USABO Master Glossary 1
endorphin
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
inversion
(genetics) a kind of mutation in which the order of the genes in a section of a chromosome is reversed
fluorescence
(light microscopy) Shows the locations of specific molecules in the cell by tagging the molecules with fluorescent dyes or antibodies. These fluorescent substances absorb ultraviolet radiation and emit visible light.
alanine (Ala or A)
(nonpolar)
trioses
3-carbon sugars
Avogadro's number
6.02 x 10^23
9+2 pattern
9 pairs of microtubules in a ring with the member of each pair sharing a part of the wall, and 2 microtubules in the center of the ring.
Jons Jakob Berzelius
A Swedish scientist that made a distinction between organic compounds and inorganic ones
replication fork
A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.
2
A and T form ___ hydrogen bonds.
reciprocal cross
A breeding experiment in which the mother's and father's phenotypes are the reverse of that examined in a previous breeding experiment.
theory
A broad explanation of natural events that is supported by strong evidence.
carcinogen
A cancer-causing substance
epinephrine
A catecholamine secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress preparing the body for "flight or fight". It stimulates the breakdown of glycogen.
opiate
A category of psychoactive drugs that are chemically similar to morphine and have strong pain-relieving properties.
haploid cell
A cell containing only one set of chromosomes (n).
diploid cell
A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent.
pseudopodium
A cellular extension of amoeboid cells used in moving and feeding.
Punnett square
A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross
molecular formula
A chemical formula that shows the number and kinds of atoms in a molecule, but not the arrangement of the atoms.
local regulators
A chemical messenger that influences cells in the vicinity.
monosomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two due to nondisjunction in a gamete. 2n-1
photosystem
A cluster of pigments embedded into a thylakoid membrane. Consists of a reaction-center complex with surrounding light-harvesting complexes.
amylopectin
A complex starch. Has alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds, but also contains branches via alpha-1,6 glycosidic bond
togavirus
A family of Type 4 virus. Has an envelope. Includes rubella virus, equine encephalitis viruses
thylakoid
A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy into chemical energy.
binary fission
A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size. Is responsible for the genetic diversity in bacteria, since they have short generations and large populations.
regulatory gene
A gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes. Is located some distance from the operon it controls and has its own promoter.
fibroblast
A generic connective tissue cell that produces fibers; the progenitor of all other connective tissue cell types.
linkage map
A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes.
proteasome
A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.
actin
A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells. Thin filament.
diacylglycerol (DAG)
A glyceride formed by cleavage of PIP2. Remains in cell membrane and activates protein kinase C (PKC).
organ system
A group of organs that work together in performing vital body functions.
synapse
A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next.
cooperativity
A kind of allosteric regulation whereby a shape change in one subunit of a protein caused by substrate binding is transmitted to all the others, facilitating binding of subsequent substrate molecules.
Kingdom Animalia
A kingdom a of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that are free-moving, lack cell walls, and are classified under Domain Eukarya. Most are heterotrophic
saturated fat
A lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms. Solid at room temperature. Most animal fats are saturated.
solvent
A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances
nucleus
A membrane‐bound organelle in eukaryotic cells functioning to maintain the integrity of the genetic material and, through the expression of that material, controlling and regulating cellular activities. Contains nuclear envelope, nuceloli, and chromatin.
beta oxidation
A metabolic sequence that breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments that enter the citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA. NADH and FADH2 are also generated.
feedback inhibition
A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.
stomata
A microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange between the environment and the interior of the plant. Carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits. Also helps with transpiration.
colloid
A mixture containing small, undissolved particles that do not settle out.
anion
A negatively charged ion
sarin
A nerve gas that was used in a bioterrorism attack on the Japan subway system. Binds covalently to the R group of serine, which is found in the active site of acetylcholinesterase.
5' to 3'
A new DNA strand can elongate only in the ___ direction
introns
A noncoding, intervening sequence within a eukaryotic gene.
G0 phase
A nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly. Most cells are in this phase.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A nucleic acid molecule, usually a double stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A T C G; capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of cell's proteins.
carrier
A person who has one recessive allele for a trait, but does not have the trait.
prophage
A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.
virulent phage
A phage that reproduces only by a lytic cycle.
C4 plants
A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle. Plants that have adapted their photosynthetic process to more efficiently handle hot and dry conditions. Sugarcane and corn. Several thousand species in at least 19 plant families are this.
selective permeability
A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
hypothesis
A proposed, scientifically testable explanation for an observed phenomenon.
condensation reaction
A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a small molecule.
transcription unit
A region of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule.
atomic nucleus
A region that is located at the center of an atom and contains most of the atom's mass (protons and neutrons)
anticodon
A sequence of three bases of a tRNA molecule that pairs with the complementary three-nucleotide codon of an mRNA molecule during protein synthesis.
metabolic pathway
A series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule (anabolic pathway) or breaks down a complex molecule into simpler compounds (catabolic pathway).
nonpenetrating solutes
A solute that cannot cross the cell membrane
functional groups
A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions.
granum
A stack of thylakoids in a chloroplast
morphogens
A substance that provides positional information in the form of a concentration gradient along an embryonic axis.
noncompetitive inhibitor
A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it binds to the substrate less effectively.
capsomere
A subunit of the protein capsid of a virus.
cross section
A transverse section.
scaffolding proteins
A type of large relay protein to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached to increase the efficiency of signal transduction.
inductive reasoning
A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations. (specific to general)
electron microscope (EM)
A type of microscope which focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen or onto its surface. The disadvantage is that it kills the specimen.
regulatory protein
A type of protein, repressor and activators, that regulate RNA polymerase attachment
beta pleated sheet
A type of secondary structure that consists of two or more regions of the polypeptide chain laying side by side connected by hydrogen bonds.
alpha helix
A type of secondary structure that is a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid.
