Unit 7 Psych - Cognition

Noam Chomsky

language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language Criticized Skinner's emphasis on imitation; language acquisition CANNOT be explained through learning; Argued that humans have an inborn, or "native" propensity to develop language

Wolfgang Kohler

Gestalt psychologist that first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments. He noticed the solution process wasn't slow, but sudden and reflective.

Daniel Schacter

He is an American psychologist. His research has focused on psychological and biological aspects of human memory and amnesia, with a particular emphasis on the distinction between conscious and nonconscious forms of memory and, more recently, on brain mechanisms of memory distortion.

relearning

▪memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time. -only so much is still retained with relearning

George Sperling

Psychologist associated with early research into the capacity of sensory memory. Tested recall time by flashing rows of numbers and saw if participants could immediately recall the numbers

Shelley Taylor

Scientist that argued the "fight or flight" response with the idea that women "tend and befriend." Women will join forces and protect the offspring. Release oxytocin.

concept

- a unit of thought -A mental representation/grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people -Examples: chairs; fruits; animals; FORMAL CONCEPTS: defined by specific rules or features NATURAL CONCEPTS: the result of real-world experiences

Jeffrey Karpicke

-Identified the Testing Effect - tests are not only a means of assessing learning but also improving it. -said "testing is a powerful means of improving learning, not just assessing it."

creativity

-The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas; unconventional solutions -five components: --expertise --imaginative thinking skills --a venturesome personality --a creative environment These are characteristics of non directed/divergent thinkers

one-word stage

-also known as holographic speech -begins at or around the age of 1 -Speaks one word at a time & is able to make family members understand; "dog!" "ball!" -By month eighteen, toddlers can say between three and fifteen words

explicit memory

-encoded and transferred into long term memory in the medial temporal lobe and hippocampus (hippocampus is the neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage) -memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare -also called declarative memory

imagery

-mental pictures -a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

echoic memory

-▪momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

fixation

-The inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving -Examples: functional fixedness, mental set; the matchstick problem (how would you arrange six matches to form 4 equilateral triangles) -you get "fixed" on a certain idea and can't think outside of it

long-term potentiation (LTP)

-a synaptic change in long-term memory which increases in synapses' firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

Daniel Kahneman

defined availability and representative heuristics an Israeli psychologist and Nobel laureate, who is notable for his work on the psychology of judgment and decision-making, behavioral economics and hedonistic psychology.

Endel Tulving

suggested 2 kinds of long-term memory: episodic and semantic One of his many contributions was the encoding specificity principle

recognition

-Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned -as on a multiple-choice test A part of recognition is mood-congruent memory: tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood. Memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues

language

-Our spoken, written or signed words & the ways we combine them in order to communicate -Symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols -can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages -5,000 to 6,000 languages -most languages also include dialects

H.M. (Henry Molaison)

-Patient H.M. suffered a brain injury when he was hit by a bicycle at age eight This injury resulted in severe epileptic seizures, which could not be controlled by medications and grew progressively worse. -H.M. attended high school and worked various jobs but eventually had to be looked after constantly because of his epileptic attacks. -At the age of 27, H.M. underwent surgery that destroyed most of his hippocampus in an effort to reduce the epileptic seizures. -The surgery was considered a success, however, following the surgery in a series of tests completed by Brenda Milner it was discovered that H.M. suffered from severe memory loss. -He became unable to form any new memories lasting for more than about 30 seconds in what was diagnosed as a severe case of anterograde amnesia. Nothing new could be stored in his long-term memory, but his childhood memories were intact. The only old memories that were lost were those for events immediately before the operation. His working memory (short-term memory) also remained intact as evidenced by numerous tests. Interestingly, H.M. was able to learn new procedural memories. -Milner tested H.M. on his ability to trace the outline of a star in a mirror, this is a difficult task for all individuals, but with practice, people generally improve. H.M. showed this same type of improvement from trial to trial which lasted over time. -The aspect of H.M.`s experience that was different from others was that even though he showed improvement in the task, he had no recollection of ever having completed the task earlier. In addition, he had no knowledge of who Brenda Milner was even though she had worked with him for many years. -Patient H.M. was a research participant for 53 years, first as a patient at Hartford Hospital where Scoville performed the surgery. -For nearly 40 years, until his death in 2008, he was studied by Susan Corkin at MIT. In 1997 Patient H.M. was given an MRI, and the results showed that his brain damage was pervasive and included the hippocampus, the amygdala, and other nearby areas. -After his death, H.M.'s brain was sent to the Brain Observatory at which point it was placed in silicone and cut into 2,401 slices where it was live streamed as it was cut.

