Unit 3 test

what does "alternation of generations" refer to

"Alternation of generations" refers to the life cycle of plants (and some algae) in which there are two distinct stages, or generations: a haploid (n) gametophyte stage and a diploid (2n) sporophyte stage. In this life cycle, the gametophyte produces gametes (sperm and eggs) through mitosis, which then fuse to form a diploid zygote. The zygote develops into the sporophyte, which produces spores through meiosis. These spores then develop into the haploid gametophyte stage, completing the cycle. In plants, the gametophyte generation is typically a small, independent organism that produces gametes through mitosis. The sporophyte generation is typically larger and more complex, and is attached to and dependent on the gametophyte. This life cycle is different from that of animals, which typically have a diploid dominant life cycle with a haploid gamete-producing stage. The alternation of generations life cycle is an important adaptation for plants that allows for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity.

How many years ago did plants emerge on land?

500 MYA

why are phosphorous and nitrogen limiting nutrients

Because the quantities of them in soil are generally small, it is often the limiting factor for plant growth.

Phyla in the major lineages (names in Plant Diversity Outline are sufficient)

Bryophyta (mosses) Marchantiophyta (liverworts) Anthocerotophyta (hornworts) Lycopodiophyta (clubmosses and relatives) Monilophyta (ferns and horsetails) Gymnosperms (cycads, ginkgo, conifers, and gnetales) Angiosperms (flowering plants)

Ecological roles of each lineage

Bryophyta (mosses): Mosses play important ecological roles in a variety of habitats. They are often the first plants to colonize bare or disturbed areas, and they can help to stabilize soil and prevent erosion. Mosses also provide habitat for a variety of organisms, including small invertebrates and microorganisms. Additionally, some species of mosses can accumulate heavy metals or other pollutants, making them useful for environmental monitoring. Marchantiophyta (liverworts): Liverworts are primarily found in damp habitats, such as wetlands and forests. They play important roles in nutrient cycling and soil formation, and some species are able to fix nitrogen, which can be an important source of this nutrient in nutrient-poor habitats. Additionally, liverworts provide habitat for a variety of small invertebrates and microorganisms. Anthocerotophyta (hornworts): Hornworts are similar to liverworts in their ecological roles, and are often found in similar habitats. They also play important roles in nutrient cycling and soil formation, and some species are able to fix nitrogen. Lycopodiophyta (clubmosses and relatives): Members of this lineage are often found in moist or shaded habitats, and can play important roles in stabilizing soil and preventing erosion. Some species of clubmosses are also used in traditional medicine for their medicinal properties. Monilophyta (ferns and horsetails): Ferns and horsetails are found in a variety of habitats, from moist tropical forests to arid deserts. They are important components of many ecosystems, providing habitat for a variety of organisms and playing important roles in nutrient cycling and soil formation. Some species of ferns are also used in traditional medicine. Gymnosperms (cycads, ginkgo, conifers, and gnetales): Gymnosperms are found in a variety of habitats, and can play important ecological roles in many different ecosystems. They are often dominant components of forests and other terrestrial habitats, and provide habitat for a variety of organisms. Additionally, many species of gymnosperms are important sources of timber and other forest products. Angiosperms (flowering plants): Angiosperms are the most diverse and widespread group of plants, and play a wide range of ecological roles in many different ecosystems. They provide food and habitat for a variety of organisms, and are important components of many different types of habitats, from deserts to tropical rainforests. Additionally, many species of angiosperms are cultivated for food, fiber, and other commercial products.

