Unit 4 Psych Test

Walter, from a middle-income household

Which of the following adolescents is MOST likely to make a distinction between moral judgments and social-conventional judgments?

Amanda, whose mother rarely exhibits negative emotions and scolds her whenever she exhibits anger

Which of the following children is LEAST likely to exhibit anger and other negative emotions in preschool?

Sam, a 14-year-old growing up in a Hindu household in India

Which of the following children is MOST likely to say that helping other people is a moral obligation, not a matter of personal choice?

intentional rather than accidental and think they need to get back at that child

aggressive children are more likely to interpret an ambiguous situation as

oxytocin (14.2)

certain genes are associated with individual differences in ___ that can influence prosocial behavior

touching the preferred children, smiling at them, and engaging in positive interactions with them more than other peers

children (as young as 12-18 months)display a preference for some children by

companionship, similarity in attitudes/interests, acceptance, trust, genuineness, mutual admiration, and loyalty

children and Asian and Wester countries define friendships by

14 months

children are able to cooperate with children or adults to reach a goal that will benefit both

a positive relationship (14.2)

children are likely to imitate the prosocial behavior of adults with whom they have

2nd year of life

children begin to have friends as early as their

3 or 4

children can maintain friendships with peers and most have at least one friendship

seem powerful to their peers and to gain status

children engage in bullying in order to

prosocial moral reasoning

children from difference cultures vary somewhat in their

the same youths who are bullies or victims offline

cyberbullies and cybervictims tend to be

by observing children playing games like marbles in which they often deal with issues of rules and fairness

how did Piaget initially study children's moral reasoning

12 months- possessing objects 18 months- physical aggression like hitting and pushing

how early can children exhibit aggression

preschool

the associated between aggression and perceived popularity has been observed by children as young as

greater increase in cortisol levels and greater decline in their sense of self-worth

when a best friend is not present during a negative event or experience, there is a

2.3x

when two adolescents participate in the same activity, they were ___ more likely to be friends

the greater amount of time spent together

why is rate of conflict high among friends

more abstract and are based on more internalized principles and values

with age, children's prosocial-moral judgements become

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) (14.3)

- a schoolwide intervention program that aims to change the overall school climate and thereby reduce negative behaviors and increase positive behaviors among staff and students -based on learning theories -behaviorism: positive student behavior can be increased by praising it when it does occur -social learning theory: having staff model such behavior so that students will turn to imitate it

Fast Track program 14.3

-a federally funded intervention for children at high risk for antisocial behavior -trained students in a special curriculum designed to promote understand and communication of emotions, positive social behavior, self-control, and social problem solving -for children with the most serious behavior problems -successful in exhibiting less aggression and disruptive behavior -goal was to reduce conduct behaviors

autonomous morality (14.1)

-age 11 or 12 -children no longer accept blind obedience to authority as the basis of moral decision -understand rules are the product of social agreement and can be changed -believe punishment should be "fit to crime" and that adults are not always fair in how they deliver punishment -consider motives and intentions -According to Piaget, individual differences in the rate of children's progress is due to differences in cognitive maturity, in opportunities for interactions with peers and for reciprocal role-taking, and in how authoritarian and punitive parents are with them

conscience (14.1)

-an internal regulatory mechanism that increases the individual's ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in his or her culture -restrains antisocial behavior or destructive impulses and promotes a child's compliance with adult's rules and standard -can promote prosocial behavior by causing a child to feel guilty when engaging in uncaring behavior or failing to live up to internalized values about helping others -developed slowly over time

Carol Gilligan (14.1)

-argued that Kohlberg's classification of moral reasoning is biased against females because it does not adequately recognize differences in the way males and females reason morally -says males value principles of justice and rights -females value caring, responsibility for others, and avoidance of exploiting or hurting others

postconventional moral reasoning (14.1)

-centered on ideals, it focuses on moral principles -stage 5: Social contract or Individual Rights orientation, moral behavior involved upholding rules that in the best interest of the group, are impartial, or were agreed upon by the group. some values (life, liberty, and basic human rights) are universally right and must be upheld in any society and individuals should act in accordance with these universal principles rather than with the law -stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles, commitment to self-chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles of justice (equality of human rights, respect for the dignity of each human being) individuals should act in accordance with these universal principles rather than with the law

conventional moral reasoning (14.1)

-centered on social relationships, it focuses on compliance with social duties and laws -stage 3: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity orientation, good behavior is doing what is expected by people who are close to the person or what people generally expect of someone in a given role, being good is important and entails having good motives, showing concern about others and maintaining good relationships -stage 4: social system and conscience orientation, moral behavior involves fulfilling one's duties, upholding laws, and contributing to society or one's group, individual is motivated to keep the social system going and to avoid a breakdown in its functioning

PATHS (Promoting alternative thinking strategies) (13.3)

-children (4-11) -learn to identify emotional expressions and to think abut the causes and consequences of different ways to express emotions -provides opportunities to develop conscious strategies for self control through verbal mediation and practicing ways to self regulate -illustrated by the Control Signs Poster, designed to remind children how to deal with troubling social situations with the colors red, yellow, and green to encourage calming behaviors

heteronomous morality (14.1)

-children believe that what determines whether an action is good or bad are the consequences of the action, not the motives or intentions behind it -children are still in pre operational stage (under 7) -regard rules and duties to others as unchangeable given -in their view, justice is whatever authorities say is right

2nd year of life

-children feel empathy and sympathy by their -more likely to comfort someone who is upset than to become upset themselves

transitional period (14.1)

-children taking an active role in this transition using information from their social interactions to figure out how moral decisions are made and how rules are constructed -age 7 or 8 to 10 -transition from heteronomous morality to the next stage -occurs as children are reaching the concrete operational stage -children learn to take one another's perspective and to cooperate -children start to value fairness and equality and begin to become autonomous in their thinking about moral issues

rejected children

-have more trouble that other children in finding constructive solutions to difficult social situations and are more hostile, demanding, and threatening -theory of mind may be less developed -have greater difficulty understanding others' feelings and behaviors -those who are overly aggressive or withdrawn

attachment theory (13.4)

