US History - People (3TYPE)

Block, Adriaen

(1567-1627) was a Dutch private fur trader and navigator who explored the coastal and river valley areas between present-day New Jersey and Massachusetts during four voyages from 1611 to 1614, following the 1609 expedition by Henry Hudson. A Dutch trader who was the first European to sail up to the East River into the Long Island Sound and the first European to realize that Long Island was an island. ______ Island, to the east of Long Island, is named after him. He is noted for establishing early trade with the Native Americans, and for the 1614 map of his last voyage on which many features of the mid-Atlantic region appear for the first time, and on which the term New Netherland is first applied to the region. He is credited with being the first European to enter Long Island Sound and the Connecticut River and to determine that Manhattan and Long Island are islands.

Winthrop, John

(1588-1649); As governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, ______ was instrumental in forming the colony's government and shaping its legislative policy. He envisioned the colony, centered in present-day Boston, as a "city upon a hill" from which Puritans would spread religious righteousness throughout the world. His writings and vision of the colony dominated New England colonial development, influencing the governments and religions of neighboring colonies. He resisted attempts to widen voting and other civil rights beyond a narrow class of religiously approved individuals, opposed attempts to codify a body of laws that the colonial magistrates would be bound by, and also opposed unconstrained democracy, calling it "the meanest and worst of all forms of government". His major contributions to the literary world were A Modell of Christian Charity (1630) and The History of New England (1630-1649, also known as The Journal of _______), which remained unpublished until the late 18th century. He argued that there would always be inequalities of wealth and power with some in authority and some dependent on them; this showed the Puritans' belief that social order depended on a system of ranks.

Bradford, William

(1590-1657) Pilgrim leader. He was born in Yorkshire and escaped to Holland with the Scrooby separatists. After the Mayflower reached Plymouth, the first permanent colony in New England, he was elected governor and guided the colony until his death. He pacified the Native Americans, achieved financial independence from the London merchants, and wrote his History of Plimmoth Plantation.A Pilgrim, the second governor of the Plymouth colony, 1621-1657. He developed private land ownership and helped colonists get out of debt. He helped the colony survive droughts, crop failures, and Indian attacks.

Bradford, William

(1590-1657) Pilgrim leader. He was born in Yorkshire and escaped to Holland with the Scrooby separatists. After the Mayflower reached Plymouth, the first permanent colony in New England, he was elected governor and guided the colony until his death. He pacified the Native Americans, achieved financial independence from the London merchants, and wrote his History of Plimmoth Plantation. A Pilgrim, the second governor of the Plymouth colony, 1621-1657. He developed private land ownership and helped colonists get out of debt. He helped the colony survive droughts, crop failures, and Indian attacks.

Adams, Samuel

(1722-1803); was an American statesman, political philosopher, and one of the Founding Fathers of the US; Revolutionary resistance leader in Massachusetts. He was a politician in colonial Massachusetts, a leader of the movement that became the American Revolution, and one of the architects of the principles of American republicanism that shaped the political culture of the US. Along with Paul Revere, he headed the Sons of Liberty in Massachusetts. He initiated the Committees of Correspondence, which provided communication about resistance among colonies. He attended both the First and Second Continental Congress, at which he supported immediate independence. He signed the Declaration of Independence. ^^ He wrote: "For if our Trade may be taxed, why not our Lands? Why not the Produce of our Lands & everything we possess or make use of? This we apprehend annihilates our Charter Right to govern & tax ourselves. It strikes at our British privileges, which as we have never forfeited them, we hold in common with our Fellow Subjects who are Natives of Britain. If Taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having a legal Representation where they are laid, are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves?" These directives (instruction) also contained the first official recommendation that the colonies present a unified defense of their rights." His instructions were published in newspapers and pamphlets, and he soon became closely associated with James Otis, Jr., a member of the Massachusetts House famous for his defense of colonial rights.

Banneker, Benjamin

(1731-1806); a free-born black of Maryland, whose calculations of astronomical tables were published annually (1791-97) in his Almanack and Ephemeris. He served on a commission to survey and design the District of Columbia, being probably the first black to hold a civilian post in the federal government. African-American scientist who taught himself calculus and trigonometry. He also helped design the capitol in Washington D.C.

Andre, John

(1750-80) British officer, actor, playwright, and spy, born in London. He was an aide-de-camp to Gen. Sir Henry Clinton and in charge of correspondence between the commander in chief and British secret agents in America. When ______ was caught by American militiamen with Benedict Arnold's treasonous correspondence about the plan to surrender West Point to British, he was tried as spy by a military tribunal, found guilty, and hanged.

Barton, Clara

(1821-1912); Civil War nurse, relief worker, and founder of the American Red Cross, born in Massachusetts. ______ tended wounded Union soldiers and ran medical supply lines at Antietam, Fredericksburg (both 1862), the Wilderness campaign (1864), and other battles. _____ publicized the work of the International Red Cross, lobbied tirelessly for Senate ratification of the Geneva Conventions (signed in 1882), and was the American National Red Cross's first president (1882-1904). ______ was an early feminist; in her work as a teacher and clerk at the Patent Office, she demanded—and got—pay equal to what men in the same position were getting. She launched the American Red Cross in 1881. An "angel" in the Civil War, she treated the wounded in the field.

Chief Joseph

(1840-1904) Nez Percé Indian chief, leader of a band in eastern Oregon who became embroiled in conflicts with U.S. armies. Lead the Nez Perce during the hostilities between the tribe and the US Army in 1877. His speech "I Will Fight No More Forever" mourned the young Indian men killed in the fighting. He is remembered for leading several hundred Nez Percé on a 1,000-mile trek toward refuge in Canada. The desperate bid ended in a battle at Bear Paw Mountain, where he surrendered in 1877 with the famous lines: "From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever." He spent the rest of his life on reservations in Oklahoma and Washington.

Attucks, Crispus

(c.1723 -1770) was an American stevedore of African and Native American descent, widely regarded as the first person killed in the Boston Massacre and thus the first American killed in the American Revolution.

Vespucci, Amerigo

1454-1512; Italian cartographer commissioned by Portugal and sailed along the coast of South America concluding that it could not be Asia; his discovery of South America in 1497 suggested that the expedition had found a "New World." his discoveries were published and the new continent was named after him.

Carver, John

1576-1621; Elected first governor of Pilgrim's Plymouth Colony in New England. Originally a prosperous businessman when the English Separatists in Leiden decided to emigrate to North America, _____ obtained financial backing for the trip and chartered the Mayflower. He was elected governor on Nov. 21, 1620, after the signing of the Mayflower Compact. His major accomplishment was the establishment of a treaty of alliance between the Indian chief Massasoit and James I of England.

Rolfe, John

1585-1622; an English colonist in Jamestown, Virginia, who married Pocahontas. He created a process for curing tobacco, ensuring economic success for Jamestown.

Dare, Virginia

1587-?: 1st child of British parents born in US. Part of "Lost Colony of Roanoke Island".

Winslow, Edward

1595-1655; was a Separatist who traveled on the Mayflower in 1620. He was one of several senior leaders on the ship and also later at Plymouth Colony. Both _____ and his brother Gilbert signed the Mayflower Compact. In Plymouth he served in a number of governmental positions such as assistant governor, three times was governor and also was the colony's agent in London. In early 1621, he had been one of several key leaders on whom Governor Bradford depended after the death of John Carver. His writings, though fragmentary, are of the greatest value to the history of the Plymouth colony. His writings, though fragmentary, are of the greatest value to the history of the Plymouth colony. He was the author of several important pamphlets, including Good Newes from New England and (co-written with William Bradford) the historic Mourt's Relation, which ends with an account of the First Thanksgiving and the abundance of the New World. In 1655 he died of fever while on an English naval expedition in the Caribbean against the Spanish. He is the only Plymouth colonist with an extant portrait, and this can be seen at Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, Massachusetts.

Williams, Roger

1603-1683; he was a Puritan preacher who fled Massachusetts after his views became too extreme for the colonists. A dissenter who clashed with the Massachusetts Puritans over separation of church and state and was banished in 1636, after which he founded the colony of Rhode Island to the south. He bought land from Native Americans and found Providence in 1636, which later combined with Portsmouth and other settlements to become Rhode Island in 1644. This belief in the separation of church and state became a cornerstone of the American Constitution in 1787. In 1644, Rhode Island received a charter from Parliament, becoming a colony known for its freedom of opportunity and separation of church and state. However, Rhode Islanders became the leading importers of African slaves in the colonies (how? for trade purposes only?).

Berkeley, William

1606-1677; longtime Virginia governor whose lenient policies towards Native American tribes helped incite Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. _____ was appointed colonial governor of Virginia in 1642 and served until 1652, when he was unseated by parliamentary order. He served again from 1660 until his death. During the early years of his administration he made many improvements, but later he assumed such a dictatorial policy that a group of colonists under Nathaniel Bacon rose in rebellion. After Bacon's death, Berkeley entered upon a program of executions and confiscations that supposedly led Charles II to remark, "The old fool has killed more people in that naked country than I have done for the murder of my father." Before coming to America he published The Lost Lady (1639), a tragi-comedy.

Penn, William

1644-1718; An English Quaker who founded a British colony as a refuge for his fellow Quakers. He founded ________ in 1682 after receiving a charter from King Charles II the year before. He launched the colony as a "holy experiment" based on religious tolerance; he believed in a utopian society; he guaranteed a representative assembly and full religious freedom. Settlers flocked there from all over Europe. Was later given Delaware by charter to give the colony coastline.

Zenger, Peter

1697-1746; German-American newspaper publisher and printer. The publisher of a newspaper who criticized the royal governor of New York in 1734 and was arrested for seditious libel because the governor was an appointee of the king and it was illegal to speak negatively about the king. The colonial jury at his trial found him not guilty despite the royal judges' opposing opinions. This established a legal precedent for freedom of the press, which emboldened the colonists to speak out more freely against royal policy and to criticize public officials. The Supreme Court under Chief Justice Warren (1953-1969) would later reinvigorate free press rights. The case of New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) strengthened the protection of the press against libel cases brought by public figures.

Edwards, Jonathan

1703-1758; Preacher of the First Great Awakening (1730s-1760s) who was active in western Massachusetts in the 1730s. He was a Congregationalist minister who emphasized personal religious experience, predestination, and dependence of man upon God and divine grace. One of his widely read sermons was "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God." While he is known for being one of the most prominent Calvinists, this movement was partially responsible for refuting the idea that salvation was only possible with predestined election, an important Calvinist belief.

Franklin, Benjamin

1706-1790; he was a colonial writer, scientist, diplomat, printer, and philosopher; he published the Pennsylvania Gazette and wrote Poor Richard's Almanac. He made many civic contributions to his adopted city of Philadelphia, including a circulating library, a fire company, an academy, and the American Philosophical Society. He served in the Second Continental Congress and was a drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence. He helped to negotiate the Treaty of Paris of 1783. He owned slaves earlier in his career, but in middle age became an abolitionist. In Feb 1790, Quaker delegations from New York and Philadelphia called on the House to immediately end the African slave trade. The Pennsylvania Abolition Society presented Congress with a petition to emancipate slaves; the petition included Benjamin Franklin's signature, and thus could not be ignored. The House debated the merits of the petition for two months. Three weeks later, _____ passed away. No one took up the anti-slavery torch.

Pitt, William

1708-1778; Britain's capable and energetic prime minister; after several humiliating defeats he led Britain to virtually destroy the French empire in North America by focusing on the French headquarters in Canada. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 ended the hostilities.

Mason, George

1725-1792; a Founding Father from Virginia, ______ abhorred the practice of slavery, and he expressed it at the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, saying, "Every master of slaves is born a petty tyrant." He called slavery "that slow Poison, which is daily contaminating the Minds & Morals of our People." He said the practice of slavery would "bring judgment of Heaven on this country." However, he owned more than 30 slaves.

Howe, William

1729 - 1814; was a British Army officer who rose to become Commander-in-Chief of British forces during the American War of Independence. He was sent to North America in March 1775, arriving in May after the American War of Independence broke out. After leading British troops to a costly victory in the Battle of Bunker Hill, he took command of all British forces in America from Thomas Gage in September of that year. His record in North America was marked by the successful capture of both New York City and Philadelphia. However, poor British campaign planning for 1777 contributed to the failure of John Burgoyne's Saratoga campaign, which played a major role in the entry of France into the war.

Washington, George

1732-1799; was an American soldier, farmer, land investor, politician, and statesman who was unanimously elected to serve from 1789 to 1797 as the first President of the US; he became known as the "Father of His Country". In 1755, when General Braddock was killed in the French and Indian War, ______ led the survivors to safety. Years later, _____ was named commander-in-chief of Continental Forces in June 1775 by the Second Continental Congress. He forced the British to evacuate Boston in March 1776. He defeated the British at Trenton, New Jersey, after crossing the Delaware on December 25, 1776. He accepted the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown on October 19, 1781. Two years later, ____ rode into New York to bid farewell to his troops. He returned to Mount Vernon. He was elected chairman of and presided over the 1787 Constitutional Convention. He declared the Proclamation of Neutrality in April 1793, keeping the US neutral in European wars. His farewell address in 1796 warned against entangling alliances, recommended isolationism, and warned of political party factions.

Boone, Daniel

1734- 1820; Famous early pioneer who cleared Wilderness Road, a new route to the west. Wilderness Road became the main route used to cross the Appalachian Mountains

Adams, John

1735-1826; President 1797-1801. America's first Vice-President and second President. His VP was Thomas Jefferson. Sponsor of the American Revolution in Massachusetts and wrote the Massachusetts guarantee that freedom of the press "ought not to be restrained." ____ represented the British soldiers who shot Americans in the Boston Massacre to show that Americans believed in justice. Delegate to the First and Second Continental Congresses. He drove the Continental Congress toward independence. Long before becoming VP, ____ had gained a reputation as one of the most skilled orators in the Continental Congress. Part of the committee assigned to write the Declaration of Independence. Signer of the Declaration of Independence. When independence was declared, he was on dozens of committees of the Congress. During the Revolutionary War, he served in Holland and France in diplomatic roles. First VP of the US in 1788; therefore, he also served as the first President of the Senate and could cast the tie-breaking vote, but could not be part of the debate. Quote: "It is a sure punishment to listen to other men talk five hours a day and not be at liberty to talk at all myself, especially as more than half I hear appear to be very young, inconsiderate, and inexperienced." _____ never missed a day as VP leading the Senate. He was elected President in the election of 1796. The XYZ Affair occurred and the "undeclared naval war" of 1798 began, the first undeclared presidential war. Adams was declared a national hero for his actions. After this, ____ ushered through the Alien and Sedition Acts. He then lost the next presidential election (1800) to Thomas Jefferson. He died July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

Paine, Thomas

1737-1809; was an English-born American political activist, philosopher, political theorist and revolutionary; he was an impoverished, self-educated person. Revolutionary leader who wrote the pamphlet Common Sense (1776) arguing for American independence from Britain. In England he published The Rights of Man. One of the Founding Fathers of the US, he authored the two most influential pamphlets at the start of the American Revolution and inspired the patriots in 1776 to declare independence from Britain. His ideas reflected Enlightenment-era rhetoric of transnational human rights. Excerpt, December 1776: "These are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman." "Appreciating American possibilities, Paine also confronted America's contradictions. He criticized aristocratic and lordly pomposity. In one essay he considered the oppression of women. In yet another he vigorously attacked slavery, calling for its abolition and insisting upon America's responsibility to support the slaves following emancipation. Not long after, Franklin returned to Philadelphia and established the first American Anti-Slavery Society with Paine as a founding member."—Harvey Kaye.

Allen, Ethan

1738-1789; A soldier of the American Revolution whose troops, "Green Mountain Boys", helped capture Fort Ticonderoga from the British in May 1775; they then hauled its cannons to Boston. American soldier. He tried to obtain independence for the state of Vermont, commanding the irregular force the Green Mountain Boys (1770-75). In 1775, during the War of Independence, he seized the British Fort Ticonderoga, but the same year was captured at Montreal. On his release in 1778 he presented to Congress Vermont's claims to independence, which was achieved the following year.

Allen, Ethan

1738-1789; American soldier of the American Revolution whose troops, "Green Mountain Boys", helped capture Fort Ticonderoga from the British in May 1775; they then hauled its cannons to Boston. He tried to obtain independence for the state of Vermont, commanding the irregular force the Green Mountain Boys (1770-75). In 1775, during the War of Independence, he seized the British Fort Ticonderoga, but the same year was captured at Montreal. On his release in 1778 he presented to Congress Vermont's claims to independence, which was achieved the following year.

Cornwallis, Charles

1738-1805; British military and political leader, a member of Parliament; he opposed the tax measures that led to the American Revolution; he led British forces during the American Revolution; he surrendered at Yorktown to George Washington in 1781.

Copley, John Singleton

1738-1815; Anglo-American painter, active in both colonial America and England. He was probably born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Anglo-Irish parents. He is famous for his portrait paintings of wealthy and influential figures in colonial New England, depicting in particular middle-class subjects. His portraits were innovative in their tendency to depict artifacts relating to these individuals' lives. ^^ According to art historian Paul Staiti, _____ was the greatest and most influential painter in colonial America, producing about 350 works of art. With his startling likenesses of persons and things, he came to define a realist art tradition in America. His visual legacy extended throughout the nineteenth century in the American taste for the work of artists as diverse as Fitz Henry Lane and William Harnett. In Britain, while he continued to paint portraits for the élite, his great achievement was the development of contemporary history painting, which was a combination of reportage, idealism, and theatre. He was also one of the pioneers of the private exhibition, orchestrating shows, and marketing prints of his own work to mass audiences that might otherwise attend exhibitions only at the Royal Academy, or who previously had not gone to exhibitions at all.