Economic impacts of each lineage

Bryophyta (mosses): While mosses themselves are not typically harvested or cultivated for commercial purposes, they can be important indicators of ecological health and can be used in a variety of ways. For example, some species of mosses are used as a natural packing material, and others can be used to make dyes or other products. Marchantiophyta (liverworts): Like mosses, liverworts are not typically harvested or cultivated for commercial purposes. However, some species of liverworts are used in traditional medicine. Anthocerotophyta (hornworts): Hornworts are not typically harvested or cultivated for commercial purposes. Lycopodiophyta (clubmosses and relatives): Some species of clubmosses are used in traditional medicine, and some are cultivated as ornamental plants. Monilophyta (ferns and horsetails): Ferns and horsetails have a variety of commercial uses. For example, some species of ferns are used as ornamental plants, while others are used in traditional medicine. Ferns are also used as food in some cultures, and some species of ferns are cultivated for commercial use as a source of fiber. Gymnosperms (cycads, ginkgo, conifers, and gnetales): Gymnosperms are important sources of timber and other forest products. Many species of conifers are used in the production of lumber, paper, and other wood products. Additionally, some species of gymnosperms are cultivated as ornamental plants. Angiosperms (flowering plants): Angiosperms are the most economically important group of plants, and have a wide range of commercial uses. They are cultivated for food, fiber, ornamental purposes, and other uses. Some examples include: Cereals and grains, such as wheat, rice, and corn, which are staple foods for much of the world's population. Fruits and vegetables, which are important sources of nutrition and are consumed around the world. Flowers, which are cultivated for their ornamental value and are used in a variety of industries, such as floristry and perfumery. Medicinal plants, which are used in traditional medicine and are increasingly being studied for their potential pharmaceutical value. Oil crops, such as soybeans and rapeseed, which are used as a source of biofuels and as ingredients in a variety of products. Timber and other forest products, which are important sources of building materials, paper, and other products.

Where do fruit and seeds come from?

Fruits and seeds in angiosperms (flowering plants) come from the ovary of the flower. The ovary is a hollow structure at the base of the flower that contains one or more ovules, each of which can develop into a seed after fertilization. The ovary is also surrounded by the pericarp, which develops into the fruit after fertilization. When a flower is pollinated, pollen from the anther of the flower is transferred to the stigma, where it can travel down the style to the ovary. Fertilization occurs when the sperm cells from the pollen reach the ovule and fuse with the egg cell, resulting in the formation of a zygote. This zygote then develops into an embryo, which is enclosed within the seed. The ovary, which has been fertilized, develops into the fruit. The pericarp, which surrounds the seed(s), can be fleshy, like in apples and berries, or dry, like in nuts and grains. The fruit serves to protect and nourish the developing seeds, and also helps to disperse them by providing a means of transport. Fruits can be dispersed by animals, wind, or water, depending on the species. Overall, fruits and seeds in angiosperms are the result of successful fertilization of the ovules within the ovary, and play a critical role in the survival and reproduction of these plants.

Fungi's role in allowing plants to evolve

Fungi play an important role in allowing plants to evolve in several ways. One of the most significant ways is through their association with plant roots in a symbiotic relationship known as mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae are mutualistic associations between fungi and plant roots, in which the fungi provide the plants with essential nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, and the plants provide the fungi with carbohydrates. This association is believed to have played a key role in the evolution of plants, allowing them to colonize new habitats and diversify. Mycorrhizal fungi increase the effective surface area of the root system by extending their hyphae into the soil, thereby enhancing nutrient uptake. In return, the fungi receive organic carbon compounds, such as sugars, from the plants. This exchange of nutrients benefits both the fungi and the plants, and it is believed to have played a key role in the evolution of terrestrial ecosystems. Furthermore, fungal decomposers play a crucial role in the cycling of nutrients in ecosystems. These fungi break down dead organic matter, releasing nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus back into the soil, where they can be taken up by plants. Without these decomposers, nutrients would be locked up in dead organic matter and unavailable to plants. Overall, fungi have played a significant role in the evolution of plants by enabling them to access essential nutrients, colonize new habitats, and diversify.

Types of fruits (see this module; we may have also completed a lab about this) Drupe Berry Achene Nut Pome Legume Capsule

Here are brief descriptions of each of the fruit types you listed: Drupe: A drupe is a fleshy fruit with a hard, stony pit surrounding the seed. Examples include peaches, plums, and cherries. Berry: A berry is a fleshy fruit with many seeds and a soft pericarp (fruit wall). Examples include tomatoes, grapes, and bananas. Achene: An achene is a small, dry fruit with a single seed attached to the fruit wall at one point. Examples include sunflower seeds and strawberries. Nut: A nut is a hard, dry fruit with a single seed enclosed in a hard shell. Examples include acorns, chestnuts, and hazelnuts. Pome: A pome is a fleshy fruit with a core containing several small seeds. The fleshy part is derived from the enlarged base of the flower, and the core is derived from the ovary. Examples include apples and pears. Legume: A legume is a dry fruit that splits along two seams, with the seeds attached to one seam. Examples include beans, peas, and lentils. Capsule: A capsule is a dry fruit that splits open to release the seeds. Examples include poppy seeds and cotton Each of these fruit types has unique characteristics that reflect adaptations for seed dispersal and protection.

