day India . B. The period 1750-present has challenged many social structures once thought to be immutable. 1. series of revolutions destroyed monarchies and class hierarchies 2. abolition of slavery 3. women's movement 4. Gandhi's effort to raise status of "untouchables" C. Patterns of inequality generated social tensions during the "second-wave" civilizations, too. D. Classical civilizations were hierarchical and patriarchal, but they varied in how they organized their societies. II. Society and the State in Classical China A. Chinese society was shaped more by state actions than were other societies. 1. immense social prestige and political power of state officials 2. officials as cultural and social elite B. An Elite of Officials 1. world's first professional civil service 2. 124 B.C.E.: Wudi established an imperial academy for officials a. around 30,000 students by end of Han dynasty b. written examinations used to select officials c. system lasted until early twentieth century 3. favored the wealthy, who could educate sons a. closeness to the capital, family connections important b. it was possible for commoners to rise via education 4. system developed further in later dynasties 5. bureaucrats had great prestige and privileges C. The Landlord Class 1. by first century B.C.E., small-scale peasant farmers had been displaced by large landowners and tenant farmers 2. state opposed creation of large estates throughout Chinese history, without much success a. large landowners could often evade taxes b. large landowners sometimes kept independent military forces that could challenge imperial authority c. land reforms by usurper Wang Mang (r. 8-23 C.E.) impossible to enforce 3. landowners benefited both from wealth and from prestige of membership in the bureaucracy ("scholar-gentry") D. Peasants 1. in Chinese history, most of population have been peasants a. some relatively prosperous, some barely surviving b. tenant farmers in Han dynasty owed as much as two-thirds of crop to landowners 2. periodic peasant rebellions a. Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 C.E. provoked by flooding and epidemics b. peasant revolts devastated the economy and contributed to overthrow of Han dynasty c. Chinese peasant movements were often expressed in religious terms E. Merchants 1. Chinese cultural elite disliked merchants a. stereotyped as greedy and profiting from work of others b. seen as a social threat that impoverished others 2. periodic efforts to control merchants a. sumptuary laws b. forbidden to hold public office c. state monopolies on important industries (salt, iron, alcohol) d. forced to make loans to the state 3. merchants often prospered anyway a. won their way to respectability by purchasing estates or educating their sons b. many officials and landlords were willing to work with them III. Class and Caste in India A. Caste as Varna 1. the word "caste" comes from Portuguese word casta meaning "race" or "purity of blood" 2. caste may have evolved from encounter between Aryans (light-skinned) and natives (dark-skinned) a. certainly grew from interaction of culturally diverse peoples b. development of economic and social differences between them c. economic specialization and culture apparently more important than notions of race 3. ca. 500 B.C.E., there was clear belief that society was divided into four great classes ( varna), with position determined by birth a. three classes of pure Aryans (the "twice-born"): Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas b. far below them were the Sudras, native peoples in very subordinate positions 4. varna theory: the four groups were formed from the body of the god Purusha; immutable a. reality: considerable social change in ancient India b. frequent conflict between Brahmin and Kshatriya groups c. absorption of "tribal peoples" within Aryan groups d. Vaisya varna evolved into business class e. Sudra varna became peasant farmers f. emergence of untouchables below Sudras B. Caste as Jati 1. social distinctions based on specific occupations, organized as guilds (jatis) a. blended with varna system to create full caste system b. thousands of jatis as primary cell of social life c. each of four great classes divided into many jatis (sub-castes) 2. clearly defined social position a. marriage and eating together only permitted within individual's jati b. each jati has particular duties, rules, obligations 3. ideas of ritual purity and pollution applied to caste groups 4. inherent inequality supported by idea of