West, Benjamin

1738-1820; Anglo-American history painter around and after the time of the American War of Independence and the Seven Years' War. He was known in England as the "American Raphael". His Raphaelesque painting Archangel Michael Binding the Devil is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge. He was the second president of the Royal Academy in London, serving from 1792 to 1805 and 1806 to 1820. He was offered a knighthood by the British Crown, but declined it, believing that he should instead be made a peer. He said that "Art is the representation of human beauty, ideally perfect in design, graceful and noble in attitude." He was born in Springfield, Pennsylvania. In Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1756, his patron William Henry encouraged him to paint a Death of Socrates based on an engraving in Charles Rollin's Ancient History. His resulting composition, which significantly differs from the source, has been called "the most ambitious and interesting painting produced in colonial America". Sponsored by Dr. William Smith and William Allen, then reputed to be the wealthiest man in Philadelphia, ______ traveled to Italy in 1760 on a Grand Tour. In August 1763, West arrived in England, on what he initially intended as a visit on his way back to America. In fact, he never returned to America.

Arnold, Benedict

1741-1801; American colonial soldier. He was an American General during the Revolutionary War (1776). He commanded Philadelphia (1778) after being wounded at the Battle of Saratoga. He prevented the British from reaching Ticonderoga. In 1780 he became commander of West Point, a fort he planned to betray to the British for money. After the plot was discovered, ______ fled to the British. His name has become proverbial in modern US usage for treachery.

Chase, Samuel

1741-1811; a patriot in the American revolutionary war. He belonged to the Sons of Liberty and signed the Declaration of Independence. Signer of the US Constitution; associate justice of the US Supreme Court. Justice ______ wrote several important opinions in early key decisions of the Supreme Court. In Ware v. Hylton (1796), for example, he helped to establish the supremacy of federal treaties over state laws that contradicted them. In Hylton v. United States (1796), Chase and the Supreme Court made a judgment about whether or not an act of Congress, the carriage tax of 1794, agreed with the Constitution. The Court supported the federal statute, which was its first judgment about the constitutionality of an act of the legislative branch of government. The Court, however, neither asserted nor discussed the power of judicial review, which was established by Chief Justice John Marshall in Marbury v. Madison (1803). Justice ______ was a harsh public critic of the Jeffersonian Republicans because he disagreed with their interpretations of the Constitution. When Thomas Jefferson became President in 1801, ______ sharpened his criticism of Jefferson and the Republican majority in Congress. In return, President Jefferson urged that ______ be removed from the Supreme Court. A majority of the House of Representatives voted to impeach ________. As provided in the Constitution, the case went to the Senate for trial, where two-thirds of the Senators had to vote against _______ to remove him from office. Chase argued that he had done nothing wrong and that a federal judge should not be impeached and removed from office for criticizing the President. _______ was acquitted and remained on the Court until his death in 1811.

Peale, Charles Wilson

1741-1827; American painter, soldier, scientist, inventor, politician, and naturalist. A Renaissance man, he had expertise not only in painting but also in many diverse fields, including carpentry, dentistry, optometry, shoemaking, and taxidermy. He is best remembered for his portrait paintings of leading figures of the American Revolution, and for establishing one of the first museums in the US. He painted portraits of Washington, Knox, Jefferson, Pettit, Lewis, and Clark. Three of his sons, Rembrandt, Raphaelle, and Titian, became noted artists as well. The WWII cargo Liberty Ship S.S. ________ was named in his honor.

Greene, Nathanael

1742-1786; Continental Army general in the Revolutionary War. One of the most effective American generals of the War for Independence, Rhode Island's ______ was one of those extraordinary figures who excelled as a commander despite having no formal military training or experience. He is perhaps best known for his success in the southern campaign of 1780-1781, during which he battered the British forces under Charles Cornwallis enough to force him to seek refuge, reinforcement, and resupply at Yorktown, Virginia, where Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781. ^^ Born to a Quaker family in Warwick, Rhode Island, on July 27, 1742, ________ studied under Ezra Stiles (the future president of Yale University) and assisted in the management of his father's ironworks. In 1774, he helped form a local militia company, the Kentish Guards, but was denied an officer's commission, so he chose to serve as a private. In May 1775, however, ________ was appointed Brigadier General of Rhode Island's militia and one month later the Continental Congress made the 32-year-old the youngest Brigadier General in the Continental Army. ^^ During the Siege of Boston, ________ impressed George Washington with his abilities, particularly when it came to addressing the logistical challenges facing the army, such as procuring sufficient supplies. After the British abandoned Boston in March 1776, ________ served under Washington in New York and New Jersey and was promoted to Major General before suffering the most damage to his reputation with the loss of Fort Washington, 3000 men, and artillery on November 16, 1776 (it was ________ who had convinced Washington and the other senior officers to hold onto the untenable post). ________ soon redeemed himself in action at the Battle of Trenton, New Jersey, on December 26, 1776. Washington then chose ________ to represent him in a conference with members of Congress over their increasing disappointment with the army's effectiveness. Washington's supreme confidence in ________'s talents were justified again at the Battle of Brandywine, Pennsylvania, on September 11, 1777, when ________'s division practically sprinted for four miles (covering the distance in only 45 minutes) to stop the British from overwhelming the retreating Continental Army. Two weeks later, at the Battle of Germantown on October 4, 1777, his column held while the others gave way, once again saving the army from being routed. ________ also commanded the right wing at the Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey, on June 28, 1778, repulsing a furious assault by the some of the finest troops in the British army led personally by Charles Cornwallis. ^^ After the privations suffered by Washington's troops during the winter encampment at Valley Forge, ________ spent most of the period from 1778 to 1780 as Quartermaster General. He reorganized the system of supply with such skill that the army suffered nowhere near the same difficulties the following year at Morristown, despite much worse weather conditions. On October 14, 1780, ________ returned to the field when Congress agreed to Washington's request that the Rhode Islander be appointed to command American forces in the south. As a result of the new British strategy to win the war by relying on loyalists and naval power to assist British forces moving up the Atlantic coast to recover the southern colonies, Georgia and most of South Carolina were in the hands of Charles Cornwallis, commander of the southern British army. ________, vastly outnumbered, split his troops into several virtually independent commands in order to harass and delay Cornwallis as much as possible. In response, Cornwallis split his forces, which allowed ________ to concentrate on engaging each of them in isolated tactical actions. The strategy worked, in particular at the Battle of Cowpens, South Carolina, on January 17, 1781, where Brigadier General Daniel Morgan virtually destroyed Lieutenant Colonial Banastre Tarleton's Legion, and at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina, on March 15, where ________ battered Cornwallis' army so badly that Cornwallis, despite holding the field, was forced to retreat to Wilmington to regroup. When Cornwallis subsequently invaded Virginia, his force was considerably depleted and no match for the combined American and French armies under Washington and Rochambeau that Cornwallis encountered at Yorktown. ________ was then able to destroy what was left of British authority in the areas that Cornwallis had abandoned on his trek northward. ^^ After the war, ________ was treated as a hero in both his native Rhode Island and in the southern states he defended, South Carolina and Georgia, but also had to suffer through charges of making a personal profit from dealing in military supplies while he was the army's quartermaster. He was also in considerable debt, which forced him to sell his property in New England and move to an estate, Mulberry Grove, given to him in gratitude by the state of Georgia. He died there at the age of 44 on June 19, 1786. When Washington learned of the death of the only one of his generals to serve throughout the entire war, he wrote to Thomas Jefferson of his expectation that "you will, in common with your Countrymen, have regretted the loss of so great and so honest a man."

Jefferson, Thomas

1743-1826. President 1801-1809. He attended William & Mary College and then practiced law in Williamsburg. He was a delegate from Virginia at the Second Continental Congress and wrote the Declaration of Independence. He wrote the Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom, which was adopted in 1786. He was Governor of Virginia, served briefly in the House of Representatives, and five years as Minister to France, where he witnessed the launch of the French Revolution. ^^ ______'s spendthrift ways were legendary, and he drove himself deeply into debt. ^^ Before becoming president, he served as the first Secretary of State in 1789 under Washington. He was at odds with Washington's and Hamilton's policies and resigned his position. He served as VP under John Adams. He was the first president to reside in Washington, D.C. He later served as the third President of the US (two terms). He made the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 for $15,000,000, which was the largest peaceful transfer of territory in history. He sponsored the Lewis and Clark Corps of Discovery Expedition to the Louisiana Territory to map the territory and search for a water route to the west coast. ^^ He took over 40 years to build Monticello. He died on July 4, 1826, the same day as John Adams.

Bassett, Richard

1745-1815; During the American Revolution, ______ captained a troop of Dover cavalry militia and served on the Delaware council of safety. Subsequently, he participated in Delaware's constitutional convention and sat in both the upper and lower houses of the legislature. In 1786 he represented his state in the Annapolis Convention. At the U.S. Constitutional Convention the next year, _______ attended diligently but made no speeches, served on no committees, and cast no critical votes. Like several other delegates of estimable reputation and talent, he allowed others to make the major steps. ______ subsequently went on to a bright career in the state and federal governments. In the Delaware ratifying convention, he joined in the 30-0 vote for the Constitution. Subsequently, in the years 1789-93, he served in the U.S. Senate. In that capacity, he voted in favor of the power of the President to remove governmental officers and against Hamilton's plan for the federal assumption of state debts. He espoused the Federalist cause in the 1790s. ______ was elected Governor of Delaware and continued in that post until 1801. That year, he became one of President Adams' "midnight" appointments as a judge of the U.S. Circuit Court. Subsequently, the Jeffersonian Republicans abolished his judgeship, and he spent the rest of his life in retirement.

Jay, John

1745-1829; Founding Father; politician, statesman, revolutionary, writer, jurist, and diplomat. He was a member of the First and Second Continental Congresses; he negotiated the Treaty of Paris in 1783; he wrote portions of the Federalist Papers, and was, therefore, a member of the Federalist Party. ^^ On his return from abroad, _____ found that Congress had elected him secretary for foreign affairs (1784-90). Frustrated by the limitations on his powers in that office, he became convinced that the nation needed a more strongly centralized government than was provided for by the Articles of Confederation, and he plunged into the fight for ratification of the new federal Constitution, framed in 1787. Using the pseudonym Publius, he collaborated with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison by writing five essays for The Federalist—the classic defense of the new governmental structure. ^^ He was appointed the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by President George Washington in 1789, in which capacity he was instrumental in shaping Supreme Court procedures in its formative years. His most notable case was Chisholm v. Georgia, in which he and the court affirmed the subordination of the states to the federal government. Unfavorable reaction to the decision led to adoption of the Eleventh Amendment, denying federal courts authority in suits by citizens against a state. ^^ He established important judicial precedents as the first chief justice of the US (1789-95) and negotiated the ____ Treaty of 1794, which settled major grievances with Great Britain and promoted commercial prosperity. The treaty aroused a storm of protest among the Jeffersonian Republicans, who denounced it as a sellout by pro-British Federalists. Mobs burned _____ in effigy, and opponents denounced him as a traitor. Before the negotiations, ______ at one time had been considered a leading candidate to succeed Washington, but the unpopular treaty ruined whatever chances he had for the presidency. New York Federalists, however, elected him governor (1795-1801), an office from which he retired to spend the remainder of his life on his farm. (In 1800 _____ declined John Adams's offer for reappointment as chief justice.) ^^ He said, "Those that own the country ought to govern it."

Jones, John Paul

1747-1792; born in Scotland, a Revolutionary War Captain of the Bonhomme Richard; best known for "I have not yet begun to fight"; captured British ship Serapis. Early in 1779, the French King gave ____ an ancient East Indiaman Duc de Duras, which ____ refitted, repaired, and renamed Bon Homme Richard as a compliment to his patron Benjamin Franklin. Commanding four other ships and two French privateers, he sailed 14 August 1779 to raid English shipping. ^^ On 23 September 1779, his ship engaged the HMS Serapis in the North Sea off Famborough Head, England. Richard was blasted in the initial broadside the two ships exchanged, losing much of her firepower and many of her gunners. Captain Richard Pearson, commanding Serapis, called out to _____, asking if he surrendered. _____'s reply: "I have not yet begun to fight!" ^^ It was a bloody battle with the two ship literally locked in combat. Sharpshooting Marines and seamen in Richard's tops raked Serapis with gunfire, clearing the weather decks. Jones and his crew tenaciously fought on, even though their ship was sinking beneath them. Finally, Capt. Pearson tore down his colors and Serapis surrendered. ^^ Bon Homme Richard sunk the next day and _____ was forced to transfer to Serapis. ^^ After the American Revolution, _____ served as a Rear Admiral in the service of Empress Catherine of Russia but returned to Paris in 1790. He died in Paris at the age of 45 on 18 July 1792.

Madison, James

1751-1836; Virginian; Strict constructionist, his work before becoming president led him to be considered the "Father of the Constitution." He wanted a government strong enough to force states to pay taxes and to earn the respect of foreign nations, but balanced enough so that not one faction would dominate. He participated in the writing of The Federalist Papers. In Congress, he wrote the Virginia Plan. He wrote the Bill of Rights. In 1801, President Jefferson appointed him Secretary of State and looked to ____ to succeed him. ^^ 4th president in 1809. He led the nation through War of 1812. His VPs were George Clinton and Elbridge Gerry. ^^ _____ retired from the Presidency to his plantation in Virginia, where he owned slaves.

Broom, Jacob

1752-1810; ______ was born in Delaware. Although he followed his father into farming and also studied surveying, he was to make his career primarily in mercantile pursuits, including shipping and the import trade, and in real estate. Broom was not a distinguished patriot. His only recorded service was the preparation of maps for George Washington before the Battle of Brandywine, PA. In 1776, at 24 years of age, Broom became assistant Burgess of Wilmington. Broom sat in the state legislature in the years 1784-86 and 1788, during which time he was chosen as a delegate to the Annapolis Convention, but he did not attend. At the Constitutional Convention, he never missed a session and spoke on several occasions, but his role was only a minor one. He signed the US Constitution.

Clark, George Roger

1752-1818, frontier military leader in the American Revolution, whose successes were factors in the award of the Old Northwest to the United States in the Treaty of Paris, concluding the war. The colonial frontiersman who in 1778-1779 led militia and French volunteers and captured important British forts at Vincennes, Cahokia, and Kaskaskia. In 1780 he helped defeat a British expedition sent against the Spanish settlement at St. Louis. That same year, in what is now Ohio, he destroyed the Shawnee Indian towns of Chillicothe and Piqua; in 1782 he razed Shawnee villages and destroyed crops in the Miami River valley. ______ was appointed an Indian commissioner after the war, and in 1786 he helped negotiate a treaty with the Shawnees. The same year, he led an expedition against the Wabash tribes and seized goods taken to Vincennes by Spanish traders. James Wilkinson, a double agent in the pay of Spain, coveted _____s command and his post of Indian commissioner. After a deliberate campaign to discredit _____, Wilkinson was appointed Indian commissioner and ______ was relieved of his military command. Thereafter ______ became involved in a scheme to found a Spanish colony west of the Mississippi River. In 1793 he accepted a French major general's commission in connection with French emissary Edmond-Charles Genêt's mission to involve the United States in hostilities between France and England. ______ returned to Louisville in 1799 and resided there until his death.

Haynes, Lemuel

1753-1833; American clergyman. A veteran of the American Revolution, _____ was the first black man in the US to be ordained as a minister. His mother was a Scottish immigrant indentured servant and his father was an enslaved African American who lived and served on the plantation. When both his parents abandoned him, ______, an unwanted infant was assigned as an indentured servant to the household of Deacon David Rose of Granville, Massachusetts until his 21st birthday. He served in the militia during the American Revolution, including garrison duty at the recently captured Fort Ticonderoga in 1776. He also became an anti-slavery activist. In addition to arguing against involuntary servitude and preaching against the slave trade, _____ also advocated against the colonization movement, arguing that people of African descent living in the US should be entitled to the same rights as other citizens, and that having them resettle in Africa would not be beneficial. His dynamic sermons and essays which stressed interracial benevolence, liberty, natural rights, and justice were distributed in newspapers internationally, making him one of the first African Americans to be published. Ordained in the Congregational church in 1785, _____ pastored a church in Torrington, Connecticut for three years. In 1788, Haynes left the temporary position at the Torrington congregation to accept a call to pastor the West Parish Church of Rutland, Vermont (now West Rutland's United Church of Christ), where he remained for the next 33 years. He them moved to South Granville, New York, where he was pastor of South Granville Congregational Church. _____ died in South Granville in 1833 and was buried at Lee-Oatman Cemetery in South Granville.