Parts of a seed & their basic functions: seed coat, endosperm, embryo

Here are brief descriptions of the parts of a seed and their basic functions: Seed coat: The seed coat is the outer layer of the seed that protects the embryo and endosperm from mechanical damage, pathogens, and desiccation (drying out). Endosperm: The endosperm is a nutrient-rich tissue that surrounds the embryo in some seeds. It provides a source of energy and nutrients for the developing embryo. Embryo: The embryo is the miniature plant that develops from the fertilized egg cell inside the seed. It consists of several parts, including the cotyledons (seed leaves), the embryonic axis (which includes the root, stem, and leaves), and the hypocotyl (the region between the embryonic axis and the radicle, which becomes the root). Together, these parts of the seed represent adaptations for successful reproduction and seedling establishment. The seed coat protects the developing embryo and endosperm, while the endosperm provides nourishment to support the embryo's growth and development. The embryo contains all the genetic information and structures needed to develop into a mature plant, and the cotyledons serve as the initial energy source for the developing seedling until it can photosynthesize on its own.

Compare and ID Monocot and Eudicot Plant Structures

Here are some key differences between monocot and eudicot plant structures that can help you compare and identify them: Cotyledons: Monocots have one cotyledon (seed leaf), while eudicots have two cotyledons. Cotyledons are the first leaves that emerge from a germinating seed and provide nutrients to the developing embryo. Leaf Venation: Monocots have parallel leaf veins, while eudicots have branching leaf veins. In monocots, the veins run parallel to each other from the base of the leaf to the tip. In eudicots, the veins form a branching network. Flower Parts: Monocots typically have flower parts in multiples of three (e.g. three petals, six stamens), while eudicots have flower parts in multiples of four or five. This can be seen in the number of petals, sepals, stamens, and carpels in the flower. Stem Anatomy: Monocots have scattered vascular bundles (bundles of xylem and phloem) throughout the stem, while eudicots have a distinct ring of vascular bundles. In monocots, the vascular bundles are spread out in a random pattern, while in eudicots, they form a circular pattern. Root Anatomy: Monocots have fibrous roots, while eudicots have a taproot system. In monocots, the roots are thin and fibrous, with no main root, while in eudicots, the main root is larger and grows deep into the soil. Pollen Structure: Monocot pollen typically has a single pore or furrow, while eudicot pollen typically has three pores or furrows. This can be seen under a microscope when examining the pollen grains. By comparing these characteristics, you can identify whether a plant is a monocot or eudicot. Keep in mind that not all plants fit neatly into these categories, and there is often variation within each group.

Why do plants need mineral ions?

If there aren't enough of them, the plants will suffer from deficiency symptoms, so for healthy growth

Formation of spores and gametes in angiosperms (simplified - see below)

In angiosperms, the formation of spores and gametes occurs through a process called meiosis. Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in the formation of haploid cells. Spores are produced in the anthers and ovaries of flowers, which are the male and female reproductive organs of angiosperms. In the anthers, meiosis produces four haploid microspores, which develop into pollen grains. In the ovaries, meiosis produces four haploid megaspores, but only one of these survives and develops into a female gametophyte. The female gametophyte, also called the embryo sac, develops within the ovule of the flower. The embryo sac contains two nuclei, the egg cell and the central cell, which are both haploid. The egg cell is the female gamete, which fuses with the male gamete (sperm) during fertilization to form a zygote. The central cell, which contains two nuclei, fuses with a sperm to form the endosperm, which provides nutrients to the developing embryo. In the male reproductive organs, the pollen grains are produced and contain the male gametophyte. Each pollen grain contains two haploid nuclei, the generative nucleus and the tube nucleus. During pollination, the pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower and produces a pollen tube, which grows down through the style and into the ovary. The generative nucleus divides to form two sperm nuclei, which travel down the pollen tube and fertilize the egg cell and the central cell in the female gametophyte. Overall, the formation of spores and gametes in angiosperms is a complex process that involves meiosis and the development of specialized structures within the reproductive organs of the flower.

what are some plant adaptations to acquire nitrogen?