DNA virus
A virus with DNA as its nucleic acid
RNA virus
A virus with RNA as its nucleic acid
initiation codon
AUG (methionine), codon that initiates translation
mimicry
Ability of an animal to look like another more harmful animal
oxidizing agent
Accepts electrons and becomes reduced.
random fertilization
Adds to genetic variation; any sperm can fuse with any unfertilized egg; fusion of two gametes produces a zygote and any of about 70 trillion diploid combinations.
initiation
After RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, the DNA strands unwind, and the polymerase initiates RNA synthesis at the start point on the template strand.
energy investment phase 4 (step 4)
Aldolase cleaves fructose-1, 6 biphosphate into two different three-carbon sugars: dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. These two sugars are isomers of each other.
extracellular fluid
All body fluid other than that contained within cells; includes plasma and interstitial fluid.
H4
All but two of the amino acids in cow ___ are identical to those in pea ___
life cycle
All of the events in the growth and development of an organism until the organism reaches sexual maturity.
electromagnetic spectrum
All of the frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
inner mitochondrial membrane
All the citric acid cycle enzymes are located in the matrix except for the enzyme that catalyzes step 6, which resides in the __.
genome
All the genetic information in an organism; all of an organism's chromosomes.
hemophilia
An X-linked recessive disorder in which blood fails to clot properly, leading to excessive bleeding if injured.
antibody
An antigen-binding immunoglobulin, produced by B cells, that functions as the effector in an immune response.
systems biology
An approach to studying biology that aims to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the interactions among the system's parts.
metaphase plate
An imaginary structure located at a plane midway between the two poles of a cell in metaphase on which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located.
primary transcript
An initial RNA transcript; also called pre-mRNA.
side chain
Another term for R-group. A variable group that determines the unique chemical properties of a particular amino acid.
thiols
Any organic compound having the -SH functional group (R-SH). Also called the sulfhydryl.
matter
Anything that has mass and takes up space
technology
Application of science to help people
DNA polymerization reaction
As each monomer joins the growing end of a DNA strand, two phosphate groups are lost as a molecule of pyrophosphate. Subsequent hydrolysis to two inorganic phosphates is a coupled exergonic reaction that helps drive this
exit tunnel
As the polypeptide becomes longer, it passes through this in the larger subunit and released through the tunnel once the polypeptide is completed.
10-35
At a point about ___ nucleotides downstream from the AAUAAA signal, proteins cut the RNA transcript free from the polymerase, releasing the pre-mRNA.
arms
At anaphase I, cohesins are cleaved along their ___.
centromeres
At anaphase II, cohesins are cleaved at their ___.
telophase I
At the beginning of this phase, each half of the cell has complete haploid set of replicated chromosomes. No replication ocurrs between meiosis I and II.
cohesion
Attraction between molecules of the same substance
Gregor Mendel
Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884)
dorsal-ventral axis
Axis running from the upper side to the under side of an animal.
purines
Bases with a double-ring structure; a 6-membered ring fused to a 5-membered one: adenine and guanine
cell
Basic unit of life
protein-mediated bending
Bending of DNA via DNA-bending protein that brings the bound activators into contact with a group of mediator proteins, which in turn interact with proteins at the promoter, to help form an active transcription initiation complex on promoter.
leukemia
Blood condition of white cells; malignant (cancerous) condition.
anaphase I
Breakdown of proteins responsible for sister chromatid cohesion along chromatid arms allows homologs to separate. They move toward opposite poles.
2
Breakdown of the translation assembly requires the hydrolysis of __ more GTPs.
CO2 and PEP carboxylase to PEP to oxaloacetate to 4C product
C4 pathway in mesophyll
35
CVS and amniocentesis was once only offered to women above this age.
exergonic reaction
Chemical reactions that release energy
recombinant chromosomes
Chromosomes that combine genes from both parents due to crossing-over
sex chromosomes
Chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual (X or Y)
citric acid cycle 5
CoA is displaced by a phosphate group, which is transferred to GDP, forming GTP.
carbohydrates
Compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the approximate ratio of C:2H:O (e.g., sugars, starches, and cellulose). Known for having a carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups. Also, the carbon skeleton is about 3-7 carbons long
carbonic acid
Compound that results from the combination of carbon dioxide and water; acts as a buffer with its base
kinetochore microtubules
Connects the centrosome with the kinetochore in the centromere region of the chromosome - makes sure chromatids are pulled apart
photosynthesis
Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy. 6CO2 + 6H2O + light --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
homogenization
Crushing, grinding, blending tissue into an evenly distributed mixture. Used in cell fractionation.
miRNA protein complex
Degrades target mRNA (bases complementary all along length) or blocks translation (most bases complementary along length)
variation
Demonstrated by the difference in appearance that offspring show from parents and siblings.
nonsister chromatids
Different chromatids (maternal and paternal) of the same type of chromosome.
zygote
Diploid cell formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg.
glucose
Does E. coli prefer glucose or lactose?
reducing agent
Donates electrons and becomes oxidized.
2
Each FADH2 that transfers a pair of electrons from glucose to the ETC contributes enough to the proton-motive force to make how many ATP?