karma, dharma, and rebirth a. birth into a caste determined by good or bad deeds (karma) of a previous life b. rebirth in a higher caste is determined by performance of present caste duties (dharma) 5. threat of social ostracism for violating rules of the jati 6. individuals couldn't raise social status, but whole jatis could improve social standing C. The Functions of Caste 1. caste was very local, so it focused loyalties on a restricted territory a. made empire building very difficult b. caste as a substitute for the state 2. caste provided some social security and support (care for widows, orphans, the destitute) 3. caste was a means to accommodate migrants and invaders 4. made it easier for the wealthy and powerful to exploit the poor IV. Slavery in the Classical Era: The Case of the Roman Empire A. Why did slavery emerge in the First Civilizations? There are various theories: 1. domestication of animals provided a model for human slavery 2. war, patriarchy, and private property ideas encouraged slavery 3. women captured in war were probably the first slaves 4. patriarchal "ownership" of women may have encouraged slavery B. Slavery and Civilization 1. slavery as "social death": lack of rights or independent personal identity 2. slavery was long-established tradition by the time of Hammurabi (around 1750 B.C.E.) 3. almost all civilizations had some form of slavery a. varied considerably over place and time b. classical Greece and Rome: slave emancipation was common c. Aztec Empire: children of slaves were considered to be free d. labor of slaves varied widely 4. minor in China (maybe 1 percent of population) a. convicts and their families were earliest slaves b. poor peasants sometimes sold their children into slavery 5. India : criminals, debtors, war captives were slaves a. largely domestic b. religion and law gave some protections c. society wasn't economically dependent on slavery C. The Making of a Slave Society: The Case of Rome 1. Mediterranean/Western civilization: slavery played immense role a. Greco-Roman world was a slave society b. one-third of population of classical Athens was enslaved c. Aristotle: some people are "slaves by nature" 2. at beginning of Common Era, Italy 's population was 33 to 40 percent slaves a. wealthy Romans owned hundreds or thousands of slaves b. people of modest means often owned two or three slaves 3. how people became slaves: a. massive enslavement of war prisoners b. piracy c. long-distance trade for Black Sea, East African, and northwest European slaves d. natural reproduction e. abandoned/exposed children 4. not associated with a particular ethnic group 5. little serious social critique of slavery, even within Christianity 6. slavery was deeply entrenched in Roman society a. slaves did all sorts of work except military service b. both highly prestigious and degraded tasks 7. slaves had no legal rights a. could not marry legally b. if a slave murdered his master, all of the victim's slaves were killed c. manumission was common; Roman freedmen became citizens D. Resistance and Rebellion 1. cases of mass suicide of war prisoners to avoid slavery 2. "weapons of the weak": theft, sabotage, poor work, curses 3. flight 4. occasional murder of owners 5. rebellion a. most famous was led by Spartacus in 73 B.C.E. b. nothing on similar scale occurred in the West until Haiti in the 1790s c. Roman slave rebellions did not attempt to end slavery; participants just wanted freedom for themselves V. Comparing Patriarchies of the Classical Era A. Every human community has created a gender system. 1. at least since the First Civilizations, the result has been patriarchy 2. men regarded as superior to women 3. men had greater legal and property rights 4. public life as male domain 5. polygamy was common, with sexual control of females of family 6. notion that women need male protection and control 7. patriarchy varied in different civilizations 8. interaction of patriarchy and class: greatest restrictions on upper-class women B. A Changing Patriarchy: The Case of China 1. in the Han dynasty, elite ideas became more patriarchal and linked to Confucianism a. thinking in terms of pairs of opposites described in gendered and unequal terms: yung (masculine, superior) vs. yin (feminine, inferior) b. men's sphere is public; women's sphere is domestic c. "three obediences": woman is subordinated to father, then husband, then son 2. woman writer Ban Zhao (45-116 C.E.): female inferiority reinforced by birth rituals 3. subordination wasn't the whole