Nitrogen is an essential element for plant growth and development, as it is a key component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. However, most plants cannot directly absorb nitrogen from the air, which is the most abundant source of nitrogen. Therefore, plants have developed a range of adaptations to acquire nitrogen from the soil, including: Root nodules: Some plants, such as legumes (e.g., beans, peas, and clovers), have evolved to form root nodules in which nitrogen-fixing bacteria live. These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that can be taken up by the plant, providing a source of nitrogen that is not available to other plants. Mycorrhizae: Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots, in which the fungi provide the plant with nutrients (including nitrogen) in exchange for carbohydrates produced by the plant. Mycorrhizae can increase a plant's ability to acquire nitrogen, particularly in nutrient-poor soils. Nitrogen-fixing associations: Some non-legume plants, such as alders and actinorhizal plants, can form associations with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their roots. These associations provide a source of fixed nitrogen that can be used by the plant. Carnivorous plants: Some plants, such as Venus flytraps and pitcher plants, have evolved to capture and digest insects and other small animals. These plants are often found in nutrient-poor soils and have adapted to acquire nitrogen from animal tissues. Root adaptations: Plants have evolved different types of root systems to increase their ability to acquire nitrogen. For example, some plants have developed deep roots that can access nitrogen deep in the soil, while others have developed shallow roots that can quickly take up nitrogen from the surface.

what are some plant adaptations to acquire phosphorous ?

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plant growth and development, playing a crucial role in processes such as energy transfer and DNA synthesis. However, phosphorus is often a limiting nutrient in many soils, meaning that it is present in low concentrations and can be difficult for plants to acquire. To overcome this challenge, plants have developed a range of adaptations to acquire phosphorus, including: Mycorrhizae: Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between plant roots and fungi. The fungi colonize the roots and extend their hyphae into the soil, increasing the surface area for phosphorus absorption. In return, the plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates. Root exudates: Some plants release organic acids and enzymes from their roots into the soil, which can solubilize phosphorus and make it more available for uptake. These root exudates can also attract and stimulate the growth of beneficial soil microbes that can help to release phosphorus from organic matter. Cluster roots: Some plants, such as many Proteaceae and Casuarinaceae species, have evolved specialized root structures called cluster roots. These roots have a dense mat of root hairs and produce large amounts of organic acids, which can solubilize phosphorus from the soil. Morphological adaptations: Some plants have evolved root systems that are better adapted to low-phosphorus soils. For example, some plants have longer and more branched roots, which can explore a greater volume of soil and increase the chances of encountering phosphorus-rich patches. Phosphorus storage: Some plants have evolved mechanisms for storing excess phosphorus, which can be mobilized when phosphorus is limiting. For example, some legumes can form nodules on their roots that contain symbiotic bacteria capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. When nitrogen is abundant, the plants can store excess nitrogen as a form of phosphorus, which can be mobilized when phosphorus is limiting.

what are some plant adaptations to acquire carbon?

Plants acquire carbon through the process of photosynthesis, which involves absorbing carbon dioxide from the air and converting it into glucose and other organic compounds. To maximize their ability to carry out photosynthesis and acquire carbon, plants have developed a range of adaptations, including: Leaves: Plants have evolved leaves to increase their surface area for capturing sunlight, which is used to power photosynthesis. Leaves are typically broad and flat, which allows them to absorb light from multiple angles. Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts are organelles within plant cells that contain chlorophyll, the pigment that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis. Plants have evolved to have large numbers of chloroplasts within their leaves and other photosynthetic tissues to maximize their ability to capture light energy. Root systems: Plant roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, but they can also absorb carbon dioxide. Some plants have evolved root systems that allow them to take up carbon dioxide from the soil, particularly in environments where it is more abundant than in the air.

Structure and Function of plants

Plants are complex organisms that have a variety of structures and functions that enable them to grow, reproduce, and interact with their environment. Here are some of the key structures and functions of plants: Cell walls: Plant cells have rigid cell walls made of cellulose that provide structure and support to the plant. Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts are organelles within plant cells that contain chlorophyll and are responsible for photosynthesis, which converts sunlight into energy for the plant. Roots: Roots anchor the plant in the soil and absorb water and nutrients from the soil. They can also store food and water for the plant. Stems: Stems provide support for the plant and transport water, nutrients, and sugars throughout the plant. Leaves: Leaves are the main site of photosynthesis in the plant, where they capture sunlight and convert it into energy. They also exchange gases with the environment, releasing oxygen and taking in carbon dioxide. Flowers: Flowers are the reproductive structures of the plant, where pollination and fertilization occur. They can be modified into a variety of shapes, sizes, and colors to attract pollinators. Fruits: Fruits are the mature ovary of a flower, which contains seeds. They can be fleshy or dry and can be dispersed by a variety of methods, including animals, wind, and water. These structures and functions work together to support the growth, survival, and reproduction of the plant. Plants are adapted to different environmental conditions and can vary widely in their form and function.