10
Each enhancer is controlled by about ___ control elements
heat
Energy in transit due to a temperature difference between the source from which the energy is coming and a sink toward which the energy is going.
kinetic energy
Energy of motion
potential energy
Energy that is stored and held in readiness
restriction enzymes
Enzymes, naturally occurring in bacteria, that cut DNA at certain specific recognition sites. Used as a defense against bacterial DNA
CHON
Essential Elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
heterochromatin
Eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed.
data
Facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis
daughters/sons
Fathers pass sex-linked alleles to all of their ___ but none of their ____.
cisternae
Flattened, membrane-bound compartments that make up the Golgi apparatus. Also found within the endoplasmic reticulum.
wobble
Flexibility in the base-pairing rules in which the nucleotide at the 5' end of a tRNA anticodon can form hydrogen bonds with more than one kind of base in the third position of a codon.
ionic bond
Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another
coenzyme A
Functions as an acetyl group carrier
decomposers
Fungi and bacteria that break complex organic material into smaller molecules
3
G and C form ___ hydrogen bonds.
gonads
Glands related to sexual characteristics and the processes involved in reproduction
histone
Globular protein that assist in DNA packaging in eukaryotes. Histones form octamers around which DNA is wound to form a nucleosome.
cellulose
Glucose is used to build what material in plants?
stator
H+ ions flowing down their gradient enter a half channel in this part of the ATP synthase, which is anchored in the membrane.
avian flu
H5N1; bird to human trough droppings, saliva, blood; stayed in Asia
hydrophilic
Having an affinity for water
synapsis
Homologous chromosomes pair up, aligned gene by gene.
dominant
If the trait is seen in every generation, it is most likely ____.
secondary cell wall
In plant cells, a strong and durable matrix that is often deposited in several laminated layers around the plasma membrane and provides protection and support.
circularization
Lambda DNA possesses cohesive ends, which directly aid in DNA __ before it can enter
expression
Methylation of certain cytosines on the paternal chromosome leads to ____ of the paternal Igf2.
L form
Most amino acids are found in this form.
amines
Organic compounds characterized by the presence of an amino group
6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2
Photosynthesis reaction
filopodia
Protruding finger-like actin structure of macrophages
reading frame
Reading mRNA nucleotides in the correct groupings.
Paul Nurse
Schizosaccharomyces pombe was used by who to prove that Cdk1 protein kinase was encoded from cdc2 gene?
David Frye and Michael Edidin
Scientists who discovered that membrane proteins do drift.
hexoses
Six carbon carbohydrates - glucose (aldehyde) and fructose (ketone). May appear as Fischer projections or ring structures
hydroxyl groups
Smooth ER detoxification usually involves adding what type of functional group to drugs?
citrate
The 6-carbon molecule that is formed by the addition of acytyl CoA to oxaloacetate
atomic mass
The average mass of all the isotopes of an element
selective degradation
The cell limits the longevity (or life span) of proteins.
cell ultrastructure
The detail of a cell that can be seen by an electron microscope
37 C
The entire lytic cycle of the T4 bacteriophage takes only 20-30 min at __.
H2A
The four core histones that make up a nucleosome
antiparallel
The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix.
signal transduction pathway
The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response.
absorption spectrum
The range of a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light.
norm of reaction
The range of phenotypes produced by a single genotype, due to environmental influences.
icosahedral virus
The specific viral structure consisting of a 3-dimensional polyhedron which resembles a hollow sphere with the nucleic acid inside
conservative model
The two parental strands reassociate after acting as templates for new strands, thus restoring the parental double helix (false)
fibrous proteins
These proteins form from extended sheets or strands, making them tough, durable, and generally insoluble in water.
large ribosomal subunit
This completes the translation initiation complex.
ribbon model
This model shows how the single polypeptide chain folds and coils to form functional protein.
triplet code
Three-nucleotide long set that specifies a specific amino acid for a polypeptide chain.
"high throughput" technology
Tools that can analyze biological materials very fast
downstream
Toward the 3' end of an RNA transcript (the 3' end of the DNA coding strand). Stop codons and (in eukaryotes) the pol-A tail are found here.
papovavirus
Type I virus. Does not have an envelope. The two subcategories are papillomaviruses (warts, cervical cancer) and polyomaviruses (tumors).
mobile genetic elements
Types of DNA that can move around in the genome.
stop codon
UAG, UAA, or UGA; the codon that ends all RNA.
nonspontaneous
a process that needs energy to occur
photon
a tiny particle or packet of light energy
citric acid cycle 1
acetyl CoA adds its two-carbon acetyl group to oxaloacetate, producing citrate
pyruvate to acetyl CoA 3
acetyl CoA attaches to the acetate by an unstable bond that makes the acetyl group very reactive.
p21 gene
activated by p53 and product halts cell cycle by binding to cyclin-dependent kinases until repairs are done
P700+
acts as an electron acceptor; the pair of P700 chlorophyll molecules that lost an electron.
spliceosome
almost as big as a ribosome, a large assembly that interacts with certain sites along an intron, releasing the intron and joining together the two exons that flanked the intron.
base-pair insertion
an addition of a nucleotide pair in a gene.
glycerol
an alcohol with three carbons, each bearing a hydroxyl group. Makes up a fat
propanal
an aldehyde
pyrrolysine
an amino acid in Archaea that is translated as such instead of as a stop codon
infectious mononucleosis
an infection caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) that is characterized by fever, a sore throat, and enlarged lymph nodes
monohybrid
an organism heterozygous for one character
papillomaviruses
associated with cervical cancer
200 nanometers - 25 micrometers
average length of a microtubule
Streptococcus pneumoniae
bacteria tested by Griffith
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
bacterium found in the human gut that can cause sickness due to contamination of food
viral infection
begins when a virus binds to a host cell and the viral genome makes its way inside
b
black
Turner syndrome
called the XO syndrome, lack of one x chromosome, in females, short stature, delayed puberty. Some cells only lack X chromosome (mosaics) but reproducing have high risk of too many or too few chromosomes. When given estrogen replacement therapy, can develop some secondary sexual characteristics.
mesophyll cells
cells that are either palisade or spongy in C3 plants, surround bundle sheath cells in C4 plants, usually contain chloroplasts
nurse cell
cells that surround the human egg cell and keep it alive on its way from the ovary to the uterus
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + H2O + energy
cellular respiration
aldolase
cleaves fructose-1, 6 biphosphate into two different three-carbon sugars: dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
albinism
congenital hereditary condition characterized by partial or total lack of pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes. autosomal recessive
coated pits
depressions on the cell surface that contain the receptors used in receptor-mediated endocytosis
Melvin Calvin
discovered reactions of Calvin cycle. chemical energy NADPH and ATP used to make glucose
domain
discrete structural and functional regions in proteins, such as an active site.