semantics

-The area of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words & word combinations -rules for determining meaning EXAMPLE: adding -ed to the end of a word makes it in the past. i.e. laugh + -ed = laughed.

morpheme

-The smallest units of meaning; may be a word or a part of a word EXAMPLES: milk = milk pumpkin = pump.kin unforgettable= un.for.get.table -Approx. 50,000 morphemes in the English language -includes root words, as well as prefixes and suffixes which contribute to the meaning of the entire word

mental set

-The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving techniques that have worked for them in the past -EXAMPLES: -Every time Lee plays Rock, Paper, Scissors he attempts to win using a "rock" -The nine dot problem: Draw four straight lines so that they pass through all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the paper & without touching any dot more than once

confirmation bias

-The tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions & to ignore or distort contradictory evidence -For example, Believers in ESP tend to remember the few studies that seem to support their beliefs, while at the same time "forgetting" the cases in which studies found no proof

framing

-The way in which an issue is posed/framed; can significantly impact decisions & judgments (as well as memory) EXAMPLES: -Ground beef should be marketed as 75% lean as opposed to 25% fat -Medicine should be marketed as 90% of the population will be saved with this medicine rather then 10% will die despite this medicine -You shouldn't drink more than 2 drinks per day vs. you shouldn't drink more than 730 drinks per year

babbling stage

-Usually begins between month 5 and 6; becomes increasingly complex as time goes on -Spontaneous utterance of various sounds; "ah-goo" -Initially, babbling is not an imitation of adult speech; however, it begins to resemble household speech around month 10 -First words generally appear between month 10 and 13

Eric Kandel

-found that experience does modify the brain's neural networks -Kandel and Schwartz observed changes in the sending neurons of a simple animal, the California sea slug -its mere 20000 or so nerves are unusually large and accessible, enabling the researchers to observe synaptic changes during learning. -by observing the slug's neural connections before and after the conditioning with electric shock, Kandel and Schwartz found that the slug releases more of the neurotransmitter serotonin at certain synapses, which become more efficient at transmitting signals.

phoneme

-In a spoken language, the smallest distinct unit of sound that can be distinguished perceptually -EXAMPLE: "Hat" has three phonemes - H-A-T -Humans are capable of producing approximately 100 different recognizable sounds -not all sounds are used in all languages -ENGLISH: approximately 40 phonemes (26 letters of the alphabet + several variations)

representative heuristic

-Judging the likelihood of something in terms of how well it seems to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information -Assumes that any object that shares characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category -main issue is that is relies on stereotypes: think of the image of the Sports Illustrated model vs the businessman over who went to Harvard EXAMPLES -Darren worked for a time as a waiter at a retirement home, on occasion people were impatient with him and could be rude. Now, Darren believes that all individuals who live in retirement homes are rude and impatient. -A dog viciously attacked Andrew when he was four, now that he is seven, he thinks that all dogs are mean and vicious.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

-german philosopher researcher of verbal memory -Hermann Ebbinghaus first began to study forgetting using nonsense syllables -Nonsense syllables are three letter combinations that look like words but are meaningless (ROH, KUF) -Ebbinghaus randomly selected a sample of the nonsense syllables, practiced them, and tested himself. The day after learning such a list, he could recall few of the syllables. -He found that the more frequently he repeated the list aloud on day one, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn the list on day 2. -This principle developed: the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning.

overconfidence

-heuristics can lead to overconfidence - The tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs & judgments -Our confidence is not a good indicator of how correct we are