where do plants get their carbon from

Plants get their carbon directly from the air.

growth of these

Plants grow through a combination of cell division, elongation, and differentiation. The process of plant growth can be divided into two phases: primary growth and secondary growth. Primary Growth: Primary growth is the process by which a plant increases in length. It occurs at the tips of roots and shoots, in structures called apical meristems. Apical meristems contain undifferentiated cells that can divide and differentiate into specialized cell types, such as root hairs, leaf tissue, or stem tissue. As new cells are produced, they elongate and differentiate, pushing the tip of the root or shoot further into the soil or air. Secondary Growth: Secondary growth is the process by which a plant increases in girth. It occurs in stems and roots that are more than a few years old. Secondary growth is due to the activity of lateral meristems, which are responsible for producing new layers of tissue in the stem or root. The two types of lateral meristems are the vascular cambium, which produces secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem, and the cork cambium, which produces cork and phelloderm. Overall, plant growth is a complex and dynamic process that involves the coordinated activity of many different cell types and tissues. The growth and development of a plant are influenced by a wide range of environmental factors, such as light, temperature, water availability, and nutrient availability, as well as genetic factors.

Adaptations and modifications

Plants have evolved a wide range of adaptations and modifications to help them survive and thrive in different environments. Here are some examples: Drought Tolerance: Plants in arid environments have developed adaptations to reduce water loss, such as small leaves, thick cuticles, and deep root systems that can access water deep underground. Nutrient Acquisition: Some plants have developed symbiotic relationships with fungi or bacteria that help them acquire nutrients from the soil, such as mycorrhizal fungi that provide phosphorus or nitrogen-fixing bacteria that provide nitrogen. Defense Mechanisms: Plants have evolved a range of defenses against herbivores and pathogens, such as thorns, spines, and chemical compounds that deter or kill predators. Pollination Strategies: Flowering plants have evolved a variety of adaptations to attract and reward pollinators, such as brightly colored petals, fragrant scents, and nectar rewards . Seed Dispersal: Plants have evolved different strategies for seed dispersal, such as wind dispersal, animal dispersal, or water dispersal. Some plants have even evolved explosive seed pods that burst open when ripe to scatter their seeds. Growth Habits: Plants have adapted to different growth habits, such as climbing, trailing, or epiphytic growth, to help them access light and resources in their environment. Reproductive Timing: Plants have evolved different strategies for timing their reproduction to optimize their chances of success, such as annuals that complete their life cycle in a single year, biennials that require two years to complete their life cycle, and perennials that can live for multiple years and reproduce multiple times. Overall, plants have evolved a remarkable range of adaptations and modifications that enable them to thrive in a wide range of environments and ecological niches.

Plant main ecological role; position in food web; trophic efficiency & net productivity

Plants play a critical ecological role as primary producers in most ecosystems. They are the foundation of the food web, providing energy and nutrients to all other trophic levels. As primary producers, plants occupy the base of the food web and support all other trophic levels. Herbivores feed directly on plants, while carnivores feed on herbivores or other carnivores. Omnivores can feed on both plants and animals. Plants also play a crucial role in providing habitat and shelter for a wide variety of organisms, from insects to birds and mammals. In terms of trophic efficiency and net productivity, plants are relatively inefficient at converting solar energy into biomass. On average, only about 1-3% of the energy from sunlight is converted into plant biomass through photosynthesis. This inefficiency is due to a number of factors, including the reflectance of light, respiration losses, and limitations in the efficiency of photosynthesis itself. Despite their relatively low trophic efficiency, plants are still critical to the functioning of ecosystems. They provide the foundation for energy and nutrient transfer in food webs, and their net productivity drives the productivity of all other trophic levels. Without plants, ecosystems would collapse, and life as we know it would not be possible.

Pollen dispersal mechanisms

Pollen dispersal mechanisms refer to the various ways that pollen grains are transported from the anthers of the stamen to the stigma of the pistil in order to achieve pollination and fertilization. Some common pollen dispersal mechanisms include: Wind: Many plant species have evolved to produce lightweight and small pollen grains that are easily carried by the wind over long distances. Examples include grasses, trees such as oaks and pines, and some weeds. Insects: Insects such as bees, butterflies, and moths are important pollinators for many plant species. These insects are attracted to flowers by their color, scent, and shape, and as they feed on the nectar or pollen, they inadvertently transfer pollen from one flower to another. Birds: Certain plants, such as hummingbirds, have evolved to attract birds as pollinators. These plants often have large, brightly colored flowers that produce copious amounts of nectar, which the birds feed on while transferring pollen between flowers. Water: In aquatic plants, pollen can be dispersed by water currents, either in lakes or oceans, or by raindrops splashing on the surface of the water. Self-pollination: Some plant species have evolved mechanisms for self-pollination, in which the pollen is transferred from the anthers to the stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the same plant. Pollen dispersal mechanisms are essential for the reproduction and survival of many plant species. By using different mechanisms, plants have evolved to adapt to their specific environments and ensure successful pollination and fertilization.