Tarleton, Banastre

1754-1833 ; At twenty-three, he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel of the British Legion. His abilities led to initial success in the Revolutionary War, in both the Northern and Southern Campaigns. His use of light infantry in combination with his cavalry made a powerful combat team. He set a strong pace for his men to follow, and, in effect, led by example. Militia were said to panic at the sight of his green-jacketed dragoons. He was so effective that Cornwallis wrote: "I wish you would get three legions, and divide yourself into three parts: We can do no good without you." ^^ _______'s early success included raids on upstate New York, and action in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. In the Carolinas he took an active part in the battles of Monck's Corner, Charleston, the Waxhaws, Camden, Fishing Creek, Blackstocks, and Cowpens. ^^ It was in the Waxhaws that _______ came to symbolize British cruelty in the Revolutionary War. There were numerous versions, however, of what actually happened in the Waxhaws. Traditionally, _______ was seen as a "butcher" when, it was said, America forces under Buford laid down their arms in an attempt to surrender yet the British continued their assault. From then on, his reputation grew and "_______'s quarter," in effect, came to mean "no quarter." ^^ "_______'s quarter" was to become a rallying cry at the Battle of Cowpens. _______, then only twenty-six, had been charged with covering the Carolina upcountry against Patriot guerillas. Specifically, he was to seek out and destroy a threat to his rear, a wing of the American Southern Army, commanded by General Daniel Morgan. The January 1781 Battle of Cowpens was a defeat for the British and a turning point in the war in the South. ^^ _______ would draw criticism from older officers who believed he lacked "military maturity." Held by some to be personally responsible for the death of some fine officers and veteran troops, _______ subsequently submitted his resignation but it was not accepted. He continued to fight on in later battles even with some amount of success, but the relationship with Cornwallis was strained after the British defeat at Cowpens. Posted across the river from Yorktown, he surrendered his forces about the same time as Cornwallis. ^^ In the tradition of the day, American officers hosted the defeated Cornwallis and other British officers at their respective tables. But no American invited _______ nor would any eat with him. _______ asked if the omission was accidental, and he was told that, indeed it was not, because of his past atrocities.

Hamilton, Alexander

1755-1804; illegitimate child born in the Caribbean, orphaned young; sent to New York in 1773 for an education by benefactors at King's College; adopted Revolutionary cause as his own, becomes prolific writer of Revolutionary prose; rises to captain in Continental Army and fights in several battles commanded by Washington; becomes a staff officer, then chief aide of Washington, who becomes a patron and father figure; the weak and ineffective Continental Congress leaves a profound effect on _______; his regiment attacked a key British formation at the Battle of Yorktown; called for a strong federal government; passed the bar and is a brilliant attorney in New York; wrote the charter for the Bank of New York; leading spokesman of the new American nationalism; ^^ ______ teamed up with James Madison to found the Federalist Party; Constitutional Convention of 1787; he and Madison wrote most of the Federalist Papers; he was the first Secretary of the Treasury (age 34). ^^ In 1790, he saw the potential for the country to become the leading mercantile, manufacturing nation in the world. His Report on Public Credit advocated for the federal assumption of state debts to unite the nation, which was a tough sell; the establishment of a national (federal) bank; and the federal stimulation of industry through sale of government bonds, imposing excise taxes and tariffs. His opponents, including Jefferson, Burr, and Madison, saw his programs as aiding a small, elite group at the expense of the average citizen. ^^ ______ resigns from his position as Secretary of the Treasury so that he can return to New York and make a better living rebuilding his law practice to support his family. Washington continues to consult him. He carefully edits Washington's to farewell address. Washington felt that _________ had never let him down; however, ______ was very good at making political enemies. In the election of 1796, the Federalists were splintering. Then in 1796, it came out that _______ was blackmailed for years by the husband of a woman he had an affair with in 1791. ^^ He died from wounds sustained in a pistol duel with Aaron Burr, Jefferson's vice president.

Stuart, Gilbert

1755-1828; American painter from Rhode Island who is widely considered one of America's foremost portraitists. His best-known work is the unfinished portrait of George Washington that is sometimes referred to as The Athenaeum, begun in 1796. _______ retained the portrait and used it to paint 130 copies which he sold for $100 each. The image of George Washington featured in the painting has appeared on the US one-dollar bill for more than a century and on various US postage stamps of the 19th century and early 20th century. He was praised for the vitality and naturalness of his portraits, and his subjects found his company agreeable. _______ produced portraits of more than 1,000 people, including the first six Presidents. His work can be found today at art museums throughout the US and the United Kingdom.

Marshall, John

1755-1835; He served as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835. He was a Federalist appointed by President John Adams. His decisions defined and strengthened the powers of the judicial branch and asserted the power of judicial review over federal legislation. His court made determinations that cemented a static view of contracts. His court's decisions advanced capitalism. _____ was a Virginia Federalist, and was one of John Adams' "midnight appointments" in January 1801. _____ dominated the Supreme Court, writing nearly half the decisions and dissenting only eight times, even after Federalists lost a majority. Thus, the Court continued to enunciate Federalist principles through the Jeffersonian Era. Significant cases included Marbury v. Madison, Fletcher v. Peck, Dartmouth College v. Woodward, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden.

Trumbull, John

1756-1843; American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary War; notable for his historical paintings. He has been called "The Painter of the Revolution." His "Declaration of Independence" (1817), one of his four paintings which hang in the US Capitol Rotunda, was used on the reverse of the commemorative bicentennial two-dollar bill. He painted portraits of Washington and Hamilton.

Monroe, James

1758-1831; Fifth President (1817-1825); his parents were tobacco farmers in Virginia. He served in the military during the Revolutionary War. He studied law under Thomas Jefferson and became his aide when Jefferson was Governor of Virginia. In the new US government, he served as Secretary of State and Secretary of War. ^^ His presidency was called the "Era of Good Feelings," which was marked by the domination of his political party, the Democratic-Republicans, and the decline of the Federalist Party. Established a wide-ranging policy for foreign affairs. National identity grew, most notably through the westward movement of the country and various public works projects. The "Era" saw the beginnings of North-South tensions over slavery.

Brown, William Hill

1765-1793; He wrote the "first American novel," published in 1789, The Power of Sympathy. _____ showed an extensive knowledge of European literature, for example of Clarissa by Samuel Richardson, but tried to lift the American literature from the British corpus by the choice of an American setting. (1765-93). He also wrote verse fables, a comedy, and West Point Preserved (1797), a tragedy about André.

Fulton, Robert

1765-1815; he was an American engineer and inventor who developed a commercially successful steamboat in 1807. In 1800, he was commissioned by Napoleon Bonaparte to attempt to design Nautilus, which was the first practical submarine in history. He invented some of the world's earliest naval torpedoes for use by the British Royal Navy.

Whitney, Eli

1765-1825; inventor and manufacturer; he invented machine-made interchangeable parts (1801), which allowed for the invention of assembly-line production methods, speeding up production. Established first factory to assemble muskets with interchangeable, standardized parts 0 His innovations led to an "American system" of manufacture, where those laborers with less skill could use tools and templates to make identical parts; also, the manufacture and assembly of parts could be done separately. He also invented the cotton gin (1793), which removed the seeds from the more difficult short-staple inland cotton; this enabled the slave South to grow from 6 to 15 states by 1860.

Jackson, Andrew

1767-1845; Seventh President of the US (1829-1837), he was the first self-made man to become President. He was a frontier lawyer. ____ led the Tennessee Volunteers in the War of 1812. He became a national hero after defeating the British at New Orleans (1815). ^^ As president he opposed the Bank of America, objected to the right of individual states to nullify disagreeable federal laws, and increased the presidential powers. Following the War of 1812, he invaded Spanish Florida to quell Native American rebellions. After the treaty for the War of 1812 had already been signed, he defeated a British force that had invaded New Orleans, safeguarding the Mississippi River.

Adams, John Quincy

1767-1848; 6th President of the US. As a child, he witnessed the Battle of Bunker Hill. He accompanied his father on diplomatic missions to Europe. President Washington appointed him to be the Minister to the Netherlands in 1794. He was later Secretary of State. In 1819, he drew up a treaty in which Spain gave the US Florida in exchange for the US dropping its claims to Texas. The Monroe Doctrine was mostly his work. ^^In 1824, he began his campaign for the presidency. ^^He was elected in a write-in vote to the US Congress from Massachusetts, the only former president to serve in the House. He attacked slavery on moral grounds.

Tecumseh

1768-1813; a Shawnee Indian who attempted to form a confederation of tribes in 1808 to fight the advances of white settlers. It was an attempt to blend tribal traditions and political unity that attracted thousands of followers. _________'s confederation fought the US during ______'s War, but he was unsuccessful in getting the US government to rescind the Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809) and other land-cession treaties. In 1811, as he traveled south to recruit more allies, his brother Tenskwatawa, known as The Prophet, initiated the Battle of Tippecanoe against General William Henry Harrison's army (Harrison was the governor of Indiana Territory), but the Indians retreated from the field and the Americans burned Prophetstown. Although ______ remained the military leader of the pan-Indian confederation, his plan to enlarge the Indian alliance was never fulfilled.

Harrison, William Henry

1773-1841; Ninth President 1841; 1840 election "Tippecanoe and Tyler, Too"; A westerner who fought against Native Americans; nicknamed "Old Tippecanoe" from when his troops defeated Native Americans at Tippecanoe Creek in 1811. ^^ He died of pneumonia a month after inauguration. His VP was John Tyler, who became the 10th President.

Prosser, Gabriel

1776 - 1800, he was a literate enslaved blacksmith from Richmond, Virginia, who planned a large slave rebellion in the Richmond area in the summer of 1800. Information regarding the revolt was leaked to then-Virginia Governor James Monroe prior to its execution, and ______ and twenty-five followers were taken captive near Norfolk and hanged in punishment. In reaction, Virginia and other state legislatures passed restrictions on free blacks, as well as prohibiting the education, assembly, and hiring out of slaves, to restrict their chances to learn to read and write and to plan similar rebellions. ______ had been able to plan the rebellion because of relatively lax rules of movement for slaves between plantations and the city, as so many had been hired out, and others traveled to and from the city on errands for their masters. ^^ After the rebellion, many slaveholders greatly restricted the slaves' rights of travel when not working. Fears of a slave revolt regularly swept major slaveholding communities. Prior to the rebellion, Virginia law had allowed education of slaves to read and write, and training of slaves in skilled trades. After the rebellion, and after a second conspiracy was discovered in 1802 among enslaved boatmen along the Appomattox and Roanoke Rivers, the Virginia Assembly in 1808 banned hiring out of slaves and required freed blacks to leave the state within 12 months or face re-enslavement (1806). In 2002 the City of Richmond passed a resolution in honor of _________ on the 202nd anniversary of the rebellion. In 2007 Governor Tim Kaine gave _______ and his followers an informal pardon, in recognition that his cause, "the end of slavery and the furtherance of equality for all people—has prevailed in the light of history."

Sequoyah

1776-1843; a Native American of mixed descent (a Cherokee mother and white father), ____ was trained in the skills of hunting and fur trade. He was injured in a hunting accident and proceeded to devote all his time to devising a syllabary for the Cherokee language. A syllabary is a set of characters or symbols that represents syllables of a language and make it possible for the language to be in written form.

Clay, Henry

1777 -1852; American lawyer, planter, and statesman who represented Kentucky in both the US Senate and House of Representatives. He served three non-consecutive terms as Speaker of the House of Representatives. ______ served four separate terms in the Senate, and he ran for the presidency in 1824, 1832 and 1844. He created the Whig Party. A leading war hawk, he helped lead Congress into declaring the War of 1812 against Britain. In 1814, he helped negotiate the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. After the war, he developed his "American System," which called for an increase in tariffs to foster industry in the US and the use of federal funding to build infrastructure. He helped launch a strong national bank and defended it against attacks from President Andrew Jackson. After unsuccessfully running for president in 1824, he helped Adams win the 1824 contingent election in the House of Representatives. Jackson denounced his role in Adams's victory, as well as his subsequent appointment as Secretary of State, as a "corrupt bargain".

Taney, Roger

1777-1864; fifth chief justice of the Supreme Court of the US, remembered principally for the Dred Scott decision (1857). In essence, the decision argued that Scott was a slave and as such was not a citizen and could not sue in a federal court. _____'s further opinion that Congress had no power to exclude slavery from the territories and that Negroes could not become citizens was bitterly attacked in the Northern press. The Dred Scott decision probably created more disagreement than any other legal opinion in US history; it became a violently divisive issue in national politics and dangerously undermined the prestige of the Supreme Court. Whenever state authorities threatened or interfered with the execution of federal power, however, ______ upheld federal supremacy. His opinion in Ableman v. Booth (1858), denying state power (in this case the courts of the state of Wisconsin) to obstruct the processes of the federal courts, remains a magnificent statement of constitutional federalism. Under his leadership, federal judicial power was expanded over corporations, the federal government was held to have paramount and exclusive authority over foreign relations, and congressional authority over US property and territory was vigorously upheld.

Calhoun, John C.

1782-1850; American statesman and political theorist from South Carolina, and the seventh Vice President of the US from 1825 to 1832. He is remembered for strongly defending slavery and for advancing the concept of minority rights in politics, which he did in the context of defending white Southern interests from perceived Northern threats. He began his political career as a nationalist, modernizer, and proponent of a strong national government and protective tariffs. In the late 1820s, his views changed radically and he became a leading proponent of states' rights, limited government, nullification, and opposition to high tariffs—he saw Northern acceptance of these policies as the only way to keep the South in the Union. His beliefs and warnings heavily influenced the South's secession from the Union in 1860-1861. He supported the doctrine of nullification, which declared the right of states to rule on the constitutionality of federal laws. ^^ In the postwar [War of 1812] Congressional session he was chairman of the committees that introduced bills for the second Bank of the US, a permanent road system, and a standing army and modern navy; he also vigorously supported the protective tariff of 1816. Thus, during this period, _____ was the major intellectual spokesman of American nationalism. In 1817 Pres. James Monroe appointed _____ secretary of war, and his distinguished performance in that post, as well as his previous legislative prominence, led his friend John Quincy Adams, then secretary of state, to declare that his Carolina colleague "is above all sectional and factious prejudices more than any other statesman of this Union with whom I have ever acted." That changed as the decades progressed. ^^ _______ was elected vice president in 1824 under John Quincy Adams and was reelected in 1828 under Andrew Jackson. In the 1830s ______ became as extreme in his devotion to strict construction of the US Constitution as he had earlier been in his support of nationalism. ^^ Soon after the 1828 election was won [Jackson as President, and _____ as his VP], ____ anonymously authored "South Carolina Exposition and Protest," a document which rejected the said "Tariff of Abominations" of 1828 that President Jackson largely supported due to its promise of protectionism. ______'s ardent pro-Southern economic policy fueled his defiance that, coupled with the Petticoat Affair, culminated in his estrangement from President Jackson. In the summer of 1831 he openly avowed his belief in nullification. On November 2, 1832, ______'s home state adopted the Ordinance of Nullification, which deemed the tariff unconstitutional. _______ resigned as vice president on December 28, 1832, just months before Congress passed the Force Bill, enabling Jackson to crush the uprising in South Carolina. ^^ In 1837, he said, "I hold that in the present state of civilization, where two races of different origin, and distinguished by color, and other physical differences, as well as intellectual, are brought together, the relation now existing in the slaveholding States between the two, is, instead of an evil, a good — a positive good." To support his positions, ____ compared the condition of the enslaved African-Americans on plantations to the condition created during the industrial revolution when white workers were categorized as "wage slaves." When the two groups were examined against each other, ____ believed that these "wage slaves" were at times treated worse than African-American slaves. His defense of slavery took a paternalistic bent, although this did not preclude violence against enslaved African-Americans at Fort Hill or other plantations. In defense of slavery, ___ would quote both biblical references and examples from Classical Greek and Roman texts. _____ was an ardent believer in white supremacy. ^^ _____ spent the last 20 years of his life in the Senate working to unite the South against the abolitionist attack on slavery, and his efforts included opposing the admittance of Oregon and California to the Union as free states. His efforts were in vain, however, and his exuberant defense of slavery as a "positive good" aroused strong anti-Southern feeling in the free states. ^^ Later, as a senator, he engaged Senator Daniel Webster in a debate over slavery and states' rights, demonstrating the ideas that would drive the country to the Civil War. ^^ He was appointed Secretary of State by President John Tyler on March 6, 1844. A former US Representative, US Senator, Secretary of War and Vice President, ____ served as Secretary of State for less than one year before returning to his position in the US Senate, where he served until his death in 1850.

Van Buren, Martin

1782-1862; eighth US President 1837-1841; a one-term President. He was the first president born under the flag of the United States. He was a politician early on. He was the originator of the Democratic Party and the two-party system. Democrat from New York who had served as Jackson's vice president after Calhoun left the position. ____ established the independent treasury system, which maintained government funds independently of the national banking systems; it existed in one form or another until 1921. The Panic of 1837 hampered attempts to follow Jackson's policies, and he was unsuccessful in re-election.

Irving, Washington

1783-1859; In his time, he was the best-known native writer in the US and one of the first American writers to gain fame throughout Europe. His satire is considered some of the first great comic literature written by an American. Stories included Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (both in 1820). His writings reflected an increasing nationalism, as the stories were based in American settings. His work, along with that of writers like x-------x, helped form the foundation for distinctive American literature.

Taylor, Zachary

1784-1850; Twelfth President 1849-1850. ____ was born in Virginia, the son of a Revolutionary War veteran. As a soldier they called him "Old Rough and Ready," and he led his men in battle riding side saddle on his horse Old Whitey. Famous general in the Mexican War, winning a string of battles. The public saw ____ as the hero of the Mexican-American War, and the Whig party chose him as a candidate. ^^ Whig President . Opposed the spread of slavery. Encouraged territories to organize and seek admission directly as states to avoid the issue of slavery. Died suddenly in 1850 and was replaced by his VP Millard Fillmore.

Audubon, John James

1785-1851; Romantic-era artist; member of the Hudson River School, a group of landscape painters; demonstrated the emotion of nature, especially birds and animals. In 1886, a nature organization took his name.