story a. a few women had considerable political authority b. some writers praised virtuous women as wise counselors c. honor given to the mothers of sons d. dowry was regarded as woman's own property e. value of women as textile producers f. a wife had much higher status than a concubine 4. changes following the collapse of the Han dynasty a. cultural influence of nomadic peoples/less restriction b. by Tang dynasty (618-907), elite women regarded as capable of handling legal and business affairs, even of riding horses c. major sign of weakening patriarchy: reign of Empress Wu (r. 690-705 C.E.) d. growing popularity of Daoism provided new women's roles C. Contrasting Patriarchies in Athens and Sparta 1. Athens and Sparta were substantially different in views about women 2. Athens: increasing limitations on women 700-400 B.C.E. a. completely excluded from public life b. represented by a guardian in law; not even named in court proceedings c. Aristotle: position justified in terms of women's natural "inadequacy" compared to males d. restricted to the home e. married in mid-teens to men 10-15 years older f. role in life: domestic management and bearing sons g. land normally passed through male heirs h. women could only negotiate small contracts i. most notable exception: Aspasia (ca. 470-400 B.C.E.) 3. Sparta: militaristic regime very different from Athens a. need to counter permanent threat of helot rebellion b. Spartan male as warrior above all c. situation gave women greater freedom d. women encouraged to strengthen their bodies for important task of childbearing e. men were often preparing for or waging war, so women had larger role in household 4. Sparta, unlike Athens, discouraged homosexuality a. other Greek states approved homoerotic relationships b. Greek attitude toward sexual choice was quite casual VI. Reflections: Arguing with Solomon and the Buddha A. What is more impressive about classical Eurasian civilizations: change or enduring patterns? 1. Ecclesiastes—basic changelessness and futility of human life 2. Buddhism—basic impermanence of human life B. Clearly, some things changed. 1. Greek conquest of the Persian Empire 2. unification of the Mediterranean world by the Roman Empire 3. emergence of Buddhism and Christianity as universal religions 4. collapse of dynasties, empires, and civilizations C. But the creations of the classical era have been highly durable. 1. China 's scholar-gentry class 2. India 's caste system 3. slavery largely unquestioned until nineteenth century 4. patriarchy has been most fundamental, durable, and taken-for-granted feature of all civilizations a. not effectively challenged until twentieth century b. still shapes lives and thinking of vast majority of people 5. religious and cultural traditions started in the classical age still practiced or honored by hundreds of millions of people
Cultural Traditions of Classical India
Indian cultural development was different 1. elite culture was enthusiastic about the divine and about spiritual matters 2. Hinduism (the Indian religious tradition) had no historical founder a. developed along with Indian civilization b. spread into Southeast Asia, but remained associated with India and the Indians above all c. was never a single tradition; "Hinduism" is a term invented by outsiders
Christianity
Originated with Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish teacher who claimed to be the Son of God. Roman and Jewish leaders crucified Jesus in 30CE. and his followers maintained that he rose from the dead to the heaven. Christianity was based on this event and the Old and New testaments. Christians believe that Jesus dies in exchange for forgiveness of their sins and that human beings should practice love and service to him and others.
Patricians and Plebeians
Patricians: The patricians were the upper class, the nobility and wealthy land owners. Plebeians: The plebeians were the lower class. Nicknamed "plebs", the plebeians included everyone in ancient Rome (except for the nobility, the patricians) from well-to-do tradesmen all the way down to the very poor.
Confucianism
Practiced in China from 400BCE onward. It is a social and political philosophy, which maintains that when people live up to their social obligations, society will be orderly and predicable. It focuses on three values: ren (humanity, kindness), li (courtesy, respect, deference to elders), and on the formation of junzi, or educated, socially conscious people who are willing to put the greater good ahead of personal gain.
