Unit 7 Topic 7.1: Theories of Motivation

Motivation

= a need/desire that energizes and directs behavior

Csikzentmihalyi

= activities that reduce tension caused by drive reduction are more temporarily pleasurable than long-term enjoyable Satisfying hunger/thirst feel good, but don't produce long-term feelings of well-being/happiness

Survival

= central preoccupation of mankind for virtually all of its history

Instinct

= complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species Common in other species, less so for humans (certain infant reflexes- sucking, rooting)

Intrinsic motivation

= desire to perform a behavior efficiently for its own sake Ex) You play basketball because it is a sport you thoroughly enjoy playing. You do not play simply to earn an award for your participation. You are learning to speak Spanish because of your interest in exploring new things, not because learning a new language is a requirement of a job you have. *Research shows that excessive rewards (extrinsic motivation) can undermine intrinsic motivation (if I have to be bribed to do this, it must not be worth doing for its own sake)

Extrinsic motivation

= desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid punishment Ex) competing in sports for trophies completing work for money customer loyalty discounts buy one, get one free sales frequent flyer rewards *Research shows that excessive rewards (extrinsic motivation) can undermine intrinsic motivation (if I have to be bribed to do this, it must not be worth doing for its own sake)

Instinct theory

= doesn't explain most human motives, but still confirms evolutionary psychology's belief in genetic predisposition

Yerkes-Dodson law

= performance on a task increases with arousal up to a point; beyond that, performance decreases. Generally, moderate arousal leads to optimal performance Good to be nervous/alert for a test, but not physically shaking, unable to focus "Optimal" level of arousal depends on task as well: More difficult tasks typically require lower arousal for best performance Less difficult tasks typically completed better with higher arousal ex) hyperventilating and shaking before a test isn't good but being calm, cool, and collect before is so you can concentrate

Drive-reduction theory (Hull)

= physiological needs create aroused states of tension (drives) that direct us to satisfy these needs. When physiological needs increase (hunger, thirst, etc.), our psychological drive increases as well (we become aroused, motivated to satisfy those needs) Drive-reduction goal= homeostasis (maintaining steady internal state)

Overjustification

= the overuse of bribes/rewards in motivation Can lead people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally determined (or appealing)

Types of homeostasis:

Biological (physical conditions= hunger, thirst, temperature) Cognitive (consistency, balance, harmony in one's thinking- mental conditions)

Evolutionary Theory of Motivation

Individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that maximize their genetic fitness Behaviors are not performed consciously, but are instinctual Behaviors are based on what is most advantageous in terms of passing one's genes to the next generation

Criticisms of drive-reduction theory:

Secondary reinforcers often reduce drives (the pursuit of money is a powerful reinforcement/incentive, even though money by itself does nothing to reduce drives- people can often forgo food/drink as they engage in secondary activities) Animals often leave safe habitats with ample supplies of food/water to explore; humans often seek out potentially dangerous activities for "fun" (skydiving, etc.) Many organisms undertake that do not satisfy any biological drives

Optimal Arousal Theory

Some behaviors (like those driven by curiosity) do not reduce physiological needs, but are prompted instead by a search for an optimum level of arousal. Well-fed animals leave safety of shelter to explore/gain info in absence of any observable need-based (physiological) drive When we lack stimulation, we often look for ways to increase arousal Those who enjoy high arousal are likelier to seek out new music, foods, and engage in risky behaviors

Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives/Needs (1970)

Some needs take priority over others Basic physical needs (ensuring survival) at bottom, and we work our way up as they are satisfied/stabilized Self-transcendence= top of pyramid (people strive for meaning, purpose, beyond themselves- transpersonal, universality of humankind/life, etc.) Maslow hierarchy= somewhat arbitrary (not universally-fixed; cultural influences) Gaining/retaining mates, creating offspring are fairly universal human motives (no matter the social setting) Socioculturally speaking, some motives seems more compelling/attractive than others Poorer countries= financial satisfaction has a stronger predictive value for feelings of well-being Richer countries= home-life satisfaction is a better predictor of feelings of well-being Self-esteem matters more in individualized countries/cultures (people focus more on individual achievements than on family/community as a whole)

Motivational Theory: Drive Reduction Theory Strength: Weakness:

Strength: Explains our motivation to reduce arousal Weakness: Doesn't explain why some motivated actions increase arousal

Motivational Theory: Optimal Arousal Theory Strength: Weakness:

Strength: Explains that motivated behaviors might increase or decrease arousal Weakness: Does not explain motivation to solve more complex social needs

Motivational Theory: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Strength: Weakness:

Strength: Explains that we have various level of needs Weakness: The order of needs may change is some circumstances

Motivational Theory: Instinct and Evolutionary Psychology Strength: Weakness:

Strength: Helps explain behavioral similarities due to adaptations from our ancestral past (evolutionary psychology) Weakness: Helps explain animal behavior more than humans; humans have few true instincts. (instinct theory)

Incentive Theory of Motivation

We are pushed by physiological needs, but pulled by incentives (positive/negative things that adjust the relative cost/benefit of doing something, affecting choices) Behavior is dictated by a desire for external rewards (reinforcement) Drive-reduction theory= we are motivated by internal factors Incentive theory= we are motivated by the acquisition of external rewards