Sacagawea

1788-1812; young Shoshone woman who accompanied Lewis and Clark on the Corps of Discovery to explore the US to the Pacific coast and back.

Cooper, James Fennimore

1789-1851; American novelist born in Burlington, New Jersey. His writing was influenced by the American frontier and America's landscapes. His works include The Last of the Mahicans (1826), The Water-Witch (1830), and The American Democrat (1838). His work, along with that of writers like x-------x, helped form the foundation for distinctive American literature.

Tyler, John

1790-1862; Tenth President 1841-1845; ^^ he was the VP in the election; he took office following the death of William Henry Harrison. ^^ States' righter, Southerner, and strict constructionist; he rejected the programs of the Whigs who had elected Harrison, which led them to turn against him. He settled Webster-Ashburton Treaty between the US and Britain. He helped Texas achieve statehood in 1845. ^^ After the presidency, he retired to his estate, but came back into the national debate of the Civil War. ______ rejected the Union he had served as President, and won election to the Confederate of the House of Representatives. He died before taking his seat.

Vancouver, George

1790s; he was sent by Britain to explore the Pacific coast from Alaska to California and to make a report on the Sandwich Islands. Friendly to natives; gave them seeds and plants. Made 2 later trips and brought from California the first cattle to the islands. Thought of highly by Kamehameha such that they wished to be protect by his country, Great Britain. The British flag was raised on the island of Hawaii.

Buchanan, James

1791-1868; 15th President. ______ was the son of Irish immigrants who had made a successful life for themselves as merchants in rural Pennsylvania and who could afford to send their son to good schools. After graduating with honors from Dickinson College, _____ studied law. His legal and political careers moved forward together. Becoming a successful attorney, he advanced from state legislator to national figure, including membership in both houses of Congress, ambassadorships, and a cabinet post. The ambitious ______ had his sights on the presidency for many years before he actually attained the office. He tried for the White House in 1844, 1848, and 1852 before finally achieving his goal in 1856. ^^ After the election of 1860, maintaining that he lacked power, the lame-duck _____ took no action to stop secession, which only emboldened the new Confederacy and gave seceding states time to set up a government. _____ seemed eager to get out of the White House before the real disaster ensued. He vanished from public life and retreated to his home, seeing only close friends until his death in 1868.

Finney, Charles Grandison

1792-1875, Ohio lawyer, then Presbyterian evangelist, then president of Oberlin College, he was a central figure in the Second Great Awakening, a religious revival movement of the early 19th century; he is sometimes called the first of the professional evangelists. Addressing congregations in the manner he had used earlier in pleading with juries, he held spirited revivals in the villages of upstate New York. His methods were soon dubbed "new measures" and aroused intense criticism from men such as Lyman Beecher. His goal was to "correct and perfect" American institutions and social practices. His revivals achieved spectacular success in large cities, and in 1832 he began an almost continuous revival in New York City, which led his supporters to build for him the Broadway Tabernacle in 1834. He left New York in 1837 to become minister of Oberlin's First Congregational Church, closely related to Oberlin College, where he was president from 1851 to 1866. His theological views, typically revivalist in their emphasis on common sense and humanity's innate ability to reform itself, were given expression in his Lectures on Revivals (1835) and Lectures on Systematic Theology (1847).

Houston, Sam

1793-1863; Leader of Texas independence, he defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto and claimed independence. He asked both President Jackson and President Van Buren to recognize Texas as a state, which they denied out of fear that a new slave state would be formed.

Mott, Lucretia

1793-1880; pioneer reformer who, with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, founded the organized women's rights movement in the United States and who helped conduct the Seneca Falls Convention in July 1848 to bring awareness to women's condition in society and push for more equal rights for women. ^^ ______ grew up in Boston, where she attended public school for two years in accordance with her father's wish that she become familiar with the workings of democratic principles. ^^ About 1818 _______ began to speak at religious meetings, and three years later she was accepted as a minister of the Friends (Quakers) in Philadelphia, where she moved upon her marriage. ^^ In 1833 _______ attended the founding convention of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and immediately thereafter she led in organizing its women's auxiliary, the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, of which she was chosen president. She met opposition within the Society of Friends when she spoke of abolition, and attempts were made to strip _______ of her ministry and membership. In 1837 she helped organize the Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women, and in May 1838 her home was almost attacked by a mob after the burning of Pennsylvania Hall, Philadelphia, where the convention had been meeting. Rebuffed as a delegate to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840 because of her sex, _______ still managed to make her views known. ^^ In 1848, taking up the cause of women's rights, she and Elizabeth Cady Stanton called a convention at Seneca Falls, New York, the first of its kind, "to discuss the social, civil, and religious rights of women." The convention issued a "Declaration of Sentiments" modeled on the Declaration of Independence; it stated that "all men and women are created equal." From that time _______ devoted most of her attention to the women's rights movement. She wrote articles ("Discourse on Woman" appeared in 1850), lectured widely, was elected president of the 1852 convention at Syracuse, New York, and attended almost every annual meeting thereafter. At the organizing meeting of the American Equal Rights Association in 1866, she was chosen president. The following year she joined Robert Dale Owen, Rabbi Isaac M. Wise, and others in the organization of the Free Religious Association. ^^ A fluent, moving speaker, _______ retained her poise before the most hostile audiences. After the Civil War she worked to secure the franchise and educational opportunities for freedmen; since passage of the Fugitive Slave Law in 1850, she and her husband had also opened their home to runaway slaves escaping via the Underground Railroad. She continued to be active in the causes of women's rights, peace, and liberal religion until her death. Her last address was given to the Friends' annual meeting in May 1880.

Polk, James K.

1795-1849; Eleventh President (1845-1849); he was born in North Carolina. He was Andrew Jackson's close friend and political ally, and Jackson nurtured his political career. ^^ "Dark Horse" Democratic candidate who became president; a big believer in Manifest Destiny and expansionism; nicknamed "- the Purposeful" for his focus on a set of specific goals during his presidency. _______ gained the presidency in 1844 in part on the Democratic Party's expansionist pledge to seize all of the Oregon territory for the US. He introduced a new Independent Treasury system and lowered the high rates of tariffs with the Walker Tariff. He settled Oregon boundary dispute with the Oregon Treaty (Treaty of Washington-1846) at forty-ninth parallel rather than fifty-four forty. He acquired California and he led the US into the Mexican War in March 1846. Congress passed the Walker Tariff of 1846, a key part of ____'s domestic policy. In 1846, the Whigs regained a majority of seats in the House of Representatives. ^^ ____ died at the age of 53 just three months after leaving the White House.

Walker, David

1796 -1830; he was an African-American abolitionist, writer, and anti-slavery activist. Though his father was a slave, his mother was free so therefore he was free. In 1829, while living in Boston, Massachusetts, he published An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, a call for black unity and self-help in the fight against oppression and injustice. The appeal brought attention to the abuses and inequities of slavery and the role of individuals to act responsibly for racial equality, according to religious and political tenets. At the time, some people were outraged and fearful of the reaction that the pamphlet would have. Many abolitionists thought the views were extreme. He exerted a radicalizing influence on the abolitionist movements of his day and inspired future black leaders and activists. Historians and liberation theologians cite the Appeal as an influential political and social document of the 19th century.

Mann, Horace

1796-1859; American educator, the first great American advocate of public education, who believed that, in a democratic society, education should be free and universal, nonsectarian, democratic in method, and reliant on well-trained professional teachers. ^^ American educator who was the first secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. He suggested reforms in education which made available high-quality, no-cost, nondenominational public schooling. The system has lasted to present day, and as a result _____ has been called the father of the American public school. He started the "Common schools." Children were clay in the hands of teachers and school officials. Children should be "molded" into good citizens with "American" values: patriotic; hard-working; sober and sensible. By 1860 every state offered free public education to white children. US had one of the highest literacy rates in the world.

Truth, Sojourner

1797-1883; born Isabella Baumfree, this US abolitionist and feminist who was freed from slavery took the name _____ in 1843 and became a leading advocate of the abolition of slavery and for the rights of women. _______ was perhaps the most famous African-American woman in 19th century America. She set out on her own anti-slavery crusade, seeing it as "the secular counterpart of spiritual salvation." For over forty years she traveled the country as a forceful and passionate advocate for the dispossessed, using her quick wit and fearless tongue to fight for human rights. She received income from the sale of her biography, The Narrative of _______, A Northern Slave, written in 1850 by her friend, Olive Gilbert. Probably her most famous address, known as "Ain't I A Woman?," was made at a Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio, on May 28, 1851. Although illiterate, ____ captivated audiences with storytelling, singing of spirituals, and her remarkable knowledge of the Bible.

Turner, Nat

1800-1831; US slave and insurrectionist who in 1831 led a rebellion of slaves in Southhampton County, Virginia. He was influential among local slaves as a preacher, and he believed it was his destiny to lead slaves to freedom. He led approximately 60 in revolt, first killing the family of his owner and then killing more than 60 whites in the surrounding neighborhood. The revolt was put down and he and some of his conspirators, and several free African Americans, were executed. The revolt led to stricter slave laws in the South and an end to the Southern organizations that advocated abolition.

Fillmore, Millard

1800-1874; Thirteenth President; 1850-1853. ^^ Born into desperate poverty at the dawn of the nineteenth century, ________ climbed to the highest office in the land—and inherited a nation breaking into fragments over the question of slavery. In 1843, ______ left the House of Representatives in hopes of gaining the Whig vice-presidential nomination for 1844 and joining Henry Clay on the ticket. Thurlow Weed convinced—or, more accurately, ordered— _______ to run for governor of New York instead. In a close race, _______ lost, a defeat he blamed on abolitionists, recent Catholic immigrants, and Thurlow Weed. Feeling that Weed had undermined his candidacy, ______ broke with the party boss. In the end, Clay lost the presidential election to Democrat James Polk. Being out of a job, Fillmore looked for an opportunity that would keep him in politics. In 1847, he won election as New York's comptroller, or chief financial overseer. _____'s winning margin over his Democratic rival was so wide that he was instantly seen as a leading Whig candidate for the upcoming 1848 national campaign. ^^ Became president after Zachary Taylor died. As a congressman, he revealed his opposition to both the expansion of slavery and various abolitionist activities, driving away supporters. Supported the Compromise of 1850. Despite his best efforts, the lines of the future battles of the Civil War were drawn, and ______ found himself rejected by his own dying party and denied re-nomination. Failed to obtain a nomination in 1852 but was nominated by both the Whigs and the Know-Nothing movement in 1856. ^^ He spoke out against many of President Lincoln's policies during the Civil War. Branded a bigot and traitor by his critics. After almost a quarter of a century out of the White House, he died in New York state in 1874.

Cole, Thomas

1801-1848; Father of the Hudson River School of art; English-born man who immigrated to America in 1818. With no formal training, his inspiration came from a love of poetry and literature. A key figure in the development of landscape painting, he also produced many allegories and literary subjects. By merging realistic description and idealism, he inspired the subsequent Hudson River School. His responses to nature, imagination, literature, and the spiritual imperatives of Christianity reflect a complex and even contradictory mind. Few American artists have achieved such fertile and varied results, and perhaps even fewer have so influenced the course of subsequent developments. A pivotal moment in _____'s career occurred within months of his relocation to New York in 1825. In the fall he exhibited three landscapes based on sketches he had made while traveling in the Hudson River Valley that summer. These transformed the twenty-four-year-old painter into a star of the city's tiny artistic community. Departing from the pastoralism of most early American views, ______'s emotionally charged early landscapes usually emphasize dramatic, even fearful aspects of the American wilderness. However, despite acclaim for his original vision of American nature, ______ harbored larger ambitions. He desired to fulfill the aims of traditional history painting, with its emphasis on didactic moralism and spiritual elevation. Paradoxically, ______'s lifelong attraction to European art and theory enabled him to redefine American landscape painting. His ingenious fusion of traditional artistic philosophy with empirical observation transformed topographical study from a literal and unassuming pursuit to a high-minded, virtuous, and edifying enterprise. For the rest of his career, along with pure landscapes he more or less simultaneously produced narrative or literary subjects. Inventively, however, he typically used landscape as an agent of meaning in these works, not just as background.

Dix, Dorothea

1802-1887; Social reformer who worked to help the mentally ill. Northeastern jails housed both criminals and the mentally ill in the same facilities. ______ became determined to change this. ____'s memorandum to the Massachusetts state legislature in 1842 led to the establishment of state hospitals for the insane.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo

1803-1882; American lecturer, writer, philosopher, and poet of the Transcendentalist Movement; he wrote the essay "Self-Reliance" in 1841, which promoted the virtue of independence and which argued that we all possess a natural ability to understand and perfect the world by relying on our higher instincts. Through the themes in his writing and through the independent lifestyle he lived, strongly influenced American thought and culture.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel

1804-1864, American novelist and short-story writer who was a master of the allegorical and symbolic tale. One of the greatest fiction writers in American literature, he is best known for The Scarlet Letter (1850) and The House of the Seven Gables (1851).

Pierce, Franklin

1804-1869; 14th President; 1853-1857. An ardent Jacksonian, he was later called "Young Hickory." ^^ Democratic president from New Hampshire. Supported Manifest Destiny despite Northern concerns that it would lead to the spread of slavery. Signed the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Sent Commodore Matthew Perry into Japan to open the country to diplomacy and commerce (Treaty of Kanagawa). Opened Canada to greater trade; his diplomats failed in their attempts to purchase Cuba from Spain, leading to the drafting of the Ostend Manifesto. ^^ After his presidency, he criticized President Lincoln's policies in the Civil War.

Toqueville, Alexis de

1805-1859; French diplomat, civil servant, political scientist, and historian who traveled to and wrote about the US. He was best known for his works Democracy in America (appearing in two volumes, 1835 and 1840) and The Old Regime and the Revolution (1856). In both, he analyzed the improved living standards and social conditions of individuals as well as their relationship to the market and state in Western societies. Democracy in America was published after his travels in the US and is today considered an early work of sociology and political science. Democracy in America reflected his interest in the American democratic process and appreciation of American civil society. He assessed the American attempt to have both liberty and equality and provided an outsider's objective view of the Age of Jackson.

Garrison, William Lloyd

1805-1879. Prominent American abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer. Editor of radical abolitionist newspaper "The Liberator" and one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society. He argued for immediate emancipation without compensation for slaveholders. In the first issue of The Liberator, he stated his views on slavery vehemently: "I do not wish to think, or speak, or write, with moderation.... I am in earnest—I will not equivocate—I will not excuse—I will not retreat a single inch—AND I WILL BE HEARD." Like most of the abolitionists he recruited, he was a convert from the American Colonization Society, which advocated the return of free blacks to Africa, to the principle of "immediate emancipation," borrowed from Elizabeth Heyrick and other English abolitionists. Many other anti-slavery advocates of the 1830s and 1840s recommended a gradualist approach. Because of his inflexible position and the fiery language he used in his paper, opposition to his policy developed within abolitionist groups. ______ also advocated an unpopular position in favor of equal rights for women. After the Civil War, he promoted free trade, suffrage for women, and fair treatment for Native Americans.

Johnson, Andrew

1808-1875; Seventeenth President 1865-1869. Southern Democrat and staunch Union man. He was chosen to balance the ticket in President Lincoln's re-election bid. Vice President who took over presidency after Lincoln's assassination, six weeks after Lincoln's inauguration. _____ was a Southerner form Tennessee. He initially followed Lincoln's policies of Reconstruction but gradually became more lenient to the Southern states' governments, giving amnesty to former Confederate officials and opposing federal legislation that protected former slaves. He opposed radical Republicans who passed Reconstruction Acts over his veto. His veto of the Civil Rights Act was overridden by Congress, which decreased his political power. ______'s opposition to the Radical Republicans and his violation of the Tenure of Office Act led to his impeachment by the House. The Senate was organized as a court to hear the impeachment charges, but it came one vote short of the constitutional two-thirds required for removal. The first US president to be impeached, he survived the Senate removal by only one vote. He was a very weak president. ^^ After the Presidency, _____ was elected to US Senate; he was the only man to serve in the Senate following his presidency.

Brown, John

1809-1859; "God's Angry Man"; American abolitionist born in Connecticut who advocated armed insurrection as the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery in the US. ______ was dissatisfied with the pacifism of the organized abolitionist movement. ^^ The murder of Elijah Lovejoy by pro-slavery advocates in 1837 marked a key turning point in _____'s life. He became a devotee of abolitionism and moved to Springfield, Massachusetts in the 1840s, where he attended the Free Church and heard lectures from former slaves Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth. He became involved in the Underground Railroad. ^^ He first gained attention when he led small groups of volunteers during the Bleeding Kansas crisis of 1856. ____ and other abolitionist activists killed five slavery proponents at the Pottawatomie Massacre of 1856. ^^ In 1859, he led a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia (still Virginia at the time) to start a liberation movement among the slaves there. He seized the armory, during which seven people were killed and ten or more were injured. He intended to arm slaves with weapons from the arsenal, but the attack failed. Within 36 hours, his men had fled or been killed or captured by local farmers, militiamen, and US Marines led by Robert E. Lee. He was tried for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, the murder of five men, and inciting a slave insurrection, was found guilty on all counts, and was hanged. ^^ The Harper's Ferry raid escalated tensions which led to the South's secession a year later and the American Civil War. The Harper's Ferry raid captured the nation's attention; Southerners feared that it was the first of many Northern plots to cause a slave rebellion which might endanger their lives, while Republicans dismissed the notion and claimed that they would not interfere with slavery in the South. He was named in a popular Union marching song during the Civil War, portraying him as a martyr.