Mauryan and Gupta Empires
Indian empire founded by Chandragupta, beginning with his kingdom in northeastern India and spreading to most of northern and central India. significance: unified the Indian subcontinent. A. The idea of empire was much less prominent in India than in Persia, the Mediterranean, or China. 1. fall of Indus Valley civilization by 1500 B.C.E. 2. creation of new civilization along Ganges River 3. establishment in northern India of classic civilization of South Asia by 600 B.C.E. a. enormous political, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity b. Indian civilization as a whole shaped by political fragmentation and cultural diversity c. identity provided by distinctive religious tradition (Hinduism) and social organization (caste system) B. Mauryan Empire (326-184 B.C.E.) 1. stimulated by Persian and Greek penetration of northwest 2. ruled all but southern tip of India 3. population of around 50 million 4. large military and civilian bureaucracy 5. state-operated industries 6. Ashoka (r. 268-232 B.C.E.) is best-known emperor, thanks to edicts 7. Mauryan Empire broke apart after Ashoka's death C. Gupta Empire (320-550 C.E.) and other short-lived empires followed D. Why couldn't India maintain an empire? 1. states failed to command loyalty 2. great cultural diversity 3. frequent invasions from Central Asia 4. caste system encouraged local loyalties E. Indian trade flourished despite the lack of unity. 1. merchants and artisans patronized public buildings and festivals 2. Hinduism and Buddhism spread through much of Asia 3. Indian mathematics and astronomy flourished
varnas
Is the term for the four broad ranks into which traditional Hindu society is divided. It was introduced into India during the Aryan migration. The four varnas (chatur varna) are, in order of precedence, 1.The Brahmins: priests and scholars. 2.The Kshatriya: kings, governors and soldiers. 3.The Vaishyas: cattle herders, agriculturists, artisans and merchants. 4.The Shudras: labourers and service providers. They are then subdivided into thousands of jatis.
Polynesia
Islands contained in a rough triangle whose points lie in Hawaii, new Zealand and Easter Island.
Jesus Christ
Jesus Christ was born in the town of bethlehem at around 4 B.C.E. Jesus founded Christianity after being considered the incarnation of God. He was killed at around 33 B.C.E by the Romans. They crucified him on a cross. Three days later after his burial, he was resurrected. His life is record in the New Testament.
Justinian
Justinian I(c. 482 - 14 November 565), commonly known as Justinian the Great, was Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the historical Roman Empire. One of the most important figures of Late Antiquity and the last Roman Emperor to speak Latin as a first language, Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and domain. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized restoration of the Empire.
Pax Romana
Means Roman Peace. The long period of 200 years of relative peace and prosperity in the Roman Empire from 27 BCE - 180 CE. Established by Caesar Augustus and ended in 180 CE with the death of Marcus Aurelius. Rome became the capital and arts center of the western world. During this period, literature, architecture, and science reached new heights. Also, many distinct ethnic groups within the Roman Empire were able to maintain their individual cultural identities.
Persian Empire
Mesopotamian empire that conquered the existing Median, Lydian, and Babylonian empires, as well as Egypt and many others. Also known as the Achaemenid Empire. 1. in 500 B.C.E., it was the largest and most impressive empire a. Persians were Indo-Europeans, homeland on the Iranian plateau b. imperial system drew on Mesopotamian prototypes c. much larger and more splendid d. Cyrus (r. 557-530 B.C.E.) and Darius (r. 522-486 B.C.E.) expanded empire from Egypt to India e. diverse empire with population of around 35 million people 2. elaborate cult of kingship a. rule by will of the god Ahura Mazda b. absolute monarchy 3. holding the empire together a. violent punishments by king b. effective administrative system c. respect for non-Persian cultural traditions d. standardized coinage, predictable taxes e. encouragement of communication and commerce 4. immense wealth and power
Bantu migration
Movement of people out of central Africa; they spread agricultural techniques and displaced the hunters and gatherers they encountered; they also spread the bantu language; Bantu languages belong to the Niger-Congo language family, and there are more than 400 of them (with over 100 million speakers), of which Swahili, Xhosa, and Zulu are the most important.
Gurus
Originally referred to as Brahmans who served as teachers for the princes of the imperial court of the Guptas.