-maintains that whether a child's attachment to the parent is secure of insecure affects the child's future social competence and the quality of the child's relationships with others

Lawrence Kohlberg (14.1)

-primarily interested in the sequences through which children's moral reasoning develops over time -proposed that the development of moral reasoning proceeds through a specific series of stages that are discontinuous and hierarchical -each new stage is qualitatively different, more advanced way of thinking

pre conventional moral reasoning (14.1)

-self-centered, it focuses on getting rewards and avoiding punishment -stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation, what is seen right is obedience to authorities, children's conscience is fear of punishment and their moral action is motivated by avoiding punishment -stage 2: instrumental and exchange orientation, what is right is what is in one's own best interest or involved equal exchange between people

controversial

-sociometric status that refers to children or adolescent who are liked by quite a few peers and are disliked by quite a few others -have characteristics of popular and rejected children -tend to be aggressive, disruptive, and prone to anger -tend to be cooperative, sociable, good at sports, and humorous -very socially active and tend to be group leaders -viewed as arrogant and snobbish

neglected (13.3)

-sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are infrequently mentioned was either liked or disliked; they simply are not noticed much by peers -less sociable and less disruptive, likely to back away from peer interactions that involve aggression -perceive that they receive less support from peers -not particularly anxious about their social interactions

withdrawn-rejected (13.3)

-sociometric status that refers to rejected children who are socially withdrawn, wary, and often timid -make up 10-25% of the rejected category -frequently victimized by peers -feel isolated, lonely, and depressed -may be a cause and consequence of peer exclusion and rejection -

environmental

A behavioral change mechanism describes responses to _____ contingencies that contribute to development.

on his or her back

A caregiver who ensures that a baby sleeps _____ reduces the possibility of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

being able to see another's perspective

A key factor in developing empathy and sympathy is:

instrumental and exchange

According to Kohlberg, at the _____ orientation level of moral development, a person performs an action only in the expectation of receiving a benefit in return.

preconventional to conventional

According to Lawrence Kohlberg, children move from the _____ level of moral reasoning as a result of concrete thought and peer experiences.

the reasons behind his or her answers to questions about a moral dilemma.

According to Lawrence Kohlberg, in order to locate a person's stage of moral reasoning, the crucial factor is:

7

According to a national survey of high school students, _____% of all adolescents aged 12 to 18 have reported some form of cyberbullying in the past school year

"does not listen to me"

According to the text, elementary school children use several different dimensions to evaluate their friendships. An example of the dimension labeled "conflict and betrayal" would be:

increase

According to the text, the degree of genetic influence on individual differences tends to _____ over the course of development.

This disciplinary approach is associated with different outcomes depending on the culture.

According to the text, which statement BEST describes the use of scolding and guilt to control children?

place many restrictions on her contact with peers

Maria, an adolescent girl whose family has strong Mexican American traditional values, is likely to have parents who:

3 years

Angie has just made a "best friend" for the first time. Angie is probably _____ old

7 years old

Anna defines her friends based on how much they play together and share activities. How old is Anna?

5x more

Approximately how many times more children in the United States receive care outside their homes than in 1965?

25-30

Approximately what percentage of rejected children ultimately drop out of school?

50%

Approximately what percentage of the differences in IQ, prosocial behavior, and empathy in a given population are attributable to differences in genetic inheritance?

a mother who aroused a sympathy response from April by explaining why donating stuffed animals to a hospital would make the children happy

April is a 35-year-old woman who generously donates her time and money anonymously to help people who are needy. According to the text, April has MOST likely experienced which scenario more regularly as a child?

reciprocity and exchange between equals.

As children become older, peers may become more important as a source of emotional support. Peers provide children with their first experience of an intimate interpersonal relationship based upon the notion of:

3 months

At about what age do infants progress from having almost no binocular depth perception to having adultlike levels of depth perception?

3 years

At approximately what age do children begin to make distinctions between moral judgments and social conventional judgments?

1) securely attached children develop positive social expectations and are inclined to interact readily with other children 2) they develop the foundation for understanding reciprocity in relationships, learn to give and take in relationships and to be empathic 3) likely to be confident, enthusiastic, and friendly with is attractive to other children and facilitate social interaction

Attachment theorists suggested that a secure attachment between parent and child promotes competence with peers in 3 ways:

Japanese preschoolers and school-age children less often express anger and other negative emotions than do U.S. peers.

Because of the views held about emotion in Japanese culture:

-a sense of personal affirmation. -validation of characteristics she has in common with other members. -a sense of belonging.

Brianna, who is in middle childhood, is likely to use her clique for:

2 years

By what age do children engage in cooperative problem solving and reverse roles during play?

behavior problems in early adulthood including antisocial behavior

CD has been found to predict

assigned to a crowd by her peers

Cara, a 16-year-old, is MOST likely to be:

secure

Children are more likely to internalize parental standards if their attachment style is:

popular; disliked and rejected

Children who are cooperative, friendly, sociable, and sensitive to others tend to be _____ with their peers, whereas those who are aggressive or disruptive tend to be _____.

desire to understand the world

Children's construction of informal theories about inanimate objects, living things, and people are motivated by their:

reflects the standards of his/her parent(s)

Consistent with Freud's theory, a child's conscience:

more prosocial than are girls

Cross-cultural research suggests that girls who live in societies in which they are expected to take care of younger children are _____ who live in societies that do not have this expectation

pre conventional

Priscilla wants to obtain rewards and avoid punishments. Lawrence Kohlberg would consider this to be the goal of _____ moral reasoning.

a sociometric status measure

Developmentalists gauge a child's status in a group by using:

be more focused on Derek than on Diana

Dianna and Derek's mother uses a lot of emotional coaching. To be effective, her coaching should NOT:

predict

Early differences in positive moral behaviors appear to _____ later developmental differences in children's readiness to engage in prosocial behavior.

anterior cingulate

Effortful attention relies on the development of connections between two parts of the brain: the _____, which is active in attention to goals, and the limbic area, which is active in emotional reactions.

most

Ellie has recently begun preschool and has one friend named Bea who is in the class with her. When Ellie engages in pretend play, she is _____ likely to engage in pretend play with Bea than with other children in the class.

mixed-gender groups

Erika is a 16-year-old girl. She is likely spending less time than she used to with:

increase substantially

Especially with friends, cooperation and coordination in children's interactions continue to _____ from the toddler to the preschool years. This is especially evident in such areas as shared pretend play.