Lincoln, Abraham

1809-1865; 16th President of the US 1861-1865; a self-taught lawyer became one of Illinois's leading citizens. He participated in the ____-Douglas Debates in 1858. ^^ He saved the Union during the Civil War and emancipated the slaves; was assassinated by Booth. The _____- x-----x Debates won him high national regard and, eventually, the Republican nomination for president. ^^ "A house divided against itself cannot stand."

McCormick, Cyrus

1809-1884; he was an American inventor and businessman who founded the ______ Harvesting Machine Company, Although he has sometimes been simplistically credited as the [single] "inventor" of the mechanical reaper, he was one of several inventors who contributed successful models in the 1830s, and his efforts built on more than two decades of work by his father, as well as the aid of Jo Anderson, a slave held by his family. Even greater than his achievement as an inventor was his success in the development of a modern company, with manufacturing, marketing, and a sales force to market his products. His reaper helped set the stage for the late 19th century expansion of agricultural production. Note that it was his company's wage/hour practices which were a prime cause of the Haymarket Riot in 1886 in Chicago.

Fuller, Margaret

1810-1850, American critic, teacher, and woman of letters whose efforts to civilize the taste and enrich the lives of her contemporaries make her significant in the history of American culture. She is particularly remembered for her landmark book Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845), which examined the place of women within society.

Singer, Isaac

1811-1875; he was an American inventor, actor, and businessman. He made important improvements in the design of the sewing machine and founded a manufacturing/retailing company. Many had patented sewing machines before him, but his success was based on the practicality of his machine, the ease with which it could be adapted to home use, and its availability on an installment payment basis. It provided the basis for expansion in the garment industry after the Civil War.

Stowe, Harriet Beecher

1811-1896; Worked with the Grimke sisters, Elizabeth Stanton, and other leaders to pursue activist goals. Early activist in the feminist movement and author of Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1851), a novel critical of slavery. Uncle Tom's Cabin was denounced in the South and praised in the North; it turned many toward active opposition to slavery and helped bolster sympathy for abolition by Europeans who had read it.

Douglas, Stephen

1813-1861; Senator from Illinois dubbed the "Little Giant". Was an expansionist and a supporter of the Mexican War. Broke the Compromise of 1850 into smaller, more acceptable pieces of legislation and pushed it through using various allies in Congress. Introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854. During a Senate campaign in 1858, participated in debates against Abraham Lincoln. He believed popular sovereignty was the appropriate way to handle the slavery question

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady

1815-1902; American leader in the women's rights movement who in 1848 formulated the first organized demand for woman suffrage in the United States. While studying law in the office of her father, a US congressman and later a New York Supreme Court judge, she learned of the discriminatory laws under which women lived and determined to win equal rights for her sex. In 1840 she married Henry Brewster ____, a lawyer and abolitionist (she insisted that the word "obey" be dropped from the wedding ceremony). Later that year they attended the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in London, and she was outraged at the denial of official recognition to several women delegates, notably Lucretia C. Mott, because of their sex. She became a frequent speaker on the subject of women's rights and circulated petitions that helped secure passage by the New York legislature in 1848 of a bill granting married women's property rights. ^^ In 1848 she and Mott issued a call for a women's rights convention to meet in Seneca Falls, New York (where _____ lived), on July 19-20 and in Rochester, New York, on subsequent days. At the meeting _______ introduced her Declaration of Sentiments, modeled on the Declaration of Independence, that detailed the inferior status of women and that, in calling for extensive reforms, effectively launched the American women's rights movement. She also introduced a resolution calling for woman suffrage that was adopted after considerable debate. From 1851 she worked closely with Susan B. Anthony; together they remained active for 50 years after the first convention, planning campaigns, speaking before legislative bodies, and addressing gatherings in conventions, in lyceums, and in the streets. _______, the better orator and writer, was perfectly complemented by Anthony, the organizer and tactician. She wrote not only her own and many of Anthony's addresses but also countless letters and pamphlets, as well as articles and essays for numerous periodicals, including Amelia Bloomer's Lily, Paulina Wright Davis's Una, and Horace Greeley's New York Tribune. ^^ In 1854 _______ received an unprecedented invitation to address the New York legislature; her speech resulted in new legislation in 1860 granting married women the rights to their wages and to equal guardianship of their children. During her presidency in 1852-53 of the short-lived Woman's State Temperance Society, which she and Anthony had founded, she scandalized many of her most ardent supporters by suggesting that drunkenness be made sufficient cause for divorce. Liberalized divorce laws continued to be one of her principal issues. ^^ During the Civil War, _______ again worked for abolitionism. In 1863 she and Anthony organized the Women's National Loyal League, which gathered more than 300,000 signatures on petitions calling for immediate emancipation. The movement to extend the franchise to African American men after the war, however, caused her bitterness and outrage, reemphasized the disenfranchisement of women, and led her and her colleagues to redouble their efforts for woman suffrage. ^^ _______ and Anthony made several exhausting speaking and organizing tours on behalf of woman suffrage. In 1868 _______ became coeditor (with Parker Pillsbury) of the newly established weekly The Revolution, a newspaper devoted to women's rights. She continued to write fiery editorials until the paper's demise in 1870. She helped organize the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1869 and was named its president, a post she retained until 1890, when the organization merged with the rival American Woman Suffrage Association. She was then elected president of the new National American Woman Suffrage Association and held that position until 1892. ^^ _______ continued to write and lecture tirelessly. She was the principal author of the Declaration of Rights for Women presented at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876. In 1878 she drafted a federal suffrage amendment that was introduced in every Congress thereafter until women were granted the right to vote in 1920. With Susan B. Anthony and Matilda Joslyn Gage she compiled the first three volumes of the six-volume History of Woman Suffrage. She also published The Woman's Bible, 2 vol. (1895-98), and an autobiography, Eighty Years and More (1898).

Thoreau, Henry David

1817-1862; the son of a Concord pencil-maker, ______ graduated from Harvard in 1837. He worked a short while as a schoolmaster, but then began writing poetry. He soon joined a religious, philosophical, and literary movement called Transcendentalism. The leader of the movement was Ralph Waldo Emerson, a writer and lecturer. ^^ ______ published Walden in 1854, which called for a return to the simple life, repudiated the repression of society, and preached non-violent civil disobedience. He also published "On Civil Disobedience" in 1849, in which he advocated noncooperation with evil. He was an American essayist, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, and historian. ^^ He protested unjust laws, slavery, and the Mexican War. To demonstrate against these issues, _____ refused to pay his poll tax and was forced to spend one night in jail. He was a lifelong abolitionist, delivering lectures that attacked the Fugitive Slave Law while praising the writings of Wendell Phillips and defending the abolitionist John Brown. His philosophy of civil disobedience later influenced the political thoughts and actions of such notable figures as Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr. ^^ In his critique of the social and economic values which doom so many to "lives of quiet desperation," and of the silly, destructive ways in which society acts, ______ is a major critic of American life. He tries to get us to reconsider the nature of democracy, the effects of technological change, and, most of all, our communal goals and values.

Douglass, Frederick

1817-1895; escaped slave and outspoken abolitionist, _____ escaped from his Maryland owner and published his own newspaper, the North Star. He favored the use of political methods of reform. In the Civil War, he helped put together regiments of African Americans from Massachusetts and urged others to join the Union army. ____ is known as the father of the American civil rights movement.

Howe, Elias

1819-1867; He patented a greatly improved design for a sewing machine; despite his efforts to sell his machine, other entrepreneurs began manufacturing sewing machines. He was forced to defend his patent in a court case that lasted from 1849 to 1854 because he found that someone had perfected a facsimile of his machine and was selling it with the same lockstitch that he had invented and patented. He won the dispute and earned considerable royalties from the creator of the facsimile and others for sales of his invention. He contributed much of the money he earned to providing equipment for the 17th Connecticut Volunteer Infantry of the Union Army during the Civil War, in which he served as a Private in Company D.

Whitman, Walt

1819-1892; he was an American free-verse poet, essayist, and journalist devoted to democratic self-expression. A humanist, he was a part of the transition between Transcendentalism and Realism, incorporating both views in his works. He is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse. His work was very controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass, which was described as obscene for its overt sexuality. He was a volunteer nurse during the American Civil War. Early in his career, he also produced a temperance novel, Franklin Evans (1842). ^^ In New York, he founded a weekly newspaper, Long-Islander, and later edited a number of Brooklyn and New York papers. In 1848, Whitman left the Brooklyn Daily Eagle to become editor of the New Orleans Crescent. It was in New Orleans that he experienced firsthand the viciousness of slavery in the slave markets of that city. On his return to Brooklyn in the fall of 1848, he founded a "free soil" newspaper, the Brooklyn Freeman, and continued to develop the unique style of poetry that later so astonished Ralph Waldo Emerson. His major work, Leaves of Grass, was first published in 1855 with his own money. The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic. He celebrated the importance of individualism. ^^ At the outbreak of the Civil War, _____ vowed to live a "purged" and "cleansed" life. He worked as a freelance journalist and visited the wounded at New York City-area hospitals. He then traveled to Washington, D. C. in December 1862 to care for his brother who had been wounded in the war.

Anthony, Susan B.

1820-1906; American activist who was a pioneer crusader for the woman suffrage movement in the United States and president (1892-1900) of the National Woman Suffrage Association. Her work helped pave the way for the Nineteenth Amendment (1920) to the Constitution, giving women the right to vote. A social reformer who campaigned for women's rights, temperance, and abolition, and helped form the National Woman Suffrage Association, she encouraged New York State to pass laws allowing women to own property. ^^ In Rochester, New York, she met many leading abolitionists, including Frederick Douglass, Parker Pillsbury, Wendell Phillips, William Henry Channing, and William Lloyd Garrison. Soon the temperance movement enlisted her sympathy and then, after meeting women's suffrage advocates, so did that of woman suffrage. ^^ The rebuff of _______'s attempt to speak at a temperance meeting in Albany in 1852 prompted her to organize the Woman's New York State Temperance Society and pushed _______ farther in the direction of women's rights advocacy. In a short time she became known as one of the cause's most zealous, serious advocates, a dogged and tireless worker whose personality contrasted sharply with that of her friend and coworker Stanton. She was also a prime target of public and newspaper abuse. While campaigning for a liberalization of New York's laws regarding married women's property rights, an end attained in 1860, _______ served from 1856 as chief New York agent of Garrison's American Anti-Slavery Society. During the early phase of the Civil War she helped organize the Women's National Loyal League, which urged the case for emancipation. After the war she campaigned unsuccessfully to have the language of the Fourteenth Amendment altered to allow for woman as well as African American suffrage, and in 1866 she became corresponding secretary of the newly formed American Equal Rights Association. Her exhausting speaking and organizing tour of Kansas in 1867 failed to win passage of a state enfranchisement law. ^^ In 1868 _______ became publisher of a new periodical, The Revolution, originally financed by the eccentric George Francis Train. The same year, she represented the Working Women's Association of New York, which she had recently organized, at the National Labor Union convention. In January 1869 she organized a woman suffrage convention in Washington, D.C., and in May she helped form the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). A portion of the organization deserted later in the year to join the more conservative American Woman Suffrage Association, but the NWSA remained a large and powerful group, and _______ continued to serve as its principal leader and spokeswoman. ^^ In 1870 she relinquished her position at The Revolution and embarked on a series of lecture tours to pay off the paper's accumulated debts. As a test of the legality of the suffrage provision of the Fourteenth Amendment, she cast a vote in the 1872 presidential election in Rochester, New York. She was arrested, convicted (the judge's directed verdict of guilty had been written before the trial began), and fined, and although she refused to pay the fine, the case was carried no farther. She traveled constantly in support of efforts in various states to win the franchise for women: California in 1871, Michigan in 1874, Colorado in 1877, and elsewhere. In 1890, after lengthy discussions, the rival suffrage associations were merged into the National American Woman Suffrage Association, and in 1892 _______ became president. Her principal lieutenant in later years was Carrie Chapman Catt. ^^ By the 1890s _______ had largely outlived the abuse and sarcasm that had attended her early efforts, and she emerged as a national heroine. Her visits to the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 and to the Lewis and Clark Exposition in Portland, Oregon, in 1905 were warmly received, as were her trips to London in 1899 and Berlin in 1904 as head of the U.S. delegation to the International Council of Women (which she helped found in 1888). In 1900, at age 80, she retired from the presidency of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, passing it on to Catt. _______ died in 1906, 14 years before the Nineteenth Amendment was passed.

Tubman, Harriet

1820-1913; An African-American freed slave who made at least 13 trips to the South to help at least 300 slaves escape to the North and to Canada. ____ also aided John Brown in his abortive attempt to lead an armed insurrection at the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. ____ helped recruit some men for Brown's cause. ____ also served as a spy for Union forces during the Civil War, scouted for Union troops, assisted in attempts to rescue slaves, and worked as a nurse. ^^ ____ later became a visible proponent of the women's suffrage movement and traveled to several major cities to speak about the importance of the cause.

Grant, Ulysses S.

1822-1885; An American general elected to be the eighteenth President of the US (1869-1877). ^^ Born in Ohio; _____ attended West Point and served as a lieutenant in the Mexican-American War; later he was a failure as a farmer and businessman. At the outbreak of the Civil War, _____ volunteered for the Union Army. His troops swept through Confederate strongholds in the West: he captured Vicksburg as a Union general; then he was appointed Commander of all Union armies. He achieved international fame as the leading Union general in the American Civil War and accepted General Lee's surrender. _____ was appointed Secretary of War by Andrew Johnson in 1867; disagreed with Johnson's policies and won election through support of Radical Republicans. There were high expectations for his presidency. Despite his personal honesty and honor, his administration was marred by scandals such as Credit Mobilier and the Whiskey Ring. ^^ ______ struggled to finish his war memoirs just before dying 20 years after his presidency.

Hayes, Rutherford Birchard

1822-1893; 19th President 1877-1881.

Arthur, Chester A.

1829-1886; Twenty-first President, 1881-1885. ^^ He served with efficiency as quartermaster-general for New York during the Civil War. He was a member of the Republican party's Stalwart faction, which New York Senator Roscoe Conkling led. President Ulysses S. Grant appointed him collector of the Port of New York in 1871. In this lucrative post he distributed many patronage jobs, rewarding party loyalists while also seeking to recognize merit. President Rutherford Hayes, an opponent of the Stalwart faction, removed him in 1878. His selection as James Garfield's vice Presidential running mate in 1880 reflected the party's effort to heal its internal division. He became President upon Garfield's assassination in 1881 by Charles Guiteau. A conscientious and dignified chief executive, ________ attempted to curb wasteful congressional "pork" spending. He worked to outlaw polygamy in Utah and to strengthen the Navy. He yielded to pressure from California, where Chinese workers were arriving in great numbers to work in the mines, and signed the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act forbidding Chinese immigration for ten years. He had vetoed an earlier bill barring Chinese immigrants altogether. He appointed a Tariff Commission that recommended lower rates, but thanks to heavy lobbying, the so-called "Mongrel Tariff" of 1883 changed little. His secretary of state James G. Blaine promoted U.S. commercial and trade interests with Latin America and Korea. Although identified with the patronage system, _______ supported civil service reform, including the Pendleton Act, which established open competitive exams for civil service jobs and officially ended the Spoils System that had been popular under Andrew Jackson. He signed the 1883 Pendleton Act, which established the Civil Service Commission and launched the move toward a nonpartisan, expert civil service. ______'s wife died of pneumonia in 1880, so his widowed sister served as his White House hostess. Courtly and fashionable, he was nicknamed "Elegant _______." He sought the 1884 Republican nomination, but the Stalwarts considered him a turncoat while party reformers doubted his conversion to their cause, and he lost to Blaine. ______ did not publicly support Blaine, who went on to lose New York, and the presidency, to Grover Cleveland. Having upheld the authority of the presidency in an era of congressional dominance, ______ was a transitional figure in the long movement toward enhanced federal activity.

Garfield, James

1831-1881; Twentieth President 1881. ^^ ____ served as a Union General in the Civil War, then an Ohio Congressman for 17 years and a Republican leader in the House. ^^ and Charles Guiteau, a disappointed office seeker, shot and killed _____. His assassination spurred the passage of the Pendleton Act.

Sitting Bull

1831-1890; Hunkpapa chief and medicine man, probably the most famous for being at the Battle of Little Big Horn (he was not in charge), in which Colonel George C. Custer and troops died. _____ lived during a time when the tensions between Native Americans and white men were at their greatest. The US government and settlers were pushing Indians farther and farther west. When ______ was told to move to a reservation, he decided instead to take his band of followers to Canada, which is when Custer chased him and the famous battle occurred. _____ returned to the US in 1881, when he was confined to Fort Randall in South Dakota. When authorities went to arrest him in 1890, Sitting Bull was shot and killed.

Harrison, Benjamin

1833-1901; Twenty-third President 1889-1893. Grandson of a former president. Born in Ohio but made Indiana his home. Rose to the rank of general in the Civil War. Considered one of the finest legal minds of his day. Former senator and lawyer. He was nominated for the presidency on the eighth ballot at the 1888 Republican Convention. Defeated Grover Cleveland, despite receiving fewer popular votes. Submitted to the Senate a treaty to annex Hawaii, although President Cleveland later withdrew it. Signed many appropriations bills for naval improvement and internal improvements. ^^ ________ was defeated in his reelection bid in 1892. Recently widowed, _____ returned to Indianapolis, where he remarried and won renewed respect as a senior statesman. He died at home in 1901 and was honored with a state funeral.