Elizabeth Loftus

-in more than 200 experiments, involving more than 20,000 people, Loftus showed how eyewitnesses similarly reconstruct their memories when later questioned. -for example, she showed subjects shown video of an accident between two cars. Some subjects were asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?Others were asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? -When later asked if there was broken class in the video (which there wasn't), those who had heard the word smashed were more than twice as likely to report seeing glass broken. -furthermore, depending on the word, the subjects would estimate a higher speed of the cars. -experimentally implanted false memories of childhood traumas: she would have a family member tell a teenger 2 real stories from the teen's childhood and one fake one, such as being lost in a mall. -the subjects then "remembered" the scenario, recalling faces and emotions from that day. -also studied repression of memories

misinformation effect

-incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event (think of Loftus' experiment and the broken glass with the cars) -can be avoided by recalling events while they are fresh

syntax

A system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences Example In English, syntactic rule states that adjectives come before nouns WHITE HOUSE In Spanish, this rule is reversed... CASA BLANCA

Amos Tversky

Worked with Daniel Kahneman to identify representative heuristics and availability heuristics -won a nobel peace prize

effortful processing

EFFORTFUL requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal ▪conscious repetition of information ▪to maintain it in consciousness ▪to encode it for storage EXAMPLES • Memorizing your notes for your upcoming Introduction to Psychology exams • Repeating a phone number in your head until you can write it down

Oliver Sacks

Neurologist who studied brain damaged patients and was involved in the famous "awakenings" at a Bronx, NY psychiatric facility Oliver Sacks, M.D. is a physician, a best-selling author, and professor of neurology and psychiatry at the Columbia University Medical Center. He is best known for his collections of neurological case histories, including The Man who Mistook his Wife for a Hat (1985), Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain (2007) and The Mind's Eye (2010). Awakenings (1973).

George Miller

made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory George Miller was a psychologist who theorized that short-term memory can hold between five and nine pieces of information. This information can be stored in single units called bits or in groupings called chunks. Creating chunks of information allows you to hold more information in short-term memory.

Rajan Mahadevan

memorized over 30,000 digits of pi and recited them in order with no mistake

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units/clusters ▪ like horizontal organization--1776149218121941 ▪ often occurs automatically ▪ use of acronyms ▪ HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ▪ ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom's House Might Eat Tom's Ice Cream

déjà vu

-french for "already seen" -cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience -"I've experienced this before."

implicit memory

-retention independent of conscious recollection -also called procedural memory -procedural memories are implicit because you don't have to consciously remember the steps involved in these actions to perform them.

encoding

-the processing of information into the memory system -when you repeat a phone number over and over again so you can remember it. ▪ i.e., extracting meaning -Two types: Automatic and Effortful AUTOMATIC: unconscious encoding of incidental information ▪ space ▪ time ▪ frequency ▪ well-learned information ▪ word meanings ▪ we can learn automatic processing ▪ reading backwards Examples: What did you eat for lunch today? Was the last time you studied during the day or night? You know the meanings of these very words you are reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of the words? EFFORTFUL requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal ▪conscious repetition of information ▪to maintain it in consciousness ▪to encode it for storage EXAMPLES • Memorizing your notes for your upcoming Introduction to Psychology exams • Repeating a phone number in your head until you can write it down OTHER TYPES: -Semantic Encoding ▪encoding of meaning ▪including meaning of words -Acoustic Encoding ▪encoding of sound ▪especially sound of words -Visual Encoding ▪encoding of picture images

parallel processing

-the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. -part of automatic processing, allows us to do many things at once

automatic processing

-unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings -includes space, time, frequency, well learned information (like word meanings) Examples: What did you eat for lunch today? Was the last time you studied during the day or night? You know the meanings of these very words you are reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of the words?

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Steven Pinker

argues that human language ability is a species-specific trait that is the product of natural selection Linguist that believed that we learn language from the environment

Peter Watson

presented idea of confirmation bias

Henry Roediger

psychology professor who specializes in false memories, implicit memory, and how cognitive concepts affect learning studied false memories, and priming

Wallace Lambert

• developed theory of bilingual advantage

algorithm

- a type of directed/convergent thinking -A methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem -if available, a solution is guaranteed -the main disadvantage is that it is time consuming and often inefficient EXAMPLES: -Teddy wants to run a statistical analysis on the data that he has collected for his Advanced Placement Psychology course. He plugs all of the information into a computer and then runs an analysis of the data. -As Debbie completes her daily word search there are three words she is having difficulty finding. In order to be sure to solve the problem with 100% accuracy, she looks at every possible word combination to find these last three words.