24 months

Evelyn has begun to initiate more interactions with some children than with others, and contributes more when playing games with those children. According to the text, Evelyn is MOST likely around _____ old.

a domain-specific learning mechanism

Even a 6-month-old infant seems to expect bigger moving objects to produce stronger effects than do smaller moving objects. This is an example of:

prosocial behavior

Five-year-old Edward approaches a new student in his school and invites him to join in a game he is playing with other children. Edward is displaying:

heteronomous morality

Five-year-old Malik believes that actions are wrong if his parents say they are wrong and that being punished for doing something wrong is justified. According to Piaget, Malik is in which stage of morality?

a positive relationship with one's parents

For fearless children, the key factor determining whether the child internalizes the caregiver's moral values is:

the gang offers protection to them

Gang members frequently report joining gangs because:

recreational activities in which children engage.

Girls' and boys' friendships in the United States are similar in the:

It encourages infants to seek new stimulation after they have learned from an experience

How does habituation support learning in infants?

the effects of an experience depends on the timing of the experience.

If a mother comes down with rubella when her child's visual and auditory systems are at a sensitive point, the baby may be born deaf and blind. However, if she comes down with rubella later in the pregnancy, no damage will occur. This effect supports the idea that:

identical, remains fairly stable

In general, genotype remains _____ and environment _____.

India

In which country do children display a large number of helping behaviors as a result of being taught to believe that this is a moral obligation?

somewhat younger ages on prosocial dilemmas than on Kohlberg's moral dilemmas

In nearly all cultures, reasoning that reflects the needs of others and global concepts of good and bad behavior (Stage 3) emerges at

socially competent as leaders

In one study, Chinese children in China who were shy, sensitive, and cautious were viewed by teachers as:

withdrawal

In preschool or elementary school, _____ becomes linked with peer rejection.

two

In reciprocated best friendships, there are _____ people.

instrumental and concrete

In the early school years, a child's view of friendship is BEST described as:

maintain and enhance the closeness of their relationships.

Internet-based communication technologies allow friends to

instrumental aggression(14.3)

aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal (possessions)

9 years

average age of onset of CD

social system and conscience orientation

Jamie does not write on her desk because the rules of the classroom forbid it, and she wants to set a good example for her classmates. According to Kohlberg, what stage of moral development is Jamie in?

discontinuous

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development, Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, and Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development can all be described as _____ theories.

younger than 7 years old

Joseph believes that an action is good or bad based on the consequences of the action, not the motives or intentions behind it. Joseph is MOST likely:

mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity

Joseph believes that having good behavior means doing what his family expects him to do. Which of Kohlberg's stages does this belief characterize?

-modeling and teaching her to hold the door when someone is carrying something heavy. -disciplining her when she grabs a toy from another child. -arranging play dates with children with whom she can practice sharing.

Kate is a young child who is learning about prosocial behaviors from her mother. Different ways her mother can teach her to act prosocially would include:

2 years

Kimberly has begun to show signs of guilt when she does something wrong. She seems to know when she has violated a moral standard (such as refusing to give her brother his toy back when he asks for it). Kimberly is MOST likely about _____ of age

the same orders, but differ in how far they progress

Kohlberg argued that people in all parts of the world move through his stages in

preconventional, conventional, and post conventional

Kohlberg proposed that there are 3 levels of moral reasoning that have two stages within it:

stylishness

Martin, a 13-year-old boy, is MOST likely to choose a romantic partner based on:

social rules

Maxine likes to follow all classroom rules while in school, and she also likes to please her teachers. Her emphasis on these _____ is emphasized in Lawrence Kohlberg's second level of moral reasoning

similar levels of aggressiveness and bullying.

Members of a clique are often similar in that they have:

They are a source of intimacy and disclosure.

Monique is a 15-year-old girl. Which statement probably describes what she feels is MOST important about her peers?

6 years

average age of onset of ODD

13

Most of Matt's friends are boys, but he recently has made close friendships with a number of girls. How old is Matt?

teach their children group-oriented strategies for gaining entry into a group.

Mothers of children who are socially accepted tend to:

-early dating and sexual activity are associated with increased rates of current and later problem behaviors. -when a romantic relationship breaks up, hurt feelings are typical outcomes for both, and adolescents of both genders can experience mental health problems. -adolescents who have had poor-quality relationships with parents and peers are likely to have romantic relationships characterized by low levels of intimacy and commitment.

Negative consequences of romantic relationships on the development of adolescents do NOT include that:

clique

Nine-year-old Carrie hangs out with the same group of girls at school and at the bus stop, but other than one other girl, does not really consider all of them close friends. This group with which Carrie hangs out is a:

emotional disorders early in adulthood

ODD shows a stronger prediction of

over half

On average, _____ of 15-year-olds have dated a peer at one point or another.

coaching

Parents who teach their children strategies for how to enter into a group of peers are engaging in:

increased substantially

Paul and Troy have been playmates since they were very young. As they move through their toddler and preschool years, their fathers notice that the boys' cooperation and coordination in pretend play together has:

18

Physical aggression typically first manifests itself at _____ months of age.

their environment

Piaget and Kohlberg said that children learn morally from

1) social- parental control of children is coercive and unilateral, leading to children's unquestioning respect for the rules set by adults 2) cognitive- children's cognitive immaturity causes them to believe that rules are real things like chairs or gravity that exist outside of people and are not the product of the human mind

Piaget suggested that young children's belief that rules are unchangeable due to 2 factors

quarrel

Preschool friends are more likely than are nonfriends to:

fight, controlled

Preschool friends are more likely than nonfriends to _____ and to resolve conflicts in _____ ways.

giving them an example of how their behavior can help others

Providing children with household tasks teaches them about prosocial behavior by:

age 2

toddlers start to recognize moral standards and rules and exhibit signs of guilt when they do something wrong

community of leaders

Rather than following the traditional model of instruction in which teachers lecture and children take notes, _____ classrooms follow an approach in which teachers provide the minimum guidance needed for children to learn and gradually decrease their directive role as children's competence increases

openness and spontaneity

Regarding peer relationships, Piaget emphasized that peers displayed:

feels guilty when he knows he is breaking a rule.