Burns, Anthony

1834-1862; he was born a slave in Stafford County, Virginia. As a young man, he became a Baptist and a "slave preacher" at the Falmouth Union Church in Falmouth, Virginia. In 1853 he escaped from slavery and reached Boston, where he started working. The following year, he was captured under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 and tried under the law in Boston. The law was fiercely resisted in Boston, and the case attracted national publicity, large demonstrations, protests, and an attack on US Marshals at the courthouse. Hundreds of federal troops were used to ensure he was transported to a ship for return to Virginia after the trial. He was eventually ransomed from slavery, with his freedom purchased by Boston sympathizers. Afterward he was educated at Oberlin College and became a Baptist preacher, moving to Upper Canada for a position.

Twain, Mark (Samuel Langhorne Clemens)

1835-1910; American novelist who grew up in Hannibal, Missouri. Early jobs as both a printer's apprentice and a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River. His novels include The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Huckleberry Finn (1885), and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889). His writings portray the essence of life and speech during the era; his use of a distinctly American vernacular influenced future fiction writers.

Carnegie, Andrew

1835-1919; a genuinely self-made man; his father was an impoverished Scottish weaver. After making money through investments in a sleeping car company and oil, ______ moved on to a position in the War Department. Later, he worked in the iron business and then moved into steel after learning the Bessemer Process, which formed steel from pig iron. Grew a large steel company through acquisitions. His steel company was involved in the Homestead Strike with the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. Wrote the article "Gospel of Wealth" for the North American Review, which promoted the belief that the wealthy were just trustees of their "surplus money" for "his poorer brethren" and that they must use their efforts to benefit society. His philanthropic ventures included public libraries

Captain Jack

1837-1873; aka Kintpuash (also spelled Keintpoos, Keiintoposes); leader of a tribe of Modoc Indians that lived mainly in the Lost River Valley on the California-Oregon border near Tule Lake. In a desperate attempt to maintain his people's independence, Kintpuash led several Modoc bands in an unsuccessful war of resistance known to whites as the Modoc War. He was hanged with three other Modoc leaders in 1873 after being found guilty of war crimes, the only Indian combatants to be convicted as war criminals in American history. After being moved off the land, ____ led part of his tribe back to their homeland in 1872. He also led them against the US Army during the ensuing war, known as the Modoc War of 1872-1873. When a peace meeting was held on April 11 and Brigadier General Edward Canby said he would not remove his troops from the area, ______ killed him and fled. The US Army captured him and hanged him in 1873.

Hanna, Marcus Alonzo

1837-1904; American capitalist dealing in coal, shipping, shipbuilding, banking, and newspapers. He was active in the Ohio Republican Party and helped elect William McKinley as governor in 1891 and 1893. As Chairman of the Republican National Committee, he assisted McKinley in winning the presidential election of 1896.

Cleveland, Grover

1837-1908; 22nd President; 1885-1889; also 24th President 1893-1897. _____ was a New Jersey minister's son. ______ rose to prominence as a reforming Democratic mayor of Buffalo (1881-82) and governor of New York (1883-84). His integrity earned him the nickname "_____ the Good" and he was elected Governor of New York. ^^ With the help of Republican "mugwumps", he defeated James G. Blaine to become the first Democratic president since the Civil War. His attempt to reduce the tariff contributed to Benjamin Harrison's electoral victory In 1888. In his second term, ______ faced a monetary crisis (1893), and was forced to send troops to crush the Pullman Strike (1894) called by Eugene V. Debs. His attempt to maintain the gold standard angered radical Democrats and tariff reform proposals were shelved. Quote: "The lessons of paternalism ought to be unlearned and the better lesson taught that, while the people should patriotically and cheerfully support their government, its functions do not include the support of the people." from inaugural address, March 1893.

Morgan, J. P.

1837-1913; Wall Street banker (whose father was a rich international banker) whose company financed railroads, banks, and insurance companies. He saw the Civil War as a business opportunity, not a cause, and profited greatly. He controlled four of the six major railroads in the country, banks, insurance companies, industrial corporations, and a financial empire worth billions. _____ bought out Carnegie's vast steel holdings in 1900 for $480 million, creating US Steel. Pledged money to help shore up the US banking system after the Panic of 1907. Philanthropist.

Rockefeller, John D.

1839-1937; Founder of Standard Oil Company; he used such business practices as horizontal integration, trusts, and rebates to grow Standard Oil Company. He also invested in banks, railroads, and timber. ^^ His business tactics were exposed in Ida Tarbell's History of the Standard Oil Company, published in 1904. Monopolies by men like ________ led to demands by small businessmen and laborers for government regulation. ^^ ______ focused on philanthropy toward the end of his life, including a foundation and the University of Chicago.

Mahan, Alfred Thayer

1840-1914; Naval officer and historian, in 1890 he published The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783, in which he further encouraged those in favor of American imperialism and seaward expansion. Themes in the book were used as partial justification for the US's taking of the Philippines.

Crazy Horse

1842-1877; led the Sioux and Cheyenne to defeat General George Crook in the Battle of the Rosebud in Montana. The fight began after the US government ordered the Oglala Sioux, with _____ as their chief, to enter a reservation and they refused. _____ was actually chief at the Battle of Little Bighorn. In 1877, ____ voluntarily surrendered to US troops, and that same year he was killed by a soldier trying to force him into a jail cell.

McKinley, William

1843-1901; 25th President 1897-1901; re-elected in 1900; assassinated in 1901. Born in Ohio; he served in the Civil War under Rutherford B. Hayes. He was a powerful Republican congressman from Ohio. Businesses rallied to support him against his opponent, William Jennings Bryan. While Bryan toured the country, _____ stayed at home and hosted important visitors, building an honest, "presidential" image. Defeated William Jennings Bryan for office in 1896. ______'s election over Bryan influenced future political races by setting up interest groups and alliances that lasted for over a decade. __________ was re-elected in 1900, but Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, assassinated him one year into his second term.

Parker, Quanah

1845-1911; his father, Nokoni, was a Comanche chief and his mother, Cynthia Ann Parker, was a white captive. _____ adopted the ways of both his parents. When he became chief, ____ mission was to stop the slaughter of the buffalo in his homeland of Texas. _____ led his warriors against white settlers, but he was forced to surrender to the US Army in 1875. ____ and his tribe moved to a reservation near Fort Sill, in what is now southwestern Oklahoma. He encouraged his people to obtain an education and learn to farm, to work with the white man, and lease land to make money. Finally, many years before other Indians thought to do so, ____ obtained full US citizenship for his tribe members. He was the last free Comanche chief and he died in 1911.

Bell, Alexander Graham

1847-1922; inventor of the telephone, b. Scotland. He first worked with his father, inventor of a system for educating the deaf. The family moved to America in 1870, and _____ taught speech at Boston University (1873-77). His work on the transmission of sound by electricity led to the first demonstration of the telephone in 1876, and the founding of a telephone company in 1877.

Debs, Eugene V.

1855-1926; ____ was a radical labor leader who in 1893 founded the American Railway Union (ARU), an industrial union for all railroad workers. ____ was a charismatic speaker, but he was also a controversial figure in American life around the turn of the twentieth century. He led successful strikes against the Great Northern Railway and against the Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894. He was a founder of the Social Democratic Party. He ran for president as a Socialist candidate five times between 1900 and 1920. He vigorously dissented and protested US involvement in WWI and was put in prison under the 1918 Sedition Act. President Harding later ordered ______ freed for time served but did not grant him an official pardon.

Taylor, Frederick Winslow

1856-1915; Created the basis for the scientific management of business in his quest for efficiency. He used shops and large plants as models and succeeded in spreading his ideas on efficiency to several industries. He wrote books on the subject of scientific management.

Washington, Booker T.

1856-1915; the son of a slave and a white man, he attended and then taught at the Hampton Institute and, in 1881, helped organize a school for African Americans in Tuskegee, Alabama. The Tuskegee Institute emphasized industrial training to help African Americans gather wealth and become influential in society. ______ claimed that it was a mistake for African Americans to push for social equality before they had become economically equal. He urged blacks to improve their lot through education and to avoid directly challenging Jim Crow laws. ^^ His prominence as the leading black intellectual force earned him access to the leading white politicians of the day. President Theodore Roosevelt invited _____ to have dinner with him at the White House in October 1901. Both Roosevelt and ____ received death threats for the dinner. _____'s ideas were denounced by some leaders in the African American community. ____ lectured throughout the US and Europe and wrote various works, including his autobiography, Up from Slavery.

Wilson, Woodrow

1856-1924; 28th President 1913-1921; Before his presidency and political work, he served as an academic and President of Princeton University. His legislation lowered tariffs, created a graduated federal income tax, and established the Federal Trade Commission to control unfair business practices. He initiated progressive reform that prohibited child labor and limited railroad workers to an eight-hour day. He led the US into WWI. His "Fourteen Points" outlined the settlement of WWI. He was a noted racist who segregated the federal government and who praised Birth of a Nation, a controversial movie negatively depicting African Americans.

Taft, William Howard

1857-1930; 27th President 1909-1913. After serving as Secretary of War under Theodore Roosevelt, he was elected President over William Jennings Bryan. Taft had preferred to be appointed to the Supreme Court, but Roosevelt talked him into running for President. ^^ He prosecuted trusts under the Sherman Antitrust Act. His policy of "Dollar Diplomacy" called for acting in foreign affairs to achieve a financial result on behalf of one's country. His administration created the Department of Labor and established the parcel-post system. President Theodore Roosevelt's relationship with _____ deteriorated, leading to Roosevelt's opposition of _____'s re-election. ^^ He became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court after serving as president.

Roosevelt, Theodore

1858-1919; 26th president, 1901-1909; known for: conservationism, trust-busting, Hepburn Act, safe food regulations, "Square Deal," Panama Canal, Great White Fleet, Nobel Peace Prize for negotiation of peace in Russo-Japanese War. As a young man, ______ had to deal with ill health and became an advocate for similarly disadvantaged people. ^^ He was part of the Rough Rider Regiment during the Spanish-American conflict, where he became a war hero. Later he was elected Governor of New York State, attacking corruption vigorously. As President, he became a "trust buster"; he used the Sherman Antitrust Act to dissolve trusts that restrained interstate and foreign trade. He won the antitrust case against the Northern Securities Company. ^^ Unlike his predecessors, when workers went on strike, ____ would force both sides to sit down and negotiate. He wanted corporations "to serve the public good." ^^ His style of diplomacy was to "speak softly and carry a big stick"; he protected US interests by ensuring the construction of the Panama Canal and the US' authority in Latin America. He served as a middleman in conflicts between Russia and Japan; he forged the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907. He supported conservation (not preservation) of national resources.

Addams, Jane

1860-1935. Prominent social reformer and founder of Settlement House Movement. Provided the services of the Hull House in Chicago (1889) to help poor immigrants settle. Member of the "Social Gospel" movement, which applied lessons from the Bible to help solve problems of immigration and urbanization. First American woman to earn Nobel Peace Prize (in 1931 as president of Women's International League for Peace and Freedom).

Ford, Henry

1863-1947. American businessman, founder of an automobile factory, father of modern assembly lines, and inventor credited with 161 patents. His Model-T, introduced in 1908, initially was too expensive for common people. By 1916, ____ designed the assembly line and turned the Model-T into the first inexpensive, mass-produced automobile. His use of the moving assembly line heavily influenced American manufacturing. For workers, the assembly line was repetitive and monotonous. He paid workers $5 per 8-hour day, more than doubling the average autoworker's wage; the 10-hour day was the national norm. He was strongly anti-union. ^^ He created the modern worker, a consumer who can afford what he manufactures.

Hearst, William Randolph

1863-1951; Inherited the San Francisco Chronicle. Built a media empire, including newspapers, magazines, radio stations, and movie studios. His "yellow journalism," or writing that dealt with sensational news, helped lead the US into the Spanish-American War.

Harding, Warren Gamaliel

1865-1923; 29th President 1921-1923;

Du Bois, W.E.B.

1868-1963; Civil rights leader and author. He called for full equality for African Americans, which included social, civil, political, and economic equality. He opposed the more conservative "gradual approach" to racial equality of the other leading black political leader of the time. ^^ Through higher education, _______ wanted to develop leaders from the most able 10 percent of African Americans ("The Talented Tenth"). He was an avowed antiwar activist and promoter of equality around the world for colored persons. He co-founded the Niagara Movement, which became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). ^^ He traveled around the world and spent the last few years of his life in Ghana. His works included The Soul of Black Folks, Black Reconstruction in America, The Negro, and Color and Democracy.

Dyer, Leonidas C.

1871-1957; US Congressman who introduced the ____ Anti-Lynching Bill in 1918. The measure did not pass then, but ____ reintroduced the measure, and it passed the House in 1922. However, a Senate filibuster prevented the measure from passing Congress and becoming law. ____ continued his crusade to pass a federal anti-lynching law but was unsuccessful. ___ had become convinced that such a law was necessary after the horror of the St. Louis riots of 1917, where an angry white mob attacked black workers.

Coolidge, Calvin

1872-1933; 30th President 1923-1929.

Hoover, Herbert

1874-1964; 31st President 1929-1933. ^^ Engineer, businessman, technocrat; during WWI, he organized relief programs for Europe; as Secretary of Commerce, he vigorously promoted business. He was elected in a landslide in 1928. The stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression occurred in his term. ^^ He was defeated in a landslide by Franklin Roosevelt. ^^ After the presidency, he became deeply involved in intellectual pursuits and service. He died at the age of 90.

Sinclair, Upton

1878-1968; Novelist and socialist; used his writings to expose issues in US society, such as the need for food inspection laws, and the oppressive effect of capitalism on education and culture. His book The Jungle (1906 ), an explicit novel about the abuses of the Chicago stockyards, led to food inspection reforms and the Meat Inspection Act of 1906. He lost bid to become governor of California in 1934. He won Pulitzer Prize in 1942.

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano

1882-1945; 32nd President 1933-1945; elected President four times. ^^ _____ had a privileged upbringing. At age 39 he was stricken with polio. Democrat elected President in 1932. Responsible for New Deal and fireside chats. First president to use media (radio) as a regular/ common connection to people.

Truman, Harry S.

1884-1972; 33rd President 1945-1953. Succeeded to Presidency after FDR's death.

Eisenhower, Dwight David

1890-1969; 34th President 1953-1961;

Wright Brothers

1903 credited with the design and construction of the first practical airplane. They made the first controllable, powered heavier-than-air flight along with many other aviation milestones, also showing the beginning of the individual progressive spirit.

Carson, Rachel

1907-?; Born in rural Pennsylvania, ____ enjoyed nature, worked as a marine biologist, and became the chief editor at the US Fish and Wildlife Service. This work motivated her to publish an award-winning scientific study of the sea, called The Sea Around Us, in 1951. Then in 1962, ____ detailed the dangers of chemical pesticides in the book Silent Spring. Later, ____ called for new policies to protect the environment.

Johnson, Lyndon Baines

1908-1973; 36th President 1963-1969.

Marshall, Thurgood

1908-1993; American civil rights activist with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the first African American to serve on the Supreme Court of the United States. He is remembered as a lawyer who had one of the highest rates of success before the Supreme Court and the principal counsel in a number of landmark court cases. He won 29 of the 32 cases he argued before the high court. His most famous case as an attorney was the legal challenge on behalf of Linda Brown and twelve other plaintiffs that would result in the U.S. Supreme Court's landmark Brown v. Board of Education ruling in 1954. Here the high court struck down an earlier Supreme Court's 1896 ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson, declaring that "separate but equal" public education was unconstitutional. Numerous legal scholars contend that this ruling was one of the most important and far reaching in the history of the U.S. Supreme Court and of the nation. ^^ ______ served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court from 1967 to 1991. He served on the high Court for the next twenty four years, compiling a liberal human rights record that included strong support for the civil rights of people of color and for constitutional protection of individual rights, especially the rights of criminal suspects against the government. He also worked closely with Justice William Brennan in helping to craft the Roe v. Wade Decision of 1973 which supported abortion rights. He also opposed the death penalty. In 1972, he argued in Furman v. Georgia that the death penalty was, in all circumstances, unconstitutional. ^^ ______ once bluntly described his legal philosophy as this: "You do what you think is right and let the law catch up",[20] a statement which his conservative detractors argued was a sign of his embracement of judicial activism. At heart a New Deal liberal, he demonstrated an unwavering commitment to universal civil rights and civil liberties. _____ was a staunch opponent of the death penalty and a dedicated civil libertarian. No justice was more consistent in opposing government regulation of speech or private sexual conduct. As the Court became more conservative in his final years and he found himself in the liberal minority, he wrote, "Power, not reason, is the new currency of this Court's decision making." He retired in 1991. ^^ Significant cases as a Supreme Court Justice included: ^^ In Teamsters v. Terry, he held that the Seventh Amendment entitled the plaintiff to a jury trial in a suit against a labor union for breach of duty of fair representation. In TSC Industries, Inc. v. Northway, Inc., he articulated a formulation for the standard of materiality in United States securities law that is still applied and used today. In Cottage Savings Association v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, he weighed in on the income tax consequences of the savings and loan crisis, permitting a savings and loan association to deduct a loss from an exchange of mortgage participation interests. In Personnel Administrator MA v. Feeney, _____ wrote a dissent saying that a law that gave hiring preference to veterans over non-veterans was unconstitutional because of its inequitable impact on women.

Reagan, Ronald Wilson

1911-2004; 40th President 1981-1989. ^^ First elected president in 1980 and elected again in 1984. He ran on a campaign based on the common man and "populist" ideas. He served as governor of California from 1966-1974, and he participated in the McCarthy Communist scare. Iran released hostages on his Inauguration Day in 1980.

Nixon, Richard Milhous

1913-1994; 37th President 1969-1974. ^^ As a VP candidate in 1952, ____ was accused of illegally accepting gifts from businessmen totaling $18,000. In 1960, ____ lost the presidential election to John Kennedy. The next year, ___ lost the election for Governor of California. ____ and most experts thought it was the end of his political career. "You won't have ____ to kick around anymore." Six years later he became the Republican candidate for president. ^^ Followed a foreign policy marked by détente with the Soviet Union and by the opening of diplomatic relations with China. In the face of likely impeachment for the Watergate scandal, he resigned.

Ford, Gerald

1913-2006; 38th President 1974-1977.

Kennedy, John F.

1917-1963; 35th President 1961-1963. President during Bay of Pigs, and Cuban Missile Crisis. Strong image icon. Creator of Civil Rights Act. Assassinated in Dallas, Texas.

Carter, James Earl

1924-; 39th President 1977-1981. ^^ His work since being president has been honored.

Bush, George Herbert Walker

1924-; 41st President 1989-1993. Vice President under Reagan. Aka the education president, ______ was responsible for NCLB Act, a renewal of ESEA . Bush served as ambassador to the United Nations from 1971-1972, was chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1972-1973, chief of the U.S. liaison office in Peking from 1974-1976, and director of the C.I.A. from 1976-1977. In 1980 Bush campaigned for the Republican nomination for the U.S. presidency but withdrew later to support Reagan, who chose Bush as his running mate. Bush became vice-president during Reagan's two terms in the White House, from 1981-1989. In 1988 Bush ran for the presidency again and this time succesfully. This made him the first president since Martin van Buren in 1836 to be elected directly to the presidency. Bush beat his Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis from Massachusetts with 54 percent of the popular vote (to Dukakis'49%) and 426 of the electoral votes (to Dukakis' 111). During his presidency the Democrats did however retain secure majorities in both houses of Congress. Bush promised in his campaign a partial continuation of Reagan's politics. He followed Reagan on social issues, such as a strong stand against abortion, but thereby did call for a softer approach by calling for a "kinder, gentler nation". In his State of the Union in 1990 he stressed his commitment to being the "educational president". As for the domestic issues, Bush was not very succesful. During his campaign Bush stated not to bring on new taxes: "Read my lips...NO new taxes". But due to a continuing rising federal budget deficit he had to agree in 1990 to a significant tax increase. His 'war on drugs' had very little impact as a result of the absence of significant funding. Bush's interest lay particularly in the area of foreign politics. The time of his presidency was one of great changes within the world. The collapse of communism in 1989 in Eastern Europe left the United States as virtually the only "superpower" in the world. Bush negotiated a continuation of arms reduction with the Soviet Union (including unprecedented cuts in Nuclear arms). In 1989 Bush ordered the U.S. invasion of Panama to depose the dictator Manuel Noriega, who was thereafter brought to the United States where he was accused of drugs trafficing. In 1990 Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait. Bush answered to this invasion by ordering troops to Saudi Arabia and forming an international alliance with the backing of the United Nations; "Operation Desert Storm". The liberation of Kuwait went reasonably swift without the loss of many lives on the side of the allied forces. This certainly contributed to Bush's popularity. After the Gulf War about 90% of the people, asked in polls, claimed to approve of the way Bush was handling his office. It did not take long before the economic situation in the United States made Bush's popularity decline rapidly. The recession, already begun in 1990, continued in 1991 and the American public began to blame Bush for neglecting domestic issues. This most likely gave cause to Bush's defeat in the 1992 presidential elections. The Democrat Bill Clinton was elected the 42nd President of the U.S.A.

Bush, George Herbert Walker

1924-; 41st President 1989-1993. Vice President under Reagan. Aka the education president, ______ was responsible for NCLB Act, a renewal of ESEA . _____ served as ambassador to the United Nations from 1971-1972, was chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1972-1973, chief of the U.S. liaison office in Peking from 1974-1976, and director of the C.I.A. from 1976-1977. In 1980 _____ campaigned for the Republican nomination for the U.S. presidency but withdrew later to support Reagan, who chose ______ as his running mate. ______ became vice-president during Reagan's two terms in the White House, from 1981-1989. In 1988 _____ ran for the presidency again and this time successfully. This made him the first president since Martin van Buren in 1836 to be elected directly to the presidency after having served as VP. During his presidency the Democrats did however retain secure majorities in both houses of Congress. ______ promised in his campaign a partial continuation of Reagan's politics. He followed Reagan on social issues, such as a strong stand against abortion, but thereby did call for a softer approach by calling for a "kinder, gentler nation". In his State of the Union in 1990 he stressed his commitment to being the "educational president". As for the domestic issues, ______ was not very succesful. During his campaign ______ stated not to bring on new taxes: "Read my lips...NO new taxes". But due to a continuing rising federal budget deficit he had to agree in 1990 to a significant tax increase. His 'war on drugs' had very little impact as a result of the absence of significant funding. ______'s interest lay particularly in the area of foreign politics. The time of his presidency was one of great changes within the world. The collapse of communism in 1989 in Eastern Europe left the United States as virtually the only "superpower" in the world. ______ negotiated a continuation of arms reduction with the Soviet Union (including unprecedented cuts in Nuclear arms). In 1989 ______ ordered the U.S. invasion of Panama to depose the dictator Manuel Noriega, who was thereafter brought to the United States where he was accused of drug trafficking. In 1990 Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait. ______ answered to this invasion by ordering troops to Saudi Arabia and forming an international alliance with the backing of the United Nations; "Operation Desert Storm". The liberation of Kuwait went reasonably swift without the loss of many lives on the side of the allied forces. This certainly contributed to ______'s popularity. After the Gulf War about 90% of the people, asked in polls, claimed to approve of the way ______ was handling his office. It did not take long before the economic situation in the United States made ______'s popularity decline rapidly. The recession, already begun in 1990, continued in 1991 and the American public began to blame ______ for neglecting domestic issues. This most likely gave cause to ______'s defeat in the 1992 presidential elections. The Democrat Bill Clinton was elected the 42nd President of the U.S.A.

Clinton, William Jefferson

1946-; 42nd President 1993-2001; ^^ He served as Governor of Arkansas for two terms. He advocated economic and healthcare reform; second president to be impeached. Carried on education reforms begun with Republican President George H W Bush.

Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez

? - 1543?, off the coast of northern California; soldier and explorer in the service of Spain, chiefly known as the discoverer of California. Scholars have long debated whether he was of Spanish or Portuguese origin. As a young man, he appears to have accompanied the Spanish soldier Pánfilo de Narváez (1520) in his unsuccessful punitive expedition against Hernán Cortés, conqueror of the Aztecs of Mexico. He was evidently one of the conquerors of the region now comprising Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. He also may have served for a time as governor of Guatemala. It is thought that ______ embarked from the Mexican port of Navidad in June 1542, explored most of the coast of what is now the state of California, entered San Diego and Monterey bays, and landed on several of the islands near the California coast. He apparently died of complications from a broken leg suffered on one such landing.

Javan, Ali

?-?; He was born in Tehran and moved to the US after WWII. He invented the world's first gas laser in 1960. This instrument carries an electric current through a gas to produce a strong light. His was the first laser to generate a constant beam of light. An incredible feat of technology, the gas laser became a permanent feature in barcode scanners, medical equipment, and internet data transmission.

von Neumann, John

?-?; This Hungarian-American mathematician created a model in 1945 for a computer that could store programs. All computers since then have been based on this model. The infrastructure, known as the _____ Architecture, was a breakthrough, allowing the use of memory to store sequences of instructions as well as data.

Citizen Edmond Genet

A French minister (ambassador) from the revolutionary government named ________ landed in South Carolina, a Jeffersonian stronghold, and directly recruited active American support for France. He tried to recruit Americans into the French army for the purpose of invading Spanish Florida and Louisiana. This proved an embarrassment to the Jeffersonian Democrat supporters of France. Washington demanded ______'s recall to France. This led to Washington's proclamation of neutrality.

Salomon, Haym

A Jewish believer in the Patriot cause, he provided much financial support for the American Revolution.

Owen, Robert

A Scottish industrialist and humanitarian who founded a community at New Harmony in Indiana in 1825. Cooperative labor and collective ownership were to abolish poverty in his model town. Within two years the socialist experiment had succumbed to a fatal "disease of laziness."

Fuller, Thomas

A black mathematical prodigy. By the time he was shipped to the Americas in 1724 as a slave he had already acquired the ability to calculate numbers into the billions.

Hutchison, Anne

A devoted Puritan who started to hold prayer meetings where they discussed sermons and compared ministers. this created a problem for Puritan leaders; in 1637, the General Court called _____ to trial to answer to charges of heresy, and ______ was banished. ____ helped found Rhode Island after exile.

Crockett, Davey

A member of the group of Texas "patriot" fighters during the Alamo, he was a renowned frontiersman and former Tennessee congressman, argued that he was America's first celebrity.

Scott, Dred

A slave owned by Peter Blow in Alabama. ____ moved with Blow to Missouri, another state that authorized slavery. After Blow died, his executor sold ____ to Dr. John Emerson, a St. Louis-based Army doctor. Emerson then moved his family and ____ back to Illinois, a free state. Emerson eventually moved back to St. Louis and died. ____ and his wife Harriet filed a lawsuit in Missouri courts, arguing that they were freed when Dr. Emerson moved to Illinois. Emerson's widow and her brother, John Sanford (court records misspelled his name as Sandford), contested Scott's suit, leading to the landmark ___ v. Sandford litigation. ____ believed he had a valid claim because some courts had adhered to the doctrine of "once free, always free." This doctrine meant that if a slave reached free territory legally, then he or she was free because slavery was outlawed in those jurisdictions. However, the Missouri courts and the US Supreme Court did not accept that argument.

Poor, Salem

A slave who bought his freedom in 1769; fought for Patriots at Bunker Hill, Saratoga, and Monmouth. Free black man who was honored for his bravery during the American Revolution.

Cross of Gold Speech

Address given by William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic presidential nominee, during the national convention of the Democratic Party. The speech criticized the ___3___standard and supported the coinage of silver. Bryan's beliefs were popular with debt-ridden farmers. The last words of his speech, and the most famous, were "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of ___3___."

Latimer, Lewis

African American inventor who played a key role in improving practical electrical lighting and invented other electronic gadgets.

Garvey, Marcus

African American leader during the 1920s who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and advocated mass migration or "repatriation" of African Americans back to Africa. Was deported to Jamaica in 1927.

Salem, Peter

African American soldier who fought for America's freedom. Fought at Lexington and Concord and became a hero at Bunker Hill.

Revels, Hiram

African American who was elected to the US Senate from the state of Mississippi during Reconstruction.

Gates, Horatio

American Revolutionary War general

Dawes, William

American patriot (leader in Sons of Patriots) who rode with Paul Revere to warn that the British were advancing on Lexington and Concord (1745-1799).

Ross, Betsy

American seamstress said to have made the first American flag at the request of George Washington (1752-1836).

Revere, Paul

American silversmith remembered for his midnight ride (celebrated in a poem by Longfellow) to warn the colonists in Lexington and Concord that British troops were coming (1735-1818).

King, Martin Luther Jr.

An African-American Civil Rights Activist who was peaceful. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his cause. He was assassinated in 1968 in Tennessee. Famous for "I have a dream" speech. ^^ On April 4, 1968, _____ was killed by a sniper while standing on the second-floor balcony at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. He had been staying at the hotel after leading a nonviolent demonstration in support of striking sanitation workers in that city. His murder set off riots in hundreds of cities across the country, and it also pushed Congress to pass the stalled Fair Housing Act in ____'s honor on April 11. The legislation made it unlawful for sellers, landlords, and financial institutions to refuse to rent, sell, or provide financing for a dwelling based on factors other than an individual's financial resources. After that victory, some of ______'s supporters carried on his activities, including staging the Poor People's March in Washington, D.C., that spring. The civil rights movement, however, seemed to be shifting away from the nonviolent tactics and interracial cooperation that had brought about a number of policy changes. The changes, however, could not overcome deep-seated discrimination and the economic oppression that prevented real equality.

Teach, Edward

An English pirate who operated in the Caribbean and off the Atlantic coast of North America (died in 1718) aka Blackbeard.

Champlain, Samuel de

An explorer who was born in Brouage, France around the year 1567. He became one of the most important explorers in North American and French history and mapped much of Canada and the northeastern United States. In 1603, _______ sailed to North America on Francois Grave Du Pont's expedition. The pair and their crew sailed west through the Gulf of St. Lawrence and into the St. Lawrence and Saguenay Rivers. They also explored the misty Gaspe' Peninsula of Quebec. After returning to France, _______ decided to sail back to Quebec in the hopes of discovering the Northwest Passage, a mythical waterway that would serve as a shortcut from the Atlantic to the Pacific. ^^ _______ returned to Quebec in 1604 on Pierre de Mont's expedition. For the next three years, _______ explored much of the coast of Nova Scotia, the Bay of Fundy and the coasts of Maine, Rhode Island and Massachusetts. _______ started his first colony in the New World on Port Royal, Nova Scotia in 1605. In 1608, _______ started the first permanent French colony in the New World at Quebec (City) on the St. Lawrence River. The colony was started as a fur-trading center. Unfortunately for the French settlers, they were not used to the bitter Canadian winter. Of the 32 settlers in the colony, only nine survived the winter. More colonists would be sent from France to reinforce the colony. ^^ In 1609, _______ helped the Huron Indians fight the Iroquois, which ultimately led to much bitterness between the French and Iroquois. In 1615, _______ explored much of upstate New York and parts of Ontario and eastern Michigan. _______ spent the rest of his life managing the settlements at Quebec. He died in 1635, apparently of a stroke.

Spaight, Richard Dobbs, Sr.

Anti-Federalist governor of North Carolina who attended the Constitutional Convention.

Melville, Herman

Author of Moby Dick

Knox, Henry

Bookseller who became the chief artillery officer in the Continental Army; first Secretary of War for US.

Little Turtle

Born around 1752 near the Eel River in what later became Indiana, ____ became a chief of the Indiana and Ohio Miami Indians. During that time in history, one of the main goals of Native Americans was to protect their tribal lands, and ____ fought for his lands like many other chiefs. In 1790, his forces defeated US General Josiah Harmar's troops, and in 1791, _____ defeated General Arthur St. Clair. _____ and several other Indians signed a treaty in 1795 that opened up southern Ohio to settlement. He died in 1812 in Fort Wayne, Indiana.

Day, Thomas

Born to free black parents in Virginia; as well educated as some white students; free black craftsman and successful businessman of fine furniture; lived in Milton, Caswell County.

Hale, Nathan

Captain in Continental Army; American spy who was captured and hanged by British. "I regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.".

Lee, Henry

Cavalry officer in the Continental Army; US Congressman; Governor of Virginia; father of famous general.

Prescott, William

Colonel in Continental Army; he commanded American forces at the Battle of Bunker Hill.

King, Rufus

Delegate to the Continental Congress (not the Civil War general).

Hiawatha

Early 1500s; Iroquois leader who helped establish peace among the five major Iroquois tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Cayuga.

Whitefield, George

English Methodist minister who helped lead the First Great Awakening in the America. He made several tours of America preaching to large audiences and converting many (who were "born again").

Cook, James

English navigator who claimed the east coast of Australia for Britain and discovered several Pacific islands (1728-1779).

Harvey, William

English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood (1578-1657).

DeSoto

Explored Southeast US.

Senate Majority Leader

First-ranking party position, it is held by a distinguished senior member of the majority party in the Senate. The _____ schedules floor actions on bills and helps guide the majority party's legislative program through the Senate.

Gorham, Nathaniel

Founding Father; signer of US Constitution

De Lafayette, Marquis

French aristocrat who agreed to help the Patriots fight in the American Revolution without pay. In 2002, he was given honorary citizenship of the US.

Wayne, Anthony

General and statesmen during the Revolutionary War.

Columbus, Christopher

Genoese mariner who in the service of Spain led expeditions across the Atlantic, reestablishing contact between the peoples of the Americas and the Old World and opening the way to Spanish conquest and colonization. Italian navigator who discovered the New World in the service of Spain while looking for a route to China (1451-1506). He made 4 voyages and first landed in the Bahamas on October 12.

Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste

He commanded the French troops who aided the Patriots during the American Revolution.

Prescott, Samuel

He completed Paul Revere's ride to deliver waring to Concord of the arrive of British troops.

Opechancanough, Chief

He led Native Americans in 1642 in an attack on settlers over a large area of the Virginia colony and killed about 350 settlers. The settlers counterattacked a few months later and killed hundreds of Native Americans.

Astor, John Jacob

He owned the American Fur Company, which was instrumental in killing off the beaver population of the American Northwest when beaver hats were the fashion in Europe.

Pike, Zebulon

He sought the source of the Mississippi and explored Colorado and New Mexico (1805-07). Travel accounts stirred commercial ambitions.

Lord Baltimore

He was the founder of Maryland in 1634, a colony which offered religious freedom, and a refuge for persecuted Roman Catholics.

Charles II

In 1663 gave charter for Carolina to a group of noblemen and the northern part of colony was settled by Virginian farmers.

Woodward, Bob

Investigative reporter for Washington Post helped uncover the Watergate scandal that led to US President Richard Nixon's resignation. Worked with Carl Bernstein on Watergate.

Bernstein, Carl

Journalist for the Washington Post that helped uncover the Watergate scandal with Bob Woodward earning the Post the Pulitzer Prize for public service, wrote All the Presidents Men.

Austin, Stephen F.

Known as "The Father of Texas," ____ established the first Anglo-American colony in the Tejas province of Mexico and saw it grow into an independent republic. ^^ He was born in southwestern Virginia; his family moved to Missouri when he was five years old. He served as a militia officer and was a member of the Missouri territorial legislature from 1814 to 1820. In 1820, Arkansas' governor appointed him as a circuit judge. ^^ It was his father, Moses ____, who took the first steps toward establishing an American colony in Mexican Tejas. In 1820, he traveled to San Antonio to petition for a land grant, and in 1821 received approval to settle 300 American families on 200,000 acres. But Moses died before completing his plans and responsibility for establishing the colony fell to the son, _____. He selected a site on the lower Colorado and Brazos rivers, and settled his colonists there in January 1822. Almost at once he faced opposition from the newly independent Mexican government, which refused to recognize his father's land grant since it had been made under Spanish charter. _____ traveled to Mexico City to correct this situation, and using skillful diplomacy secured a new law confirming his right to colonize the land and designating him as the new colony's empresario or administrative authority. ^^ ______ occupied a complex and difficult position as intermediary between his colonists and the Mexican government. In his role as empresario, he was responsible for controlling immigration into the region, for establishing a judicial and law-enforcement system, for allocating land according to accurate surveys, and for supervising the creation of a basic social infrastructure -- including roads, schools, sawmills, and granaries. He was also a general ombudsman to the Mexican government for the colonists' interests. In 1827, for example, he lobbied successfully against the banning of slavery in Texas, even though it had been illegal in Mexico since 1824. ^^ Despite growing friction between the American immigrants and the Mexican government, _____ continued to believe that most disputes could be worked out within the Mexican system. Accordingly, he sought to ally himself with Mexican liberals seeking a limited but efficient government and the separation of church and state. His efforts to work out problems within the Mexican system, however, would ultimately prove futile. ^^ In 1830, Mexican officials passed a law prohibiting further American immigration into Tejas, hoping in this way to limit American influence over the region. _____ found a loophole that allowed him to continue expanding his colony, but the law stirred resentment among his colonists, who began calling for a separate state government in Tejas, which was then under the jurisdiction of the neighboring state of Coahuila. Against _____'s advice, they framed a constitution for the proposed state of Texas at the San Felipe Convention in 1833 and had ______ carry it to Mexico City, along with a list of demands for redress of grievances. _____ Austin had mixed success with the Mexican government. President Antonio López de Santa Anna agreed to repeal the 1830 law against further American immigration, but he refused to grant the request for statehood. He also had ____ imprisoned for a time on suspicion of inciting an insurrection. Even after his release in July 1835, _____ still thought an alliance with Mexican liberals was the best option for Americans in Texas, but the outbreak of the Texas Revolution at Gonzales on October 1, 1835 left him little choice but to support the drive for independence. He took command of the attack on Mexican troops led by Juan Sequin at San Antonio, and then in late 1835 began to act as commissioner to the US, traveling to Washington to seek military support and the eventual annexation of Texas by the US. He also sought to rally public support for Texas in speeches delivered along his route. ^^ _____'s efforts in Washington proved unsuccessful, however, and he returned to Texas in June 1836, shortly after the Texas War for Independence had been won at San Jacinto. In the fall, he was defeated in a bid for the presidency by Sam Houston, but he served as secretary of state until his death on December 27, 1836.

Marion, Francis

Lieutenant Colonel in Continental Army. South Carolina militia leader nicknamed the "Swamp Fox" for his hit-and-run attacks on the British during the American Revolution.

Lincoln, Benjamin

Major general in Continental Army.

Lee, Charles

Major general in the Continental Army; previously a British soldier who settled in Virginia.

Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de

Mexican military and political leader who defeated the Texas garrison at the Alamo during Texas's revolution against Mexico.

Squanto

Native American who helped the English Pilgrims in in the Plymouth colony develop agricultural techniques and served as an interpreter between the colonists and the Wampanoag tribe. In November 1621, the first Thanksgiving was celebrated by settlers and Indians with native foods grown.

Till, Emmett

On August 28, 1955, fourteen-year-old _____ was kidnapped and murdered in Money, Mississippi, galvanizing support for racial reform in the South. ^^ On August 24 _____, along with several friends, traveled to nearby Money, a small, deeply-segregated town in the heart of the Mississippi Delta where the youth reportedly whistled and made advances toward a white woman when he entered Bryant's Grocery and Meat Market. Several days following the alleged incident on August 28, ____ was kidnapped from the home of his uncle. Three days later his body was found floating in the Tallahatchie River; the fourteen year old boy had been severely beaten before being fatally wounded by a gunshot to the head. Photographs of his disfigured body appeared in African American newspapers and magazines across the country, galvanizing support for racial reform in the South. On September 23, less than one month after ____'s body was recovered, an all-white jury acquitted Roy Bryant and J. W. Milam, the husband and half-brother of ____'s accuser, for ____'s murder, prompting African Americans in northern cities such as Chicago, Baltimore and New York to stage rallies and demonstrations for racial justice.

Parks, Rosa

On December 1, 1955, African American civil rights activist _____ refused to give up a seat on a public bus in Montgomery, Alabama, to a white passenger and was arrested for breaking the state's transportation laws. This initiated a sustained bus boycott in Montgomery. The protest began on December 5, 1955, led by Martin Luther King, Jr., then a young local pastor, and was so successful that it was extended indefinitely. In the ensuing months, protestors faced threats, arrests, and termination from their jobs. Nonetheless, the boycott continued for more than a year. Finally, the US Supreme Court upheld a lower court's ruling that segregated seating was unconstitutional, and the federal decision went into effect on December 20, 1956.

Malcolm X

On February 21, 1965, this prominent African American leader was assassinated while lecturing at the Audubon Ballroom in Harlem, New York. An eloquent orator, _____ spoke out on the civil rights movement, demanding it move beyond civil rights to human rights and argued that the solution to racial problems was in orthodox Islam. His speeches and ideas contributed to the development of black nationalist ideology and the Black Power movement.

Bridges, Ruby

On November 14, 1960, six-year-old _____ was escorted to her first day at the previously all-white William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans by four armed federal marshals. They were met with angry mobs shouting their disapproval, and, throughout the day, parents marched in to remove their children from the school as a protest to desegregation. Every subsequent day of that academic year _____ was escorted to school, enduring insults and threats on her way, and then learning her lessons from her young teacher, Barbara Henry, in an otherwise empty classroom. Her bravery later inspired the Norman Rockwell painting, The Problem We All Live With (1964).

Sherman, Roger

One of only two people (Robert Morris was the other) to have signed all three major American documents: Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and US Constitution.

Dickinson, Emily.

One of the finest lyric poets in the English language, the American poet _____ (1830-1886) was a keen observer of nature and a wise interpreter of human passion. Her family and friends published most of her work posthumously.

Henry, Patrick

Patriot of Revolutionary War; famous speech "Give me liberty or give me death."

Warren, Joseph

Physician and soldier; killed during the American Revolution.

Morgan, Daniel

Pioneer and soldier in Continental Army; US representative from Virginia.

Hancock, John

President of the Second Continental Congress; first person to sign the Declaration of Independence.

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus

Prolific Austrian composer and child prodigy, master of all classical music of his time (1756-1791).

Stevens, Thaddeus

Radical Republican Senator who desired to see sweeping changes in the South: "The whole fabric of Southern society must be changed and never can it be done if this opportunity is lost. Without this, this government can never be, as it has never been, a true republic..." - speech in 1865.

Lewis and Clark

Sent on an expedition by Jefferson in 1804 to gather information on the US' new land acquisition and to map a route to the Pacific. kept very careful maps and records of this new land acquired from the French. Departed from St. Louis and explored areas including the Missouri River, Yellowstone River, and the Rockies. Sacajawea, a Shoshone guide, helped them in their journey. They opened up new territories to American expansion. Their expedition initiated the idea of "Manifest Destiny" for the country and laid the foundation for the removal of Native American groups, the expansion of slavery, and the future war with Mexico.

Wolcott, Oliver

Signed the Declaration of Independence; fought in the French and Indian War.

Clinton, George

Soldier, politician, and governor of New York State; served as VP. _______ was the first governor of New York, serving during and after the revolutionary war. He also served as a brigadier general during the war. He was a strong governor whose conduct in office served as a model for the delegates at the Constitutional Convention who wanted a strong executive. ______ himself presided over the New York State Convention called to consider ratification. He opposed ratification of the Constitution in 1788 because he believed in strong state government and a weak national government. Like most of the early Anti-Federalists, he followed Thomas Jefferson and James Madison into the Republican party, opposing President George Washington and Alexander Hamilton. He served again as governor of New York between 1801 and 1804. ______ received some electoral college votes in 1789, 1792, and 1796, but not enough to win the Presidency or Vice Presidency. In 1804 President Thomas Jefferson barred Vice President Aaron Burr from gaining the Republican party's renomination, and the Republicans nominated ______ to take Burr's place on the ticket. Jefferson and _______ defeated the Federalist candidates, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Rufus King. In 1808 ______ was again nominated to serve as Vice President, and he was reelected on the Republican ticket led by James Madison. Like most 19th-century Vice Presidents, ______ did little in office. His most important act occurred in 1812, while he was presiding over the Senate: he cast the tie-breaking vote against the bill to recharter the Bank of the United States. He retained his hold on the Vice Presidency in 1812 but died in office before his third term began.

McCoy, Elijah

Son of a runaway slave, invented lubricating cup that oiled running machines.

De Galvez, Bernardo

Spanish governor of Louisiana

Wilkinson, James

Statesman who fought as a soldier in the Continental Army.

McHenry, James

Statesman; signed US Constitution

Perry, Matthew

The Commodore of the US Navy who compelled the opening of Japan to the West with the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854. Japan also agreed to help shipwrecked soldiers as a result. _____ brought many steam ships with him to show America's strength, and to intimidate and persuade the Japanese.

Talleyrand

The Minister of France to whom President John Adams sent a delegation in 1797 to meet to negotiate a peace with France. Upon the Americans' arrival, the French demanded a payment of $250,000 for the right to speak with ______. This became known as the XYZ Affair; it infuriated US citizens, who called for war with France.

Impresarios

The name for colonization agents who obtained contracts from the recently-independent Mexican government to purchase large tracts of land in the Texas region and bring in hundreds of American settlers. Within a decade of Mexico's independence in 1821, there were roughly 20,000 American settlers in Texas. This led to the Texas revolution in 1835 and independence in 1836.

Edison, Thomas

This scientist received more than 1,300 patents for a range of items including the automatic telegraph machine, the phonograph, improvements to the light bulb, a modernized telephone and motion picture equipment. In his plant in Menlo Park, New Jersey, _______ collaborates with other inventors like Alexander Graham Bell to bring their inventions to life. His inspiration and insight helped his generation of inventors. "The electric light...has required the most elaborate experiments. I was never myself discouraged..." He and his lab created a system for bringing electric power to entire towns and cities.

Member of House of Representatives

US legislator who serves a 2-year term.

Muir, John

US naturalist (born in Scotland) who advocated the creation of national parks (1838-1914), founded Sierra Club in 1892; fought unsuccessfully to prevent the damming of the Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park.

Morse, Samuel

US portrait painter who patented the telegraph (1791-1872).

McClellan, George

Union General in the American Civil War. ____ trained his troops for almost a year but, convinced that the Confederate troops were too powerful, hesitated to attack. He moved the entire army by boat to Virginia's Lower Peninsula

Booth, John Wilkes

Was an American stage actor who, as part of a conspiracy plot, assassinated Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the US, at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. on April 14, 1865.

Slidell, John

When the US Congress annexed Texas, President James Polk sent ______ to negotiate a settlement for that land, for California, and for western Mexico territory; the Mexican government rejected Slidell. President Polk tried to buy California from Mexico as soon as he entered office in 1845. The Mexican govt refused to sell or to recognize US claims to the Rio Grande River as the border of Texas. They considered the Nueces River, 130 miles north, the proper border.

Sumner, Charles

Within the context of the "Bleeding Kansas" controversy, violence broke out in Congress after Senator _____ of Massachusetts criticized people who were pro-slavery, specifically Andrew Butler of South Carolina. Butler's cousin, Representative Preston Brooks, beat ____ over the head with a cane in the Senate chambers. ____ was badly injured.

Otis, James

______ represented Boston merchants in 1761 who argued against the law which gave customs officers the right to search shops and homes.

Vesey, Denmark

aka "Telemaque"; 1767 - 1822; American insurrectionist born in the Caribbean. A slave in South Carolina who purchased his freedom, he was implicated in the planning of a large uprising of slaves and was hanged. He was a literate, skilled carpenter and leader among African Americans in Charleston, South Carolina. He was accused and convicted of being the ringleader of "the rising," a major potential slave revolt planned for the city in June 1822; he was executed. Likely born into slavery in St. Thomas, he served a master in Bermuda for some time before being brought to Charleston. He won a lottery and purchased his freedom around the age of 32. He had a good business and a family but was unable to buy his first wife Beck and their children out of slavery. He became active in the Second Presbyterian Church; in 1818 he was among the founders of an independent African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church in the city, which had the support of white clergy. It rapidly attracted 1,848 members, making this the second-largest AME congregation in the nation after Mother Bethel in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1822 he was alleged to be the ringleader of a planned slave revolt. He and his followers were said to be planning to kill slaveholders in Charleston, liberate the slaves, and sail to the black republic of Haiti for refuge. By some accounts, it would have involved thousands of slaves in the city and others on plantations miles away. City officials had a militia arrest the plot's leaders and many suspected followers in June before the rising could begin. Not one white person was killed or injured. ______ and five slaves were among the first group of men rapidly judged guilty by the secret proceedings of a city-appointed Court and condemned to death; they were executed by hanging on July 2, 1822. ______ was about 55 years old. In later proceedings, some 30 additional followers were executed. His son was also judged guilty of conspiracy and was deported from the US, along with many others. The church was destroyed and its minister expelled from the city. The event led to more stringent slave codes in many Southern states.

Metacom

aka King Philip. He was the son of Massasoit (the chief of the Wampanoag tribe). In 1675, the Indians attempted to unify under him. He coordinated attacks against New England villages but was eventually defeated by the British.

Philip, King

aka Metacom; a Native American chief who led attacks which resulted in a two-year war with settlers. Half the settlements in New England were destroyed and the English were on the edge of being driven into the sea. Finally, the colonies united while the Native Americans did not; he was killed in August 1676 and the war ended. It would be 40 years before the area recovered enough to begin expanding its boundaries into the frontier again.

Powhatan

aka Wahunsunacock; the father of Pocahontas; According to tradition, ______ captured John Smith and was going to kill him, but Pocahontas intervened, pleading for Smith's life. ______ also established the ________ Confederacy of Virginia, which was like an empire with ______ as the leader of several united Algonquian tribes. By 1608, when Captain John Smith explored Chesapeake Bay, all the native people of eastern Virginia, including the Virginia Eastern Shore, considered themselves at least nominally under ________'s sway—except for the Chickahominy. ________, therefore, had excellent reason for "acting the king" and giving "proud answers" when English emissaries came to call. The establishment of the English colony put an end to ________'s expansion and instead began a process of "nibbling away" at the edges of his territory. ________ initially tried to draw the English "visitors" into an alliance against the Monacans; the diplomatic meetings so vividly described by Captain John Smith date from that period. But Smith left Virginia, and a new and harder-line regime began at Jamestown. Once the colony began to get regular supplies from England, it began spreading into the prime farmlands of the James River valley. The first Anglo-________ War (1610-14) encouraged rather than stopped that spread; and it ended when Pocahontas was captured and held as a hostage. That capture was the beginning of the end of ________'s rule over his people. ________ dithered for a year before making peace by allowing Pocahontas's marriage to John Rolfe in 1614. During that time his brother Opechancanough, actually the second in line of succession, appears to have superseded the old chief; eight years later he would lead many of ________'s possessions in a war against the English. ________ himself remained titular head of his organization. But after the death of his daughter in England, an epidemic that killed many of his people, and the return of his priest Uttamatomakkin with news of how many more English there were across the Atlantic (all in spring 1617), ________ went into retirement. He survived Pocahontas by only a year. He died in 1618 and the British destroyed his confederacy in 1644.

Kennedy, Robert

began gaining on Humphrey in the polls. He wanted to negotiate a peaceful end to the Vietnam war ASAP. He also believed in Civil Rights Reform and assistance to the poor. On June 5, 1968, he won the CA primary and then was assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan.

Pontiac

born around 1720, the chief of the Ottawa tribe during the 1760s who led an attack in 1763 against British posts in the Ohio Valley and along the frontier settlements. He is recognized for trying to unite the Indian tribes of the Great Lakes area and the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys. He believed that Indians should abandon all trade with white men and that tribes should fight to keep the white men from taking more Indian lands. To avoid further problems with the Native Americans, the British government issued the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited the colonists from settling land beyond the Appalachian Mountains and required those settlers already there to leave. It is believed that _____ killed by a Peoria Indian in 1769 in Cahokia, Illinois.

Smith, John

he saved Jamestown, said "He who works not, eats not.".

Einstein, Albert

most influential scientist of the 20th century. Developed the theory of relativity.