anchoring bias

-A cognitive bias in which one's initial judgment or expectation prevents them from deviating very far even in the face of new or contradictory information EXAMPLES: -Stacey has been watching the presidential debates to be sure that she is a well-informed voter regarding the issues of the upcoming election. Stacy identifies as a Republican. As she watches the debate, the Democratic candidate makes some very good points, however, Stacy is unable to move from her negative views of the candidates and after the debate her opinion of both candidates has not moved very far from her original thoughts. -Kari has been saving money for college for the past four years; she thinks that she is close to her goal amount of $30,000 which is helpful as she is currently a senior in high school. Kari begins to look for a university she might want to attend. Once Kari starts looking at the cost of college she runs across a number of places that would cost 30,000 in a single year. Kari is reluctant to move from her original view that she can find a four-year university that will not exceed her $30,000 budget. -Sophie is having an argument with her parents regarding her curfew, her parents bring up issues of safety and curfew laws, Sophie is hesitant to seriously consider these points and will only concede that she should perhaps come home fifteen minutes earlier than she had originally proposed.

heuristic

-A guiding principle, or "rule-of-thumb" used in solving problems or making decisions -An educated guess based on prior experiences -Advantages --Allows one to simplify a problem --Faster than algorithms (in many cases) -Disadvantages --Doesn't necessarily guarantee a solution --More prone to errors than are algorithms

cognition

-All of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing and communicating -Cognitive psychologists study the following mental activities... --Concepts & Prototypes ---Problem Solving & Creativity --Decision Making --Judgment Formation

sensory memory

-the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system -holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics -Large capacity; can hold many items at once -Duration: .3 sec for visual info; 2 sec for auditory info -forms automatically, without attention or interpretation -Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory - Echoic memory and iconic memory are both types of this type of storage. -This type of memory storage does not interpret incoming information. -This type of memory storage allows us to take a 'snapshot" of our environment. -If not sent for further evaluation they will be lost forever according to the information-processing theory.

long-term memory

-the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system -Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory -Function: organizes and stores information -unlimited capacity -duration: thought by some to be permanent -encoding: process that controls movement from working to long-term memory store -retrieval: process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store -Synaptic changes: long-term potentiation - increase in synapses' firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation -good hierarchy chart in unite 7 notes ppt. -forgetting occurs when information never enters long term -allows you to remember your fifth birthday party -is the outcome of the workings of the hippocampus -allows you to remember the capitals of all 50 states -retrieval from this type of memory storage may be influenced by the decay theory -potentially infinite

visual encoding

-encoding of picture images -also known as structural encoding EXAMPLES: -Marta is taking a test and she can see the answer to the question in her mind but she cannot come up with the word. Although she remembers where she saw the answer (it was on the top right side of a page next to a cartoon) she cannot recall the answer. Marta's problem may be because she only encoded the information visually. -According to the Craik and Lockhart levels of processing model, this type of encoding results in shallow processing. -When you put information about a friends address into your memory by looking at the address on the invitation you are using visual encoding.

mnemonics

-memory aids -especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices EXAMPLES: -Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally for PEMDAS -My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Noodles - Planets in order

Memory

-persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information -Does information processing (similar to a computer) -Storage (the retention of encoded information over time) -Memory retrieval (process of getting information out of memory)

Richard Atkinson

-psychologist who worked with Richard Shiffrin to propose that we form memories in three stages --1) we record to-be-remembered information s a fleeting sensory memory --2)from there we process information into a short-term memory bin, where we encode it through rehearsal --3) Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval -Furthermore, he developed the idea of Working Memory, a new understanding of the second stage. It's saying that our short-term memory focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term.

linguistic determination / linguistic relativity

-Benjamin Lee Whorf's hypothesis -Language determines the way we think, or the nature of our thoughts -"Language itself shapes a man's basic ideas" -for instance, more snow based cultures might have more words for snow or more ways to describe it. ***Sometimes referred to as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis...