Simon, a 2-year-old, probably

due to changes in their ability to take others' perspectives.

Selman argued that changes in friendships were qualitative and:

relational

Six-year-old Genevieve becomes angry at her classmate, Ava, and tells Ava that she is not going to be invited to anyone's birthday parties. Genevieve is engaged in which type of aggression?

a hostile attribution bias

Sixteen-year-old Mitchell is an aggressive teen who believes other people, even when they are nice to him, are negatively motivated in order to take advantage of him in some way, so he responds aggressively. Mitchell social cognitive explanation of the intentions is demonstrating:

Sue and Charlie's pattern of engaging in prosocial behaviors as children is likely to follow them into adulthood.

Sue and Charlie are siblings and are very different from each other. Sue needs to be asked repeatedly to share, while Charlie freely shares with other children in need. According to the text

empathy

Susan is at the park and sees Derek drop his ice cream cone. She notices that Derek has a sad expression and this causes her to feel sad as well. Susan is feeling:

crying and smiling to guide adults toward comforting them.

Sydney, a newborn infant, probably elicits nurturing behaviors from adults by:

concern

Sympathy often is an outcome of empathizing with another's negative emotion or negative situation. However, according to the text, the element of _____ distinguishes sympathy from empathy.

correlational

The majority of the research on the costs and benefits of friendship is:

causing the child to feel guilty when engaging in uncaring behavior.

The conscience promotes prosocial behavior by:

child characteristics may not cause the benefits.

The correlational nature of much of the research on the long-term benefits of having friends is problematic because:

cooperation, positive interactions, and conflict

what rates are high among kids?

children's increasing ability to control their own actions.

The drop in physical aggression during the preschool years is MOST likely due, in part, to:

epigenetics

The emerging field known as _____ involves the relationship between nature and nurture; although people often think of the genotype as "fixed" at birth, experience can enhance or silence gene expression.

nature doesn't reveal itself all at once

The fact that you can't predict how fast a runner a newborn infant will be is best summarized by the idea that:

the continuity of individual differences over time

The father of 7-year-old Diane reports that she is a selfish child and has been this way since she was a young toddler, refusing to share her toys or food. This represents:

content knowledge

The four categories of information-processing mechanisms covered in the text are basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and:

to attribute hostile motives to others in contexts in which the other person's motives are unclear.

The hostile attributional bias refers to the tendency:

whole-object assumption

The idea that words used to label objects refer to the whole object rather than to a part of the object is called

the US

The impact of economic inequality on children's academic achievement is highest in which country?

pretend

The kind of play that involves symbolic actions that must be mutually understood by the play partners is known as _____ play.

coaching (13.4)

The notion of a parent teaching their children social skills such as group-oriented strategies for gaining entry into a group is known as:

-actively teaching the child social skills -discussing the child's feelings with the child -removing the child from difficult play situations

The parent of a socially competent child would most likely engage in

reasoning

The parents of 8-year-old Deshawn have a hard time knowing how to teach Deshawn better how to share without "making him" do it. According to the text, Deshawn's parents could best help Deshawn learn to share through the use of _____.

socialization in their family

The primary environmental factor contributing to sympathy and prosocial behavior in children is likely to be:

neither necessary nor sufficient to cause aggressive behavior in most children.

The role of the biological correlates of aggression can BEST be summarized as

personal

The types of judgments that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration are called _____ judgments.

reasoning in an emotional tone of voice

Two-year-old Grace attends a playgroup for toddlers with her mother. When Grace takes another child's toy or pushes another child, Grace's mother gently asks her, "Do you see how that hurts [the other child]?" Grace's mother is engaging in an effective parenting style to increase prosocial behavior through:

active interpretation of experience.

Toddlers' and preschoolers' continuous "why" questions exemplify children's:

understanding how biology and environment work together.

Using medication in conjunction with behavioral therapy demonstrates the importance of:

because children are relatively equal in social status, they tend to be more open and spontaneous when expressing their ideas and beliefs with peers than adults (13.1)

What did Piaget say about friendships?

-children learn new skills and develop their cognitive capacities in peer interactions -emphasized the ways in which children's working together helps to build new skills and abilities as well as to convey the knowledge and skills valued culture (13.1)

What did Vygotsky say about friendship?

-they had significantly fewer attention or behavior problems and improved prosocial behavior up to 4 years -experienced a greater reduction in student truancy and suspensions -significantly improved math and reading achievements

What did the study about PBIS schools find?

-trusting one another -trading roles during play -imitating others' social behavior

What skills is NOT one that 2-year-olds use to support their friendships?

-Its purpose was to prevent the "feebleminded" from reproducing so as to keep the general population from being intellectually degraded. -Its purpose was to provide a method for disposing of unwanted, orphaned children

What was the purpose of the Fernald School?

not very socially competent

When Eva is aggressive toward another child at school, her mother believes it is because it is in Eva's nature and there is nothing she can do to help Eva change the behavior. Eva is MOST likely:

socially competent

When Jon is aggressive toward another child at school, his mother believes it is because of the situation, not because it is Jon's nature. Jon is MOST likely:

children's ability to gauge intentionality

Which area of Piaget's theory has received criticism?

intellectual

Which area of development shows the HIGHEST degree of continuity?

intellectual development

Which aspect of development generally shows the GREATEST continuity over time?

Friendships are defined predominantly by proximity and time spent together

Which aspect of friendship changes as children grow older?

Mary, 16

Which child is MOST likely to report that he or she relies more on friends than on parents to confide in and for support?

country of birth

Which dimension of individual differences is NOT crucial?

temperament

Which factor associated with prosocial behavior is MOST biological in nature

a child's birth order

Which factor is NOT influential in intellectual development?

imitation

Which factor is the FIRST discernible form of social learning?

low-income boys

Which group of children is MOST likely to be rejected by their peers?