Judaism
The monotheistic religion originally practiced by the Hebrews, and maintains that Hebrews are God's chosen people and that if they adhered to his rules, he would preserve them forever. The Jewish Bible, called the Torah, consists of the first five books of the Old Testament. It is not only a religious practice, but a set of customs as well. One of the first monotheistic religions.
Vedas
The most ancient Hindu scriptures, written in early Sanskrit and containing hymns, philosophy, and guidance on ritual for the priests of Vedic religion. Believed to have been directly revealed to seers among the early Aryans in India, and preserved by oral tradition, the four chief collections are the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. From 6th century BCE
Moving toward Monotheism: The Search for God in the Middle East
The radical notion of a single supreme deity developed in Zoroastrianism and Judaism and became the basis for both Christianity and Islam
Sanskrit
The sacred and classical Indian language.
Reincarnation
The transfer of the soul into a new body after the physical body decays.
Punic Wars
Wars fought between Rome and Carthage (between 264 - 146 BCE) to establish dominance in the western Mediterranean; won by Rome after three separate conflicts. Rome then burnt Carthage to the ground and spread salt on its fields so no crops could ever grow there again.
Yellow Turbans
Was a peasant revolt that broke out in 184 AD in China during the reign of Emperor Ling of the Han Dynasty. The rebellion, which got its name from the colour of the scarves that the rebels wore on their heads, marked an important point in the history of Taoism due to the rebels' association with secret Taoist societies.
Direct Democracy
When people participate directly in assemblies that make laws and select leaders, rather than electing representatives.
Greek Empire
a great civilization in Athens; grew out of Mycenean and Minoan cultures; influenced entire Mediterranean world; used myths to try to explain and understand their world; many gods that were anthropomorphic; moved away from magic, religion, and superstition; made a great stride in math by employing a new way of thinking; built the Parthenon; set a new standard for human excellence that inspire us even today 1. Indo-Europeans 2. classical Greece emerged ca. 750 B.C.E., flourished for about 400 years 3. distinctiveness of Hellenistic civilization a. population of Greece and the Aegean basin was 2 million to 3 million people b. geography of mountains, valleys encouraged development of hundreds of city-states and small settlements c. shared common language and common gods 4. between 750 and 500 B.C.E., colonization around Mediterranean basin and Black Sea 5. most distinctive feature: popular participation in political life of city-states a. equality of all citizens before the law b. extent of citizenship varied depending on time and city c. tyrants (dictators) emerged in many areas, supported by the poorer classes against the rich d. Sparta gave most political authority to Council of Elders e. Athens: most distinctive expression of political participation f. differences between Athenian and modern democracy
Alexander the Great
died 323 BCE. Son of Philip of Macedon; successfully conquered Persian empire prior to his death; attempted to combine Greek and Persian cultures; spread Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean, Persia and India.
Zoroastrianism
m 1. Persian prophet Zarathustra traditionally dated to sixth or seventh century B.C.E. 2. some state support during Achaemenid dynasty (558-330 B.C.E.) 3. single god Ahura Mazda is source of truth, light, goodness a. cosmic struggle with Angra Mainyu (force of evil) b. Ahura Mazda will eventually win, aided by a final savior c. judgment day: restoration of world to purity and peace d. need for the individual to choose good or evil 4. Zoroastrianism did not spread widely beyond Persia a. Alexander and the Seleucid dynasty were disastrous for it b. flourished in Parthian (247 B.C.E.-224 C.E.) and Sassanid (224-651 C.E.) empires c. final decline caused by arrival of Islam; some Zoroastrians fled to India , became known as Parsis ("Persians") 5. Jews in the Persian Empire were influenced by Zoroastrian ideas a. idea of God vs. Satan b. idea of a last judgment and bodily resurrection c. belief in the final defeat of evil, with help of a savior (Messiah) d. remaking of the world at the end of time