Pollination and fertilization in angiosperms and gymnosperms (simplified - see below)What is double fertilization and why is it adaptive?

Pollination and fertilization are key processes in the reproduction of angiosperms and gymnosperms . In angiosperms, pollination occurs when pollen grains are transferred from the male reproductive organ (anther) to the female reproductive organ (stigma) of the same or a different flower. This can occur through a variety of mechanisms, including wind, water, and animal pollination (such as bees, butterflies, and birds). Once pollination occurs, the pollen grain forms a tube that grows down through the style to reach the ovary, where fertilization takes place. Fertilization in angiosperms involves a unique process called double fertilization, which occurs when two sperm cells from the pollen grain enter the female gametophyte in the ovule. One sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell, forming a zygote that develops into an embryo. The other sperm cell fuses with two nuclei in the central cell of the female gametophyte, forming a triploid nucleus that develops into the endosperm, which provides nutrients for the developing embryo. In gymnosperms, pollination and fertilization are similar to angiosperms in that pollen is transferred from male cones to female cones, but there is no double fertilization. Instead, a single sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell to form a zygote that develops into an embryo. There is no endosperm in gymnosperms, so the embryo must rely on stored food reserves within the seed for nutrition. Double fertilization is adaptive because it ensures that the developing embryo will have access to a nutrient-rich endosperm, which provides a greater chance for successful seed development and germination. The endosperm also helps to protect the developing embryo from environmental stresses and provides a source of nutrition for the growing seedling.

Important characteristics (synapomorphies) Why synapomorphies (new/identifying features of the lineage) are important in the history of plant evolution

Synapomorphies are important characteristics or features that are unique to a particular group of organisms and are inherited from a common ancestor. In the context of plant evolution, synapomorphies play a crucial role in reconstructing the evolutionary history of plants and understanding the relationships between different groups of plants. Some important synapomorphies that have emerged over the course of plant evolution include the presence of chloroplasts, which are responsible for photosynthesis; the development of specialized tissues, such as xylem and phloem, for the transport of water and nutrients; the production of seeds, which allow for more efficient reproduction and dispersal; and the evolution of flowers, which are key adaptations for attracting pollinators and facilitating sexual reproduction. Understanding these synapomorphies and their evolutionary history can help us better understand the adaptations that allowed plants to colonize terrestrial habitats, diversify into different ecological niches, and interact with other organisms in complex ways. For example, the evolution of specialized tissues like xylem and phloem enabled plants to grow taller and to transport nutrients over longer distances, which allowed them to compete with other organisms in new ways. Similarly, the evolution of flowers allowed plants to attract pollinators and to reproduce more efficiently, which allowed them to diversify into new ecological niches and to form complex relationships with other organisms. Overall, synapomorphies are important in the history of plant evolution because they allow us to reconstruct the evolutionary relationships between different groups of plants, to identify key adaptations that allowed plants to diversify and colonize new habitats, and to understand the complex ecological relationships between plants and other organisms in ecosystems.

Know the 5 major organs (roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruit)

The five major organs of a flowering plant are roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Roots: The roots are the underground part of the plant that anchor it in the soil and absorb water and nutrients. Some roots also store food for the plant. Stems: The stem is the aboveground part of the plant that supports the leaves and flowers and transports water, nutrients, and sugars throughout the plant. Leaves: Leaves are the main site of photosynthesis in the plant, where they capture sunlight and convert it into energy. They also exchange gases with the environment, releasing oxygen and taking in carbon dioxide. Flowers: Flowers are the reproductive structures of the plant, where pollination and fertilization occur. They contain male and/or female reproductive organs and can be modified into a variety of shapes, sizes, and colors to attract pollinators. Fruits: Fruits are the mature ovary of a flower, which contains seeds. They can be fleshy or dry and can be dispersed by a variety of methods, including animals, wind, and water. Together, these five organs work together to support the growth, survival, and reproduction of the plant. They are adapted to different environmental conditions and can vary widely between different types of plants.

Identify the sporophyte and gametophyte form in the 4 major lineages

The four major lineages of plants are bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. The sporophyte and gametophyte forms differ between these lineages. Bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts): In bryophytes, the gametophyte is the dominant stage of the life cycle. The gametophyte is the green, leafy structure that carries out photosynthesis and produces gametes (sperm and eggs) in specialized structures called antheridia and archegonia, respectively. The sporophyte is a small, stalk-like structure that grows out of the gametophyte and is dependent on it for nutrients. Pteridophytes (ferns, horsetails, and clubmosses): In pteridophytes, the sporophyte is the dominant stage of the life cycle. The sporophyte is the fern plant that we typically think of, and it is the structure that carries out photosynthesis and produces spores in specialized structures called sporangia. The gametophyte is much smaller and inconspicuous, and it grows on the underside of the sporophyte's leaves. The male gametophyte produces sperm in specialized structures called antheridia, while the female gametophyte produces eggs in specialized structures called archegonia. Gymnosperms (conifers, cycads, and ginkgos): In gymnosperms, the sporophyte is the dominant stage of the life cycle, and it is the tree or shrub-like structure that we typically think of. The sporophyte carries out photosynthesis and produces cones or other structures that contain the spores. The gametophyte is much smaller and grows inside the spores. The male gametophyte produces sperm in specialized structures called pollen grains, while the female gametophyte produces eggs in specialized structures called ovules. Angiosperms (flowering plants): In angiosperms, the sporophyte is the dominant stage of the life cycle, and it is the plant that we typically see. The sporophyte carries out photosynthesis and produces flowers, which contain the spores. The gametophyte is much smaller and grows inside the flowers. The male gametophyte produces sperm in specialized structures called pollen grains, which are carried to the female gametophyte by pollinators. The female gametophyte produces eggs in specialized structures called ovules, which are housed within the ovary of the flower.

Overall functions of angiosperm dispersal

The overall function of angiosperm seed dispersal is to ensure the survival and propagation of plant populations. By dispersing their seeds away from the parent plant, angiosperms are able to avoid competition for resources and reduce the risk of disease and predation. Seed dispersal also allows plants to colonize new habitats and expand their range, which can be especially important in changing or disturbed environments. In addition to promoting plant survival and growth, seed dispersal also plays an important ecological role by providing food and habitat for other organisms. Some fruits and seeds are consumed by animals, which can help to disperse the seeds further and provide a valuable source of nutrition. For example, birds may eat fruits and deposit the seeds in their droppings, while ants may carry seeds back to their nests. Overall, angiosperm seed dispersal is a critical process that allows plants to colonize new habitats, avoid competition, and ensure their long-term survival and reproduction.

Draw and describe the plant lifecycle and the processes that occur during it

The plant life cycle is also known as the alternation of generations, which consists of two distinct stages: the haploid gametophyte stage and the diploid sporophyte stage. Gametophyte stage: The gametophyte stage is the haploid phase of the plant life cycle where the plant produces gametes. The gametophyte is the primary stage in the life cycle of bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) and is typically a small and independent organism. In vascular plants (ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms), the gametophyte stage is much reduced, and dependent on the sporophyte. The gametophyte produces gametes through mitosis. The male gamete is called a sperm, and it is produced in antheridia, while the female gamete is called an egg or ovum, which is produced in the archegonia. Fertilization: Fertilization occurs when a sperm cell from the male gametophyte unites with an egg cell from the female gametophyte, resulting in the formation of a zygote. Fertilization usually takes place inside the female reproductive organ, which protects and nourishes the developing embryo. Sporophyte stage: After fertilization, the zygote develops into the sporophyte stage. The sporophyte is the diploid stage of the plant life cycle, and it is typically larger and more complex than the gametophyte stage. The sporophyte is also dependent on the gametophyte for nutrients. The sporophyte produces spores through meiosis. These spores are usually small and lightweight, and they are dispersed by the wind or other agents to new locations where they can grow into new gametophytes. Spore germination: When the spores land in a suitable environment, they germinate and develop into a new gametophyte, completing the life cycle. The plant life cycle is essential for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity. This life cycle allows plants to adapt to changing environmental conditions by producing genetically diverse offspring with unique combinations of traits.