Roger, a European-American child whose mother uses guilt and scolding to correct his behavior

Which of the following children is likely to suffer negative outcomes as a result of his or her parents' disciplinary approach

interviewing children's parents and teachers

Which of the following did Piaget NOT use to study moral development?

the development of health care

Which of the following historical changes in the United States has produced uniformly positive changes for children growing up there?

A child who is growing up in poverty and whose mother is frequently away at work

Which of the following infants would you predict to have a LESS secure relationship with his or her mother than the other infants listed?

children reading in rural Mexico emphasizes compassion and caring for others

Which of the following is the BEST explanation for why children growing up in rural Mexico are more likely to share their toys than are children growing up in Mexican cities or in the United States?

Children in some African societies are encouraged to move independently earlier than their peers in the United States are

Which of the following is the BEST explanation for why children in some African societies achieve motor milestones earlier in development than do their peers in the United States and other western countries?

Japanese mothers traditionally encourage dependence in their children and rarely leave them alone

Which of the following is the BEST explanation for why more Japanese infants than American infants exhibit insecure-resistant attachment patterns in the Strange Situation?

Youths who were better adjusted at age 13-14 were found to use social networking more at ages 20-22.

Which research is used to support the rich-get-richer hypothesis?

rejected

Which sociometric status is MOST likely to remain stable over time?

They are an environmental influence moderated by the genetics of the baby and mother.

Which statement describes the influences of teratogens on development?

Children's internalization of parental rules at 2 to 4 years of age predicts their self-perceptions of morality at 67 months.

Which statement illustrates gradual but consistent growth in children's conscience?

they tend to use aggression to obtain their goals

Which statement is MOST true of children who are labeled as "popular" and "cool" by other children?

They are more aggressive in classrooms with a strong peer status hierarchy.

Which statement is MOST true of sociometrically popular children's levels of aggression?

-Children consistently acted in ways congruent with the reasoning of their achieved stage. -They believed moral development progressed through stages, rather than as a gradual continuum. -Cognitive skills play a major role in children's progression through the stages.

Which statement is NOT true of both Piaget and Kohlberg?

They often are more socially competent in elementary school.

Which statement is TRUE of adolescents who were securely attached to their parents as infants?

Friends tend to be members of the same clique

Which statement is TRUE of cliques in middle childhood?

They are neither necessary nor sufficient for the development of aggression. Biological correlates only act as risk factors, which act in concert with other influences.

Which statement is TRUE of the biological correlates of aggression?

The degree of genetic influence tends to increase over the course of development

Which statement is generally TRUE of the degree of genetic influence on individual differences?

it is likely bidirectional

Which statement is likely TRUE of the link between quality of parenting and children's social competence?

Children are relatively equal with their peers in terms of social status.

Which statement is unique about peer relationships?

-Rescuers were more likely to report that adults had taught them generosity and caring for others. -Rescuers were more likely to be taught to "love thy neighbor." -Bystanders were more likely to report that adults had taught them to value economic competence.

Which statements are true of individuals who rescued Jews during World War II, when compared with bystanders who did not participate?

Piaget's theory

Which theory especially helps children master counterintuitive ideas?

cyberbullying

_____ is the use of technology including text, e-mail, websites, videos, embarrassing photos, and fake profiles to harass or upset another person, is a major concern.

popular (13.3)

a category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are viewed positively (liked) by many peers and are viewed negatively (disliked) by few peers

oppositional defiant disorder (14.3)

a disorder characterized by age-inappropriate and persistent displays of angry, defiant, and irritable behaviors -generally lose their temper easily -argue with adults and actively define adults requests or rules -blame others for their own mistakes or misbehavior and are often spiteful or vindictive

conduct disorder (14.3)

a disorder that involves sever antisocial and aggressive behaviors that inflict pain on others or involve destruction of property or denial of the rights of others -bullying, inflating fights, cruelty to animals -stealing -frequently run away from home

uninvolved- low in warmth and in control and monitoring

adolescents with substance using close friends are at risk if the parents are

similarities the members share

a key feature that underlies cliques and binds their members together is the

relational aggression 13.3

a kind of aggression that involved excluding others from the social group and attempting to do harm to other people's relationships; it includes spreading rumors, withholding friendship to inflict harm, and ignoring peers when angry or frustrated or trying to get one's own way, particularly among high status girls

relational aggression one year later, but only for those children who were rated as low to average on prosocial behavior

a longitudinal study of young children in Canada demonstrated that theory-of-mind skills at age 5 predicted levels of

gang (13.2)

a loosely organized group of adolescents or young adults who identify as a group and often engage in illegal activities

sociometric status (13.3)

a measurement that reflects the degree to which children are liked or dislike by their peers as a group

a lack of sympathy and prosocial behavior in kids and adolescents

a parenting style that involves physical punishment, threats, and an authoritarian approach tends to be associated with

friend (13.1)

a peer with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship

their romantic relationships

adolescents' working models of relationships with their parents tend to be reflected in

secondary prevention (14.3)

a program designed to help individuals at risk for developing a problem or condition, with the goal of preventing the problem or condition -problems with attention, self regulation, or peer interactions -staff praise them when they exhibit appropriate behavior -target's 15% of the student population -goal of reducing problem behavior

tertiary intervention (14.3)

a program designed to help individuals who already exhibit a problem or condition -individualized plan is created that may include interaction with school counselors, special education teachers, or other specialists -goal is to reduce the frequency and severity of problem behavior

primary prevention (14.3)

a program targeting all individuals in a particular setting (school) in order to prevent the occurrence of a problematic behavior or condition -school staff are trained to show model behavior -posters are hung up around the school showing behavior that is expected

service learning 14.3

a strategy for promoting positive youth development that integrates school-based instruction with community involvement in order to promote civic responsibility and enhance learning -can increase empathy, awareness of larger social issues, ability to participate in cooperative activity, and capacity for making responsible decisions

introducing themselves to new people and suggesting to new friends that they hang out sometime

a study with 700 dutch children concluded that they more they used instant messaging, the more comfortable they were