availability heuristic

-Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory; presuming that vivid memories are more common -Based on recency, vividness or distinctiveness -leads us astray because it distorts true facts in our brain to a degree. For instance, if you hear a story about someone who is fraudulently receiving unemployment, you might think that all people who receive unemployment don't need or are doing it illegally. EXAMPLES: -Kelly has just been involved with a car accident, now every time she gets into her car, she believes that she is much more likely to be involved in a car accident that she had previously thought -Jennifer has a disagreement with her math instructor; she now believes that her math instructor does not like her. Each time she enters the class she immediately thinks about this disagreement, as a result Jennifer is very tentative in class and is reluctant to respond to questions, this has negatively impacted her grade.

belief perseverance

-Maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong (might be the same thing as anchoring bias) EXAMPLE: "John has an IQ of 130, he must be a good student..." "He has a GPA of 1.8..." "He must be bored..."

recall

-measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier -as on a fill-in-the-blank test EXAMPLES: -While taking your final exam you are trying to recall which psychologist used classical conditioning to develop fear in a small boy named "Little Albert" which means you are engaging in which memory process? -While participating in a trivia contest, Noreen hits her buzzer because she knows that Abraham Lincoln was the 16th U.S. president. Which memory process is Noreen using? -Although Terry knew all of the elements of the periodic table last year in chemistry class he cannot answer a particular question on the ACT science section because he simply cannot think of the atomic number for iron. Which of the three memory processes is failing Terry?

serial position effect

-our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list -easier to remember that playing card was the last picture in a slideshow as opposed to what the first picture is

functional fixedness

-part of fixation -A block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions -candle-mounting problem: using a match and matchbox, tacks, and a candle, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

Karl Lashley

-psychologist who demonstrated that memories do not reside in spingle, specific spots -He trained rats to find their way out of a maze, then cut out pieces of their cortexes and retested their memory -No matter which small brain sectioned he removed, the rats retained at least a partial memory of how to navigate the maze -so despite the brain's vast storage capacity, we do not store information as libraries store their books: in discrete, precise locations

Robert Sternberg

Verbal Behavior (1975) Argued that children learn language the same way they learn everything else; through association, imitation and reinforcement Example As children grow older, parents may insist on closer and closer approximations of the word water before supplying the requested drink

Benjamin Lee Whorf

argued that Language determines the way we think, or the nature of our thoughts whole article on him and his idea on classroom

flashbulb memory

▪a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event -think of 9/11; kennedy assassination; march 13th

priming

▪activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Richard Shiffrin

-Worked with Atkinson to explain our memory forming process with a model -psychologist who worked with Richard Atkinson to propose that we form memories in three stages --1) we record to-be-remembered information s a fleeting sensory memory --2)from there we process information into a short-term memory bin, where we encode it through rehearsal --3) Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval -Furthermore, he developed the idea of Working Memory, a new understanding of the second stage. It's saying that our short-term memory focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term.

James Schwartz

-Worked with Eric Kandel and observed the sending of neurons in California sea slugs -found that experience does modify the brain's neural networks -Kandel and Schwartz observed changes in the sending neurons of a simple animal, the California sea slug -its mere 20000 or so nerves are unusually large and accessible, enabling the researchers to observe synaptic changes during learning. -by observing the slug's neural connections before and after the conditioning with electric shock, Kandel and Schwartz found that the slug releases more of the neurotransmitter serotonin at certain synapses, which become more efficient at transmitting signals.

prototype

-a unit of thought -An example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept -the most basic forms of concepts; based on one's experiences and cultural background -Fruit- I think apple. Apple is an example that is defining the word fruit for me. Prototypes affect thinking because we use them to compare potential examples of a concept

short-term memory

-activated memory that holds a few items briefly -look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten -conscious processing of information (where information is actively worked on) -capacity: limited (holds 7+/-2 items) -Duration: brief storage (about 30 seconds) -This type of memory storage acts as a filter. -This type of memory storage can last up to a few minutes. -The capacity for this type of memory storage can be aided by chunking. -This type of memory storage is important because it helps to integrate what we already know with incoming information. -This type of memory storage contains the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and the central executive according to Baddeley's model. -If not sent for further evaluation they will be lost forever according to the information-processing theory. -This type of memory is also known as working memory. -Maintenance rehearsal can keep a memory in this area of temporary storage a bit longer.