Identify the 3 tissue types and their major functions (not very detailed - stick to Plant Body Organization slides)

The three tissue types in plants are: Dermal Tissue: Dermal tissue is the outermost layer of cells in the plant body. Its main functions are to protect the plant from damage, regulate gas exchange, and absorb water and nutrients. The epidermis is the main type of dermal tissue in the plant body, and it is covered by a waxy cuticle that helps to reduce water loss. Ground Tissue: Ground tissue is the bulk of the plant body, and it is responsible for photosynthesis, storage, and support. Ground tissue is divided into three subtypes: Parenchyma: Parenchyma cells are involved in photosynthesis, storage, and transport of nutrients. They are also capable of dividing and differentiating into other cell types. Collenchyma: Collenchyma cells provide flexible support for the plant. They are elongated cells that are often found in the stem and petioles of young plants. Sclerenchyma: Sclerenchyma cells provide rigid support for the plant. They are highly lignified cells that are found in the stems, leaves, and fruits of mature plants. Vascular Tissue: Vascular tissue is responsible for transport of water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant body. Vascular tissue is divided into two subtypes: Xylem: Xylem tissue is responsible for transporting water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant. It is made up of specialized cells called tracheids and vessel elements. Phloem: Phloem tissue is responsible for transporting sugars and other organic compounds from the leaves to the rest of the plant. It is made up of specialized cells called sieve tubes and companion cells. Overall, these three tissue types work together to provide support, transport, and protection for the plant body

Know the 2 organ systems

The two main organ systems in plants are the shoot system and the root system. Shoot system: The shoot system is the aboveground part of the plant that includes the stem, leaves, and reproductive structures such as flowers and fruits. The stem provides support for the plant and connects the leaves to the root system. The leaves are the main site of photosynthesis and gas exchange, and they also play a role in transpiration, which is the loss of water through small openings called stomata. The reproductive structures are involved in reproduction, and they can vary greatly between different types of plants. Root system: The root system is the belowground part of the plant that includes the roots and associated structures. The roots anchor the plant in the soil and absorb water and nutrients from the soil. The root system can also store food and water for the plant. Some plants have specialized root structures, such as taproots or fibrous roots, depending on their environment and nutrient requirements. Both the shoot and root systems are interconnected and work together to help the plant survive and thrive. For example, the shoot system produces sugars through photosynthesis, which are then transported to the root system to provide energy for growth and nutrient absorption. The root system, in turn, provides water and nutrients to the shoot system, which are essential for photosynthesis and growth.

Fruit and seed dispersal adapations/mechanisms Example: What would fruit dispersed by the wind probably look like? (fluffy, propellers, small, lightweight)

There are several adaptations and mechanisms that plants have evolved for fruit and seed dispersal. Here are some examples: Wind dispersal: Fruits and seeds that are dispersed by the wind are typically small, lightweight, and have structures that allow them to catch the wind and float or fly through the air. Examples include dandelion seeds, which have a fluffy structure that allows them to be carried by the wind, and maple seeds, which have wings that allow them to spin and glide through the air. Animal dispersal: Fruits and seeds that are dispersed by animals are often brightly colored and/or have a pleasant scent or taste to attract the animals. They may also have structures that allow them to stick to the fur or feathers of the animals, or be eaten and pass through the digestive system intact. Examples include berries, which are often brightly colored and sweet, and have seeds that are dispersed by birds and mammals. Water dispersal: Fruits and seeds that are dispersed by water are typically buoyant and have structures that allow them to float or be carried by water currents. Examples include coconuts, which can float long distances in the ocean and be dispersed to other islands. Self-dispersal: Some fruits and seeds have structures that allow them to be dispersed by their own mechanisms, without the need for external agents. Examples include exploding fruits, such as the fruit of the touch-me-not plant, which burst open and scatter seeds when touched. In summary, plants have evolved a variety of adaptations and mechanisms for fruit and seed dispersal, depending on their habitat and the type of dispersal agent available. Fruit dispersed by the wind are typically small, lightweight, and have structures that allow them to be carried by the wind, such as fluffy structures or wings.

where do plants get their nitrogen and phosphorous ?

They get their both their nitrogen fixing bacteria and phosphorous through minerals in the soil and mycorrhizal fungi helps with phosphorous by absorption.

retaining embryo in parent tissue advantage

nourishes and protects embryo

Which are limiting nutrients for plant growth?

phosphorus and nitrogen

waxy cuticle advantage

prevents drying out (dessication) of plant body

sporopllenin advantage

prevents drying out (dessication) of reprodcutive cells

apical meristems advantage

stem cell populations for root and shoot growth