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

about half of the children with ODD or CD have

the less peer acceptance was related to adolescents' life satisfaction

according to one study, the greater the importance of traditional family values,

middle to late adolescence

adolescents perceive the quality of their friendships as improving from

regulate their attention and behavior

adolescents who are low in the ability to ____ are also at increased risk if their peers are antisocial

intimacy and commitment

adolescents who have had poor quality relationships with parents and peers are likely to have romantic relationships characterized by low levels of

finding similar peers

allows youth to connect with others who share their interests which increases their sense of belongingness and well-being

close friends

although friends tend to be members of the same clique, many members of a clique do not view one another as

positive youth development 14.3

an approach to youth intervention that focus on developing and nurturing strengths and assets rather than on correcting weakness and deficits Five Cs: -Competence -Confidence -Connection -Character -Caring and compassion

heredity, environmental factors

appears to play a stronger role in aggression in early childhood and adulthood that it does in adolescence, when ___ are a major contributor

25%-30%

approximately ___ of rejected children drop out of school

criticize and expand on one another's ideas and to elaborate and clarify their own ideas

as Piaget pointed out, friends are more likely than non friends to

the level and importance of intimacy

as children grow older one important dimension changes:

parent's moral values

as they mature, children are more likely to take on their ____, and to exhibit guilt for violating those values if their parents use disciplinary practices low in parental power and high in reasoning that help the children understand and learn the parents; values -facilitated by a secure, positive parent-child relationship

impair a child's competence with peers

attachment theorists argue an insecure attachment is likely to

aggression (14.3)

behavior intended to physically or emotionally harm others

comorbid (14.3)

being present simultaneously, the same individual developing another mental disorder

Piaget (14.1)

believed that interactions with peers, more than adult influence, accounts for advances in children's moral reasoning

-heredity -temperament -hormonal factors (testosterone) -neurological deficits that affect attention and regulatory capabilities -none of these are a significant source to cause aggression, just predispose a child to aggression

biological factors that contribute to aggression

12x

boys are ___ more likely to use gaming sites to contact friends

unschooled, nonindustrial populations

boys tend to spend more time with peers than girls do in ___ likely because they are less closely monitored

7th grade

by __, 10% of cliques contain both sexes

feelings of self-worth and a general sense of competence and can improve functioning in people who are prone to depression, sadness, or aggression

by late adolescence, having a high-quality romantic relationship is associated with

-peer rejection and associating with deviant peers -genetics for early onset -environment

can be linked with ODD and CD

more control over interactions

can control when, how, and with whom they connect leads children and youth to feel they are in charge of their social lives

poor paternal monitoring -not knowing where they are, home they are with, and what they are doing -important because monitoring reduces the likelihood that older children with associate with deviant, antisocial peers and help them know if their child is engaging in antisocial behavior

can increase children's antisocial behavior

24 months

children have begin to develop skills that allow greater complexity in their social interactions including imitating peers' social behaviors, engaging in cooperative problem solving, and trading roles during play

positive, close relationships with their parents

children having difficulty with their peers were less likely to experience increases over time in depressive symptoms if they had

gossip with friends about other children

children learn about peer norms, including how, why, and when to display or control expression of emotions and other behaviors

9

children seem to become more sensitive to the needs of others and to the inequalities among people

cognitive maturity of their play and in the levels of their cooperativeness, antisocial behavior, acceptance by peers, and shyness

children tend to like peers who are similar to themselves in the

2 to 3

children this age often ignore their siblings' distress to need or watch without intervening and may make the situation worse with teasing or aggression

neurological deficits -hyperactivity -difficulty in paying attention

children who are aggressive from early in life have

callous and antisocial, susceptible to peer pressure, higher in social status, and tend to have harsh and insensitive parents

children who are bullies tend to be

prosocial, prosocial and aggressive

children who are liked tend to be highly ___, while children who are popular exhibit both ___ behaviors

a difficult temperament and a lack of self-regulatory skills from a very early age

children who develop problems with aggression and antisocial behavior tend to exhibit

relational aggression

children who engage in physical aggression tend to engage in

harsh or low-quality parenting

children who experience _____ are at greater risk of becoming aggressive or antisocial

-aggressive, whinny, socially withdrawn, and low in popularity in elementary school -express less happiness with peers -less sympathy and prosocial behavior -demonstrate poorer skills in resolving conflicts

children who were insecurely attached as infants ten to be

-problem behaviors in early years -aggression in childhood -criminality in adolescence and adulthood

children whose parents often use harsh but non-abusive physical punishment and are cold and punitive are prone to

temperaments

children with differing __ may develop a conscience in different ways

late childhood and adolescence

children's judgements begin to be based on expletive perspective taking (thinking about how they would feel in that situation) and morally relevant emotions such as sympathy, guilt, and positive feeling for performing beneficial actions

the elementary school years, peaks at about 8th or 9th grade, and declines thereafter

children's susceptibility to peer pressure to become involved in antisocial behavior increases in

middle childhood

cliques immerse typically around

Beatrice Whiting and Carolyn Edwards (13.1)

conducted a cross-cultural differences in peer relationship study

a range of individual, home, school, neighborhood, and societal factors

consistent with Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, bullying behavior is influenced by

moral judgements (14.1)

decision that pertain to issues of right and wrong, fairness, and justice

personal judgements (14.1)

decision that refer to action in which individual preferences are the main consideration -whom to be friends with

social-conventional judgements

decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social coordination and social organization -such as choices about clothing, table manners, and forms of greeting

age 5

deviance training has been found to begin as early as __ and to predict antisocial and delinquent behaviors into adolescence

antisocial behavior (14.3)

disruptive, hostile, or aggressive behaviors that violate social norms or rules and that harm or take advantage of others

current and later problem behaviors (drinking or drugs), social and emotional difficulties

early dating and sexual activity are associated with increased rates of

family risk factors -mother being single at birth -mother being stressed prenatally and during the child's preschool years -mother being psychologically unavailable in preschool years -parent antisocial behaviors -low maternal education and poverty -child neglect and physical abuse