insight

-an example of nondirected thinking -A sudden & often novel realization of the solution to a problem; contrasts with strategy-based solutions -humans are not the only animals to rely on insight -at the moment of insight; a burst of activity occurs in the right temporal lobe, preceded by frontal lobe activity.

source amnesia

-attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution) -saying like "I heard this story from so-and-so," but you really just read it on buzzfeed

rehearsal

-conscious repetition of information ▪to maintain it in consciousness ▪to encode it for storage Maintenance rehearsal: mental or verbal repetition of information the allows information to remain in the working memory longer then the usual 30 seconds

repression

-defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories EXAMPLES -Van was in a horrible car accident when he was younger. Now when asked about the accident he cannot recall anything about the accident. -Sue has to give a speech this Friday in class. When Friday morning comes she runs late to school and misses her presentation.

Alan Baddeley

-developed the idea of Working Memory, a newer understanding of Atkinson's second stage. It's saying that our short-term memory focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term.

Fergus Craik

-discovered that rehearsal is not enough sometimes to store new information for later recall -worked with Endel Tulving to compare visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding -They flashed a word at people and then asked a question which required them to process the word at one of three levels (1: visually; 2: acoustically; 3:semantically). EXAMPLE: Word flashed is CHAIR in italics. The patient would be asked if the word was in italics (visually), if the word rhymed with fair (acoustically), and would the word fit into this sentence "she sat in the ____" (semantically). -In the experiment, the deeper, semantic processing (question 3) yielded better memory than the shallow processing elicited by questions 1 & 2. -Therefore, processing a word deeply by its meaning (semantically) produces better recognition later than does shallow processing such as attending to its appearance or sound.

spacing effect

-distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice -it is better to prep for an AP exam in chunks in the months leading up rather then all at once in May

semantic encoding

-encoding of meaning; including meaning of words -when combined with imagery, is very useful to effortful processing EXAMPLES -when you add meaning to what you need to remember for example by thinking of a personal example, you are enhancing the encoding process by using semantic encoding -According to the Craik and Lockhart levels of processing model, this type of encoding results in deep processing -creates the strongest and most durable memories -is involved whenever you choose to think of funny associations to help you remember the names of 4 new employees you work with

acoustic encoding

-encoding of sound; especially the sound of words -also known as phonetic encoding EXAMPLES: Acoustic When you study by reading or talking aloud you are utilizing acoustic encoding. -According to the Craik and Lockhart levels of processing model, this type of encoding results in intermediate processing. -After Lillian receives her new locker combination she repeats it to herself aloud ten times in a row to help her put the info into memory.

working memory

-focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information -Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory -sensory memory to working/sensory memory -Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds -Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory -focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information

retrieval

-process of getting information out of memory RECALL: -measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier -as on a fill-in-the-blank test EXAMPLES: -While taking your final exam you are trying to recall which psychologist used classical conditioning to develop fear in a small boy named "Little Albert" which means you are engaging in which memory process? -While participating in a trivia contest, Noreen hits her buzzer because she knows that Abraham Lincoln was the 16th U.S. president. Which memory process is Noreen using? -Although Terry knew all of the elements of the periodic table last year in chemistry class he cannot answer a particular question on the ACT science section because he simply cannot think of the atomic number for iron. Which of the three memory processes is failing Terry? RECOGNITION: -measure of memory in which the person has to only identify items previously learned -as on a multiple-choice test

amnesia

-severe memory loss -two main types: -Individuals who suffer severe anterograde and or retrograde amnesia as a result of damage to their medial temporal lobes still have the ability to use and create new procedural memories. This is due to the fact that these memories are related to a different area of the brain. The cerebellum is most associated with procedural memory. RETROGRADE AMNESIA: -inability to remember past episodic information; common after head injury; need for consolidation -retro=past; can't remember the past --examples: -Bria was involved in a bad trampoline accident and can no longer remember what happened right before the accident. -As a result of a serious illness Brady was temporarily unable to remember any of the events that occurred just prior to getting sick -After a car accident an individual finds that although they make a complete recovery they cannot remember the events immediately leading up to the accident. They are however able to remember what happened after they arrived at the hospital -Secret agent and government assassin Jason Bourne suffered a major loss of memory after a severe physical injury and forgot his past and what occurred before he was hurt. -individuals experience a loss of memory for events that occurred before a traumatic event or brain injury or brain illness. The amount of memory lost may be for as short as a few minutes or many years. ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA: -inability to form new memories; related to hippocampus damage -can't make new memories, but remember the past --examples: -An individual known as Patient H.M. had his hippocampus and parts of the surrounding areas of his medial temporal lobes removed to treat his severe epilepsy. Although the epilepsy was treated he was no longer able to learn new information or form new memories. -In the animated film Finding Nemo, the regal blue tang fish named Dory suffers from severe memory loss. Although Dory is able to remember her past well, she is unable to transfer new information from STM to LTM and as such cannot form new memories -Leif is experiencing a memory disorder that prevents him from forming any new long term memories. -Following a serious illness which caused damage to the patient's hippocampus they suffered serious permanent side effects including the inability to create any new long-term memories. -In this condition individuals experience an inability to create new long term memories after a traumatic event or brain injury or brain illness.

two-word stage

-telegraphic speech -beings prior to second birthday -Consists primarily of content words Articles, prepositions and other less critical words are omitted; -"Go car!" "Doggy where?" "Give doll!" -Generally follows syntactical rules

iconic memory

-visual information ▪a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli ▪a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second

retroactive interference

-▪disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information -can't remember the OLD information because of the NEW information -when an individual has a problem recalling previously learned material because more recent learning has blocked these memories EXAMPLES: -Blake is studying for his midterms. First he studies psychology and then he studies sociology. When he is done he can barely remember anything for psychology because sociology is fresh in his mind. -Missy has been watching every season of Grey's Anatomy. The current season is preventing her from recalling the characters from the first season -Adolfo is trying to remember his high school chemistry teachers name but all he can think of is the name of his current college chemistry professor -Vilhem who is Swedish has started studying Hungarian after he has already learned Romanian. When he is asked a question in Romanian he answers in Hungarian

proactive interference

▪disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information -can't remember the NEW because of the OLD information -an individual have a problem recalling newly acquired information because older learning is blocking these memories EXAMPLES: -Wyatt is frustrated because he cannot remember his new locker combination because all he can think of is his old locker combination -Hans a Swedish swing dancer is competing with his partner in a national competition. He is having trouble learning the new routine because his knowledge of the last routine he learned is blocking his memory. -Petra is trying to remember what the committee selected as this year's theme for Prom to tell her mom but for some reason she can only think of last year's theme. -Adaliah is very embarrassed because she just called her new boyfriend by her old boyfriend's name. She tries to explain to her boyfriend that it is a common error because since she was with her old boyfriend for so much longer that name is preventing her from thinking of his name right now. -Writing 2020 on papers instead of 2021 -Jessica used to play volleyball when she was younger. When she played as a kid the rules were that if the ball hit the net on the serve, the other team scored a point. Now the rules have changed and if the ball hits the net on the serve it is still played. Unfortunately, Jessica cannot get the old rule out of her head and now she never goes after the ball when it hits the net. -You lost your debit card. Now you have a new pin and every time you try to remove money from your account you keep getting denied because you can only remember your old pin.

storage

▪the retention of encoded information over time -storage for short term memory is about 30 seconds -storage for long term is technically infinite EXAMPLES: -Which memory process is related to keeping information in memory over a long period of time? -Dino is able to hold on to information he learned in his freshman biology class even years later. Which memory process explains how Dino can keep these memories in his long-term memory for such a long time? TWO TYPES OF MEMORY Iconic Memory ▪a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli ▪a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second Echoic Memory ▪momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli -Main psychologist here is Karl Lashley -Synaptic changes: long term potentiation: increase in synapses' firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation PARTS OF BRAIN WHERE THINGS ARE STORED -Prefrontal Cortex: memory involving the sequence of events, but not the events themself -Amygdala: encodes emotional aspects of memories -Medial Temporal Lobe: encodes and transfers new explicit memories to long term memory -Hippocampus: encodes and transfers new explicit memories to long-term memory -Cerebellum: memories involving movement