cholera, pertussis, botulism
diseases that affect G-protein function.
synaptic signaling
electrical signal along a nerve cell releases chemical signal in form of neurotransmitters and stimulates a cell across synapse
lacZ
encodes B-galactosidase
surroundings
everything outside of the system
Fd
final electron carrier in the ETC of PS I.
yeast cells
gene expression in heterochromatin and euchromatin were observed in these cells.
transcription
gene expression is often equated with _____ in eukaryotes and prokaryotes
sex-linked gene
gene located on the X or Y chromosome, in most cases the X
b+
gray
spores
haploid cells produced by meiosis of the sporophyte. It divides mitotically to generate a multicellular haploid gametophyte
inactive
heavily methylated genes are usually ___
BRCA2
helps repair breaks in both strands of DNA. Scientists know more about this gene than BRCA1. Associated with breast cancer.
aminoacyl-tRNA binding (A) site
holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain
50,000
how many times faster does glucose travel through the membrane using specific carrier proteins than without them?
genetic disorder
if a mutation has an adverse effect on the phenotype of an organism, the condition is a ___.
methylated
inactive DNA is generally more _____ that DNA that is actively transcribed.
1/700
incidence of Down syndrome
1/2000
incidence of Klinefelter syndrome
1/5000
incidence of Turner syndrome
1/10 billion
incidence of errors in DNA replication.
DDT and parathion
inhibitors of key enzymes in the nervous system
transmembrane proteins
integral proteins that can have one or more hydrophobic domains and are mostly likely to function in the membrane as receptors or channels. They span the membrane.
cross-talk
interactions between signaling pathways that occur as a cell generates a response to multiple signals
RNA interference (RNAi)
introduction of double stranded RNA into a cell to inhibit gene expression. Injecting double-stranded RNA molecules into a cell turns off
PIP2
is hydrolyzed by PLC in two secondary messengers IP3 and DAG
RNA transcript
mRNA molecule formed during transcription that has a sequence of base complementary to a gene.
leaves
major sites of photosynthesis in plants
testis
male reproductive organ that produces sperm and hormones
cytoplasmic side
membrane proteins are held in place by attachment to the cytoskeleton on this side
intercellular joining membrane proteins
membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in various kinds of junctions, such as gap or tight ones.
selective inhibition
molecules naturally present in the cell often regulate enzyme activity by acting as inhibitors
organic phosphates
molecules that contain a phosphate group
1/5
more than ___ of the histone's amino acids are positively charged, which helps it bind to the negatively charged DNA
rRNA
most abundant cellular RNA
nucleosides
most antiviral drugs resemble ___ and as a result interfere with viral nucleic acid synthesis
frameshift mutation
mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide. Worst kind.
50%
mutations in p53 occur in more than about ___ in human cancers
30%
mutations in ras occur in about ___ of human cancers
prokaryotes
operons are only found in
35 C
optimal temperature for DNA synthesis
7.4
pH of human blood
mutagenic radiation
radiation that causes mutations, includes UV and X-ray
cholesterol
reduces membrane fluidity and hinders solidification at low temperatures, acts as a temperature buffer
breast cancer
second most common type of cancer
meiosis I
separates homologous chromosomes
ER membrane
separates the ER lumen from the cytosol
trans face
shipping side of Golgi apparatus. Gives rise to vesicles which ship off mature proteins.
artifacts
structural features seen in micrographs that do not exist in the living cell.
heroin
synthesized from morphine
60%
the APC gene is mutated in ___ of colorectal cancers
carbon dioxide
the Calvin cycle synthesizes sugar from __.
40%
the efficiency of cellular respiration
1/100000
the error rate of of initial nucleotide pairings
transpiration
the evaporative water loss from leaves.
van der Waals forces
the forces that hold stacked paired bases together
cyt a3
the last cytochrome of th echain, passes its electrons to oxygen, which is very electronegative.
casein
the main protein found in milk, is an amino acid source for baby mammals.
shmoo
the name of yeast cells that form a specialized projection used for haploid mating
hydroxide ion
the negative ion formed when a water molecule loses a hydrogen ion
22
the number of chromosomes in a somatic cell of a newt
148
the number of chromosomes in somatic cells of an alga
18
the number of chromosomes in somatic cells of cabbage plants
56
the number of chromosomes in somatic cells of elephants
90
the number of chromosomes in somatic cells of hedgehogs
13
the number of columns of tubulin molecules in a microtubule.
4
the number of days it take a fertilized frog egg to turn into a tadpole
100,000
the number of fungi species
evolution
the process of change that has transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity of organisms living today.
phagocytosis
the process whereby amoebas and protists eat by engulfing smaller organisms or other food particles.
alpha-Ketoglutarate
the product of isocitrate being oxidized and losing a CO2 molecule.
base-pair substitution
the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of nucleotides.
C-terminus
the side of a peptide chain/protein that ends in a carboxyl group
double lines
the symbol for consanguineous mating
recessive
tumor-suppressors act as ___ alleles
positron emission tomography (PET)
using a computerized radiographic technique to examine the metabolic activity in various tissues (especially in the brain)
dynamic equilibrium
Result of diffusion where there is continuous movement of particles but no overall change in concentration
Scarlet kingsnake
SAME species, but looks different in different places. Kingsnakes in southeastern part of their range are close to eastern coral snake (venomous, aposematism), and thus exhibit bright coloration which warns off predators even though the king snakes themselves are not venomous. It is an advantage to them as long as they are within the eastern coral snake's range, but once you move farther away where the eastern coral snakes don't occur, the bright coloration actually attracts predators
myxobacteria
Slime bacteria that congregate to form complex structures called fruiting bodies
Okazaki fragment
Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.
vesicle
Small membrane-bound sac that functions in moving products into, out of, and within a cell.
coated vesicle
Small membrane-enclosed sac that wears a distinctive layer of proteins on its cytosolic surface. It is formed by pinching-off of a protein-coated region of cell membrane.
translation initiation factor
Small subunit of the ribosome attaches to the cap & moves to the translation initiation site. anticodon and codon bind creating amino acid MET. Large ribosomal subunit completes the initiation complex
alternative splicing
Splicing of introns in a pre-mRNA that occurs in different ways, leading to different mRNAs that code for different proteins or protein isoforms. Increases the diversity of proteins.
law of independent assortment
States that each allelic pair separates during gamete formation; applies when genes for two traits are not on the same chromosome
Crassulaceae
Succulent herbs or shrubs that were the first found to use CAM.
aldoses
Sugars with aldehydes as their most oxidized group
ketoses
Sugars with ketones as their most oxidized group
Hershey-Chase experiment
Supported DNA as genetic material. DNA was labeled with P32 and protein was labeled with S35. P32 went into the host cell. S35 stayed outside.
rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
System of internal membranes within the cytoplasm. Membranes are rough due to the presence of ribosomes. functions in transport of substances such as proteins within the cytoplasm. Makes secretory proteins and expands its own membrane, where proteins destined to be membrane proteins insert themselves on the this membrane, where vesicles are created for the cell.
transition state
Term used to describe an activated complex because the activated complex is as likely to form reactants as it is to form products
supernatant
The (usually) clear liquid left behind after a precipitate has been spun down to the bottom of a vessel by centrifugation
3
The Calvin cycle must take place and consume this number of CO2 molecules in order to generate one net molecule of G3P.
double membrane
The Nuclear Membrane is actually a ___, which allows for the entrance and exit of certain molecules through the nuclear pores.
chiasmata
The X-shaped, microscopically visible region representing homologous chromatids that have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis.
photoprotection
The ability to absorb and dissipate excessive light energy that would otherwise damage chlorophyll or interact with oxygen to form dangerous oxidative molecules dangerous to the cell.
serine/threonine
The amino acids most phosphorylated by protein kinases.
heat of vaporization
The amount of energy required for the liquid at its boiling point to become a gas
specific heat
The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree celcius
cell sap
The aqueous solution found in central vacuoles that differ in composition from the cytosol.
transitional ER
The area of the smooth ER from which transport vesicles carrying newly synthesized proteins and lipids bud off for transport to the Golgi
histone acetylation
The attachment of acetyl groups to certain amino acids of histone proteins. Relaxes DNA coiling, allowing for transcription. Acetyl groups are attached to positively charged lysines in histone tails. The histones are neutralised and the histone tails no longer bind to the nucleosomes.
32-34
The average number of ATP molecules made in the ETC
36-38
The average number of total ATP molecules per glucose
Mendelism
The basis for modern study of heredity and variation; includes three laws: law of dominance, law of independent assortment, and the law of segregation.
rRNA
The catalyst of peptide bond formation and the main constituent of the interface between two subunits and of the A and P sites,
mismatch repair
The cellular process that uses specific enzymes to remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides. A defect in one of these enzymes causes colon cancer.
polypeptide backbone
The chain of atoms containing repeating peptide bonds that runs through a protein molecule and to which the amino acid side chains are attached.
shape
The characteristic of pea pods controlled by two genes.
metaphase II
The chromosomes are positioned on the metaphase plate. Due to crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids are not genetically identical.
lower
The concentration of Ca 2+ in the cytosol is usually much ____ than that in the extracellular fluid and ER.
osmoregulation
The control of water balance in organisms living in hypertonic, hypotonic, or terrestrial environments.
peptide bond
The covalent bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid.
hybridization
The crossing of two true-breeding parents.
fluid mosaic model
The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
negative
The cytoplasm is ___ in charge relative to the extracellular fluid.
pattern formation
The development of a multicellular organism's spatial organization, the arrangement of organs and tissues in their characteristic places in three-dimensional space.
25 nm
The diameter of a microtubule
15 nm
The diameter of the lumen
electrochemical gradient
The diffusion gradient of an ion, representing a type of potential energy that accounts for both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane and its tendency to move relative to the membrane potential.
5'-3'
The direction in which DNA runs.
Darwinism
The doctrine that natural selection has been the prime cause of evolution of higher forms.
asexual propagation
The duplication or reproduction of a plant by using the vegetative parts of a parent plant, such as cuttings.
plastoquinone (Pq)
The electron from P680 is transferred to this, thus beginning the first of two electron transport chains.
valence
The electrons in the outermost shell (main energy level) of an atom; these are the electrons involved in forming bonds.
valence electrons
The electrons in the outermost shell (main energy level) of an atom; these are the electrons involved in forming bonds.
trailing end
The end of the pseudopodium in which solation occurs, when myosin acts with actin in order to move the gel into a sol that moves the organism.
pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
20-30
The entire lytic cycle of the T4 bacteriophage takes only ___ min at 37 C.
phosphofructokinase
The enzyme that catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to form fructose-1-6-bisphosphate in the third step of glycolysis. This is the main regulatory step of glycolysis. It is feedback-inhibited by ATP. If it sense increasing AMP levels, it also increases. It is also sensitive to citrate. If too much accumulates in the mitochondrion, it inhibits this. It is the pacemaker of respiration.
repressible enzymes
The enzymes for tryptophan synthesis are said to be repressible. Generally function in ANABOLIC pathways. Synthesize essential end products from raw materials (precursors, enzymes).
neuraminidase (N)
The enzymes in a virus that bore holes into the cell membrane of a host cell and allow Hemagglutnin to inject its protein inside. Helps release new virus particles from infected cells
hexokinase
The enzymes that catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate in the first step of glycolysis. This is one of the main regulatory steps of this pathway. It is feedback-inhibited by glucose-6-P.
short-lived intermediate
The ephemeral 6-carbon product of the carbon fixation by RuBP. Splits in half into 2 3-Phosphoglycerates.
tail fiber
The fibrous region of the virus tail used to scan, recognize and attach to the host cell.