early-oneset conduct problems are associated with

socially competent and liked by peers

elementary school children whose parents allow them to engage in numerous social activities in the neighborhood and extra curricular activities at school are more

reactive aggression (14.3)

emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one's perceptions that other people's motives are hostile -initiate aggressive responses to provocation -evaluate their responses as morally acceptable

who view a peer's distress

empathy is present in children

prosocial behavior, which may provide the building blocks on which morality, learned from family and culture, is built

evidence suggests that there is some innate component to

the mother's use of gentle discipline that includes reasoning with the child and providing nonmaterial incentives for compliance

for infants who are prone to fear, the development of conscience is promoted by

more often and better with one another and cooperate and work together more effectively

friends communicate ___ than non friends

academic motivation and self0perceptions

friends in both childhood and adolescence are more similar than nonfriends in

detrimental influence i.e. causing the friend to partake in violence, drug use, or other negative behaviors

friends who have behavioral problems may exert a

behaviors, actions, and beliefs

friendships motivate many of our

wrong even if authorities do not see the behavior

from age 2-4 (by 4) children develop the understanding that certain behaviors are

drop, increase

from ages 11 to 18, there is a marked ___ in the number of adolescents who belong to a single clique and an ___ in the number of adolescents who have ties to many cliques or to peers at the margins of cliques

victims of violence themselves, from either fellow gang members or through fights with rival gangs

gange member who engage in violence are also often

attend to and remember what their mother tells them

gentle disciple arouses fearful children just enough that they

fearless young children because it does not arouse their attention

gentle discipline seems to be unrelated to the development of conscience in

crowds (13.2)

groups of people who have similar stereotyped reputations

attachment and social learning theorists (13.4)

have asserted that early parent-child interactions are linked to children's peer interactions at an older age

by presenting children with hypothetical moral dilemmas and then questioning them about the issues involved (Heinz dilemma)

how did Kohlberg assess moral reasoning

change mechanisms working together

he development of effortful attention involves the contributions of genes, neurotransmitters, interconnections among brain areas, and the external environment. This example illustrates

altruistic motives 14.2

helping others for reasons that initially include empathy or sympathy for others and, at later ages, the desire to act in ways consistent with one's own conscience and moral principles

peer victimization, suggesting that temperamental or other personal characteristics may increase the likelihood of children becoming both aggressive and victimized

hereditary factors associated with aggression appear to predict

harm the quality of friendships and predicts increases in anxiety and depression

high levels of internet use primarily for entertainment can

constructive and supportive parenting, including authoritative parenting

high levels of prosocial behavior and sympathy in children tend to be associated with

authoritative, high in control and warmth

if adolescence parents are __ they are more likely to be protected against peer pressure

authoritarian- low in warmth, high in control

if adolescence parents are more ___ they are more susceptible to peer's drug use and use themselves

children of different ages (13.1)

in societies where children do not attend school or segregated by age they are more likely to develop friendships with

-extended families with many relatives -assigned to chores that were very important for the welfare of other family members

in the more prosocial cultures, children often lived in

elementary school children

increasingly express concern about social approval and acting in a manner that is considered good by other people and society

conflicts with their romantic partners in early adulthood

individuals who were securely attached in infancy rebound better from

higher levels of problem behavior such as aggression from preschool through high school

infants and toddlers who frequently express intense negative emotion and demand unusually large amounts of attention tend to have

proactive aggression

influence of heredity is greater for

verbal bullying (13.2)

insulting, teasing, harassing, or intimidating someone

relational aggression

intended to harm others by damaging peer relationships -excluding peers from play

-children's relationships with their peers by enhancing aspects of their emotional development -foster knowledge about emotions, self-regulation, prosocial behavior, and social competence and sometimes reduces self withdrawal and aggression

interventions for rejected children aim to improve

genetics, socialization of family members, the influence of peers, and cultural factors -frequently being exposed to verbal and physical violence between their parents -children from low income families

key contributors of aggression and antisocial behavior

greater anonymity (13.1)

leads children and youth to reduce their social inhibitions and could help them interact with others. Children could get carried away

-discipline that involves reasoning -combination of parental warmth and certain parenting practices

likely to foster children's voluntary prosocial behavior

aggression and peer victimization

low self-regulation is related to

religious beliefs -socioeconomic class can also influence designations

may affect what is considered a moral or social-conventional issue

less emphasis on physical appearance (13.1)

media allows children and youth to connect with others based on their shared interests and personalities rather than appearance

increase

membership in a clique seems to ___ the likelihood that children will exhibit behaviors similar to those of other group members

older adolescents

more likely to select partners based on compatibility and characteristics that enhance intimacy, like caring and compromise

girls' social skills

mothers' coaching may be especially important for enhancing

increases

on the basis of heritability, the role of genetic factors in the children's prosocial concerns for others and in their behavior __ with age

conscience

one factor that may push a child toward making a prosocial-moral judgement

cognitive skills and enhances performance on creative tasks

openness promotes

8th to 11th grade

other gender close friendships increase in frequency from

prosocial-moral dilemmas and concern prosocial behavior

other types of moral dilemmas not studied by Kohlberg

popular or rejected, neglected or controversial

over short periods of time (weeks or a few months) children who are ___ tend to remain so, whereas children who are ___ are likely to acquire a different status

rejected children

over time, sociometric stability for ___ is generally higher than for popular, neglected, or controversial children and may increase with the age of the child

indirectly (through their interactions with their children) and directly (through monitoring and coaching) (13.4)

parents affect children's peer relationships

-take others' perspectives -to increase their confidence that they are competent to assist others -to experience emotional rewards for helping

participation in prosocial activités may also give children and adolescents opportunities to

Cliques (13.2)

peer groups that children voluntarily form or join themselves, membership is unstable

peers (13 intro)

people of approximately the same age and status who are unrelated to one another

moral manner and to assist others, delinquent activities

people with higher-level moral reasoning are more likely to behaving in a ___, and they are less likely to engage in delinquent activities

55%

percentage of adolescents that report spending time with friends online

83%

percentage of adolescents that report that school is the most common setting where they spend time with close friends

physical bullying (13.2)

physically hurting or threatening to hurt someone

temperament, theory of mind, and social cognition

predicts children's prosocial behavior

effectively coach them on how to interact with unfamiliar peers

preschool children tend to be more socially skilled and more likely to be accepted by peers if their parents

as much or more

preschool friends have conflict ___ than non friends do and express hostility toward one another by means of assaults, threats, and refusing requests

fighting, delinquency, and other antisocial behavior at ages 9 through 15

preschoolers who exhibit lack of control, impulsivity, high activity level, irritability, and distractibility are prone to

more positive and social with peers, have a larger and more stable set of play partners, and more easily initiate social interactions with peers than do other children, so long as the parents are not overly controlling

preschoolers whose parents arrange and oversee opportunities for them to interact with peers tend to me

friends than peers

pretend play occurs more often among ___ because friends; experiences with one another allow them to trust that their partner will work to interpret and share the meaning of symbolic actions

rich-get-richer hypothesis (13.1)

proposes that those youths who already have good social skills benefit from the internet and related forms of technology when it comes to developing friendships

social bullying (13.2)

purposely excluding someone from conversations or activities, spreading rumors, or withholding friendship

early and middle adolescence

romantic relationships with peers tend to develop across

mid-adolescence

serious acts of violence increase in

social compensation hypothesis (13.1)

social media may be especially beneficial for lonely, depressed, and socially anxious adolescents because they can take their time thinking about and revising what they say and reveal in their messages

they are more likely to interact in appropriate and positive ways when engaged in social networking

socially competent people may benefit most from the internet because

long periods

sociometric status is likely to change over

rejected (13.3)

sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are liked by few peers and disliked by many

aggressive-rejected (13.3)

sociometric status that refers to children who are especially prone to physical aggression, disruptive behavior, delinquency, and negative behavior such as hostility and threatening others -at risk for an increase in symptoms of hyperactivity, attention deficit disorder, conduct disorder, and substance abuse -more likely to have academic difficulties and higher rates of absenteeism and worsens over time

the quality of children's and adolescents' friendships

some research suggests that the security of attachment with fathers may be especially important for

children's aggression over time across all racial or ethnic groups

spanking and yelling predicted an increase in

cultural differences in values

the cross-cultural differences in the amount of peer interaction adolescents engage in are likely due to

whether children are assigned to the same classroom from one year to the next

the degree to which cliques remain stable appears to depend on

kindness, cooperation, sharing, and empathy

the degree to which preschoolers engage in and are competent at pretend play is related to their prosocial behaviors such as

-children's increasing ability to use verbal relational aggression -development of ability to use language to resolve or pursue conflicts and to control their own emotions and actions

the drop in physical aggression in the preschool years is likely due to

breadth of characteristics

the higher a child's IQ at any given age, the higher the child's grades, test scores, and general knowledge exemplify which characteristic of individual differences

rate how much they like or dislike each of their classmates (13.3)

the most common method developmentalists use to assess peer status is to ask children to

popular, rejected, neglected, average, or controversial

the most commonly used sociometric system classifies children into one of 5 groups:

peers over possession and conflicts between siblings over almost anything

the most frequent causes of aggression in the preschool years are conflicts between

children's subsequent moral development

the nature of early parent-child disciplinary interactions sets the stage for

-economic disadvantage -being a member of an ethnic minority -interacting with deviant peers -having a difficult, irritable temperament from infancy onward

the onset of antisocial behavior in adolescence is predicted by

family and cultural influences

the potential for peer-group influence to promote problem behavior is affected by

socialization in the family

the primary environmental influence on children's development of prosocial behavior is their

Cyberbullying (13.2)

the use of technology including texts, emails, websites, videos, embarrassing photos, and fake profiles to harass or upset another person

1) by modeling and teaching prosocial behavior 2) by arranging opportunities for children to engage in prosocial behavior 3) by disciplining their children and eliciting prosocial behavior form them

three ways in which parents socialize prosocial behavior in children

deviancy training (13.1)

through their talk and behavior, youths who are antisocial may both model and reinforce aggression and deviance in one another by making these behaviors seem acceptable

middle to late adolescence

traits such as kindness, honesty, intelligence, and interpersonal skills are important factors for a relationship in

oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder

two disorders involving antisocial behavior

proactive aggression (14.3)

unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire

increases, decreases

verbal aggression ___ with age while physical aggression ____

aggression, withdrawal, depression, and loneliness leading to hanging out with peers who are engaged in deviant behaviors as well as problems at school and absenteeism

victimization by peers likely increases

rejected by peers, feel depressed, and do poorly in school. some are aggressive as well

victims of bullying tend to be

prosocial behavior (14.1)

voluntary behavior intended to benefit another such as helping, sharing with, and comforting others

physical attraction, athleticism, the status of one's friends, children's social behavior, personality, cognitions about others, and goals when interacting with peers

what are some factors that make some children more liked than others

-secure attachment and mutual cooperation -more motivated by desire to please their mother than by fear of her

what fosters the development of conscience in fearless children

-provide a ready-made pool of peers for socializing -offer validation of the characteristics that the group members have in common -most importantly, provide a sense of belonging

what functions do cliques in middle childhood provide

no such relationship, to one casual one, to multiple casual relationships, and finally to a single more committed relationship (13.2)

what is the typical sequence of a romantic relationship

characteristics that bring status like being stylish and having the approval of peers

young adolescents tend to be drawn to and choose romantic partners on the basis of

understanding of others' mental and emotional states than do children whose peer relationships are less close

young children who discuss emotions with their friends develop a better

post-traumatic stress disorder

youth in gangs tend to exhibit symptoms of ___, especially if they have been forced to engage in violence toward others

leaders and relatively inclusive in their social relationships as well as socially competent and high in self-esteem

youth who maintain cross-racial/ethnic friendships tend to be

-anxiety disorder -attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

youth with ODD or CD have also been diagnosed with

stop engaging in antisocial behavior later in adolescents or early adulthood

youths who develop problem behaviors in adolescence typically

make friend and to express their feelings

youths with high levels of depressive symptoms use online communication to