Marshall Nirenberg
The first codon (UUU) was deciphered in 1961 by this researcher at the NIH.
G1 phase
The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
flavoprotein
The first molecule of the ETC in complex I. Fad associated with a protein; contains nucleic acid and is a derivative of riboflavin; often involved in redox reactions
light reactions
The first of two major stages in photosynthesis (preceding the Calvin cycle). These reactions, which occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast or on membranes of certain prokaryotes, convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, releasing oxygen in the process. H2O is split, releasing H+ and O2.
photosystem II (PS II)
The first photosystem to function. A photosystem that contains a pair of P680 chlorophyll molecules and uses absorbed light energy to split water into protons and oxygen and to produce ATP.
cleavage furrow
The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove around the cell in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate. On the cytoplasmic side of this is a contractile ring of actin microfilaments associated with molecules of the protein myosin.
double helix
The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape.
H2A, H2B, H3, H4
The four core histones that make up a nucleosome
estradiol
The granulosa cells of developing follicles secrete
mesophyll
The ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis and specialized for photosynthesis.
F1 generation
The hybrid offspring of true-breeding parents.
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
The idea, now known to be an oversimplification, that each gene in the genome encodes only a single polypeptide.
carbon fixation
The initial incorporation of carbon from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism (a plant, another photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotrophic prokaryote).
UTR/5'/ribosomes
The initiation of translation of some mRNAs can be blocked by regulatory proteins that bind to specific sequences or structures within the __ at the ___ end of the mRNA, preventing the attachment of ____.
energy payoff phase 5 (step 10)
The last reaction of glycolysis that produces more ATP by transferring the phosphate group from PEP to ADP (substrate-level phosphorylation). Since this step occurs twice for each glucose molecule, 2 ATP are produced. Overall, glycolysis has used 2 ATP in the energy investment phase (steps 1 and 3) and produced 4 ATP in the energy payoff phase (steps 7 and 10) for a net gain of 2 ATP. Additional energy was stored by step 6 in NADH.
Friedrich Wohler
The man who was the first to synthesize an organic compound, urea, from inorganic starting materials
cytoplasmic determinants
The maternal substances in the egg that influences the course of early development by regulating the expression of genes that affect the developmental fate of cells. Unevenly distributed in the cell before it divides.
inner membrane
The membrane of the mitochondria that is the site of electron transport and chemiosmosis.
leading strand
The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.
bacterial chromosome
The nucleoid of a bacterial cell usually contains a single long, continuous. and frequently circularly arranged thread of double-stranded DNA called the ______ ______.
6
The number of ATP consumed to convert 3-Phosphoglycerate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
6
The number of NADPHs consumed by the Calvin cycle for the synthesis of the G3P molecule.
valence shell
The outermost energy shell of an atom, containing the valence electrons involved in the chemical reactions of that atom.
smallpox
The overall deadliest known disease in the history of the world. In the 20th century alone there were approximately 500,000,000 people who died of this disease. The World Health Organization eradicated it.
hydrophilic head
The part of a phospholipid molecule that lines up facing the intracellular and extracellular fluids is the _______________.
Rudolf Virchow
The person credited with first recognizing (in the 1860s) that living cells cannot arise spontaneously, but arise only from previously existing cells. Said "Omnis cellula e cellula."
density-dependent inhibition
The phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another.
wild type
The phenotype most commonly observed in natural populations; also refers to the individual with that phenotype.
proton-motive force
The potential energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions across biological membranes during chemiosmosis.
morphogenesis
The process by which an organism takes shape and the differentiated cells occupy their appropriate locations.
SRP receptor protein
The rough ER has ___ to attract the SRP/ribosome/polypeptide complex
origin of replication
The specific location on a DNA strand where replication begins. Prokaryotes typically have a single origin of replication, while eukaryotes have several per chromosome. Two of these are produced and as the organism copies its chromosome, they move away from each other and the cell pinches.
metastasis
The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site.
linker DNA
The string between beads of DNA on histones.
1674
The year in which Hooke saw through van Leeuwenhoek's microscope to see living cells, which he dubbed "very little animalcules".
ion channels
These channels open through three mechanisms: (1) by binding a ligand to a specific membrane receptor that is closely associated with the channel (for example, G proteins); (2) by changes in electric current in the plasma membrane, altering flow of Na+ and K+; and (3) by stretching or other chemical deformation of the channel.
tetracycline and streptomycin
These drugs make use of the different compositions of bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes; this allows the antibiotic to inactivate bacterial ribsomes without affecting eukaryotic ribsomes.
electromagnets
These objects are used as the lenses for TEMs.
globular proteins
These proteins are compact, generally rounded, and soluble in water.
deletions and duplications
These types of chromosomal alterations are most likely to occur in meiosis
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
This electron microscope is especially useful for detailed study of the surface of a specimen. A thin film of gold coats the sample, and a beam of electrons excites the electrons on the surface, which is detected by a device that translates the pattern to a video screen, showing the topography of the sample.
transmission electron microscope (TEM)
This electron microscope is used to study the internal ultrastructure of cells. It aims an electron beam through a very thin section of the specimen. The specimen has been stained with atoms of heavy metals, which attach to certain cellular structures, thus enhancing the electron density of some parts of the cell more than others. The electrons passing through the specimen are scattered more in the denser regions, so fewer are transmitted. Then, electromagnets are used as lenses to bend the paths of the electrons, focusing the image onto a screen for viewing or onto film.
receptor-mediated endocytosis
This enables the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances, even though those substances may not be very concentrated in the EC fluid. Embedded in the membrane are proteins with specific receptor sites exposed to EC fluid. The receptor proteins are embedded in coated pits, and are taken into the cell. After the vesicle is used, it is recycled back to the plasma membrane. Humans use this to take in cholesterol.
space-filling model
This model shows more clearly the globular/fibrous shape seen in many proteins, as well as the specific 3D structure of the protein.
primary structure
This structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids.
secondary structure
This structure of a protein is seen as coils and folds as a result of hydrogen bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone (not the amino acid side chains). The hydrogen bond occurs between the H of the amino group and an oxygen of a nearby peptide bond.
tertiary structure
This structure of a protein is the overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from the interactions between the side chains of various amino acids.
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
This technique at mapping 3D protein structure does not make use of crystallization. It is based on the fact that certain atomic nuclei have magnetic moments that are oriented at random. When such nuclei are placed in a magnetic field, their magnetic moments tend to align either with or against the direction of the applied field.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
This type of RNA transcripts or copies a portion of DNA, Only one strand of DNA is copied into this RNA during transcription, it leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosome for translation. It reads in sets of 3 nucleotides called codons. Conveys genetic instructions for building proteins from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
sister chromatids
Two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached to each other by proteins at the centromere and sometimes, along the arms. While joined, they make up one chromosome. They are eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis .
diatoms and yeasts
Two groups of unicellular protists that, during cell division, have nuclear membranes that remain intact and the microtubules make a spindle inside the nucleus. Microtubules separate the chromosomes and the nuclues splits.
citric acid cycle 6
Two hydrogens are transferred to FAD, forming FADH2, and oxidizing succinate to make fumarate.
single-stranded DNA (ssDNA)
Type 2 virus. parvovirus
double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)
Type 3 virus. reovirus
single-stranded RNA (ssRNA)
Type 4 virus. Serves as mRNA. picornavirus, coronavirus, flavivirus, togavirus
ssRNA (template for mRNA synthesis)
Type 5. Includes filovirus, orthomyxovirus, paramyxovirus, and rhabdovius
ssRNA (template for DNA synthesis)
Type 6. retrovirus
herpesvirus
Type I virus. Has an envelope. Includes herpes simplex I and II (cold sores, genital sores); varicella zoster (shingles, chicken pox); Epstein-Barr virus (mononucleosis, Burkitt's lymphoma)
poxvirus
Type I virus. Has an envelope. Includes smallpox virus and cowpox virus
double-stranded DNA (dsDNA)
Type I virus. adenovirus, papovavirus, herpesvirus, poxvirus
semiconservative model
Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the parental molecule, and one newly made strand.
thymine dimer
UV light causes damage to DNA via forming this. These cause buckling in the DNA strand and interfere with replication.
dinoflagellates
Unicellular protists that have chromosomes that attach to the nuclear envelope, which remains intact during cell division. Microtubules pass through the nucleus inside cytoplasmic tunnels, which then divides similar to binary fission.
Maurice Wilkins
Used X-Ray Crystallography to help in the modeling of DNA-found double helix structure. Worked alongside Rosalind Franklin. Suggested The DNA was a spiral shape
Linus Pauling
Used molecular models to try to determine the structure of DNA, but failed because he did not have Franklin's x-ray crystallography photos to help him as did Watson and Crick.
genomic imprinting
Variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele is inherited from the male or female parent. is the epigenetic phenomenon by which certain genes are expressed in a parent-of-origin-specific manner. If the allele inherited from the father is imprinted, it is thereby silenced, and only the allele from the mother is expressed.
transport vesicle
Vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another.
provirus
Viral DNA that is integrated into a host cells chromosome and replicated each time the host cell replicates. Never leaves. AIDS is an example
Nature
Watson and Crick published their one-page paper in this journal that reported the molecular model for DNA.
3D
What about the shapes of proteins and digestive enzymes of lysosomes protect them from being hydrolysed?
toxins/poisons
What are irreversible enzyme inhibitors
Burkitt's lymphoma
What can be caused by the Epstein-Barr Virus?
2 electrons/1 proton
What do dehydrogenases give NAD+?
2 electrons/2 protons
What do dehydrogenases take from substrates?
9+2 pattern/plasma membrane
What do flagella and cilia have in common?
AMP
What does the tRNA replace in order to covalently bond to the amino acid?
ATP and NADPH
What is created in the stroma during light reactions?
rRNA
What is primarily responsible for both the structure and the function of the ribosome?
ATGC
What is the order in which the nitrogenous bases pair?
inversely proportional
What is the relationship between resolution and wavelength?
lacI
What is the repressor gene in the lac operon
proto-oncogenes
What is the term for normal cellular genes associated with growth and differentiation?
albumin
What protein carries free fatty acids to the liver?
calcium ions
What type of ion does smooth ER store?
HOPO3 2-
When a phosphate group is broken off by hydrolysis what does ATP become
fruiting body
When food is scarce, starving cells secrete a molecule that reaches neighboring cells and stimulates them to aggregate. They form this structure.
denaturation
When pH, salinity, temperature, transfer from an aqueous environment to an organic solvent, or other aspects of the environment are altered to unravel the protein, losing its native shape and function.
polydactyly
When the fingers or toes of a newborn have more than five digits
rough ER
Where are hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes made?
acidic environments
Where do lysosomal enzymes work best?
cytosol
Where does translation end when the protein is targeted to the mitochondria, chloroplasts, the interior of the nucleus, or other organelles not part of the endomembrane system?
nerve and muscle cells
Which cells never divide?
intermediate filaments
Which cytoskeleton element stays in place and makes the cell stay in shape, often found around the nucleus and in the lamina?
microtubules and microfilaments
Which cytoskeleton elements are consistent in all eukaryotic cells?
kinetochore ends
Which end does chromosome movement correlate with the shortening of?
DNA polymerase III
Which enzyme catalyzes the elongation of a DNA strand in the 5' → 3' direction and is one of two important polymerases in E. coli. Requires a primer and a DNA template strand. Adds a DNA nucleotide to the RNA primer and tehn continues adding DNA nucleotides, complementary to the parental DNA template strand, to the growing end of the new DNA strand.
dinoflagellates
Which group of organisms use cytoplasmic tunnels to divide?
dystrophin
Which of the following proteins is used to anchor the myofilaments and to help transmit the tension generated by the sarcomeres to the tendon? Is absent in people with DMD.
free ribosomes
Which ribosomes make the membrane proteins of mitochondria and chloroplasts?
6
Which step in glycolysis produced 2 NADH and 2 H+?
7 and 10
Which steps in glycolysis produced ATP?
1 and 3
Which steps in glycolysis used ATP to occur?
G1
Which subphase of interphase is the most variable in length?
bacteria
Which type of organism uses ephemeral mRNAs?
herpesviruses
Which types of viruses are temporarily cloaked in membrane derived from the nuclear envelope of the host and shed it to take on a membrane form the Golgi apparatus.
Adolf Mayer
Who first noticed viruses when he was studying tobacco plants? the person who first realized that tobacco mosaic disease was caused by something smaller than bacteria by rubbing diseased sap to healthy leaves
ammonium cyanate
Wohler heated up ________ to make urea
Rosalind Franklin
Woman who generated x-ray images of DNA, she provided Watson and Crick with key data about DNA
Frederick Griffith
Worked with strains of pneumonia, pathogenic (diseased, protective capsule) and nonpathogenic (non-diseased, no capsule). He believed that the live nonpathogenic bacteria could transform and absorb the gene for a capsule from the heat-killed pathogenic bacteria (transformation).
XIST (X-inactive specific transcript)
X-inactivation specific transcript gene. only gene known to be transcribed only from inactive X chromosome
1
__ primer(s) is/are required for DNA pol II to synthesize the leading strand.
protein-protein interactions
____ are crucial to the initiation of eukaryotic transcription
hairpin
______ structures are formed in RNA polynucleotides when they fold back on themselves. Composed of complementary base pairs in duplex regions & intervening loops. Secondary structure formed when sequences of nucleotides on the same strand are complementary and pair with each other
sodium-potassium pump
a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell. ATP transfers its terminal phosphate group directly to the transport protein, causing the protein to change shape. It pumps out 3 sodium atoms for every 2 potassium atoms pumped in. Remember it's all in the shape changes of the protein due to phosphorylation that control whether substances are pumped in or out. 1) Cytoplasmic Na+ bonds to the sodium-potassium pump. The affinity for Na+ is high when the protein has this shape. 2) Na+ binding stimulates phosphorylation which causes the protein to change it shape, expelling Na+ out 3) K+ is then favored because of the change in shape 4) Then it is expelled into the cell
fermentation
a catabolic process that is a partial degradation of sugars without the use of oxygen. Does not have an ETC. Consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+ by transferring electrons from NADH to pyruvate or derivatives of pyruvate.
scaffold
a chromosome ___ of proteins that makes up the 300-nm fiber, and is rich in one type of topoisomerase and H1 molecules.
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
a coenzyme that cycles easily between oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH) states, thus acting as an electron carrier. Derivative of niacin.
urea
a colorless crystalline compound that is the main nitrogenous breakdown product of protein metabolism in mammals and is excreted in urine.
poly-A tail/5' cap
a common pathway of mRNA breakdown begins with the enzymatic shortening of the ____. This helps trigger the action of enzymes that remove the ___
selenocysteine
a component of some bacterial proteins and human enzymes that function as an amino acid instead of a stop codon
Down syndrome
a condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
subcutaneous layer
a continuous sheet of areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue between the dermis of the skin and the deep fascia of the muscles. It is thick in marine mammals to protect them from the cold water.
testcross
a cross between an organism whose genotype for a certain trait is unknown and an organism that is homozygous recessive for that trait so the unknown genotype can be determined from that of the offspring
trypsin
a digestive enzyme in the human intestine that works best at a pH of 8
trans fat
a fat that results from hydrogenating vegetable oils to produce unsaturated fats with trans bonds. These fats may contribute more to atherosclerosis than do saturated fats. The USDA requires this fat content information on nutritional labels.
electromagnetic radiation
a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space
nuclear matrix
a framework of fibers extending throughout the nuclear interior
Colpidium
a freshwater protozoan that is covered by cilia beating 40 to 60 strokes a second
pectins
a gelatinous polysaccharide found in the primary cell wall of plant cells. Attracts and holds water, forming a gel that resists compression forces and helps keep the cell wall moist.
epistasis
a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus. A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited. One gene masks the expression of a different gene for a different trait
lac operon
a gene system whose operator gene and three structural genes control lactose metabolism in E. coli
maternal effect gene
a gene that, when mutant in the mother, results in a mutant phenotype in the offspring, regardless of the offspring's genotype; also called egg-polarity genes, were first identified in Drosophila melanogaster
tumor-suppressor genes
a gene whose protein product inhibits cell division, thereby preventing the uncontrolled cell growth that contributes to cancer. Can normally repair damaged DNA, make sure cells follow anchorage dependence, and are components of cell-signaling pathways that inhibit the cell cycle
proteoglycans
a glycoprotein consisting of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains attached, found in the extracellular matrix of animal cells. Make a network for collagen fibers to sit upon.
Tay Sachs disease
a lipid-digesting enzyme is missing or inactive, and the brain becomes impaired by an accumulation of lipids in the cells.
base-pair deletion
a loss of a nucleotide pair in a gene.
scintillation counter
a machine that records the flashes of light from scintillation fluid.
bicoid
a maternal effect gene that codes for a protein responsible for specifying the anterior end in Drosophila melanogaster
viral envelope
a membrane, derived from membranes of the host cell, that cloaks the capsid, which in turn encloses a viral genome. Contains host cell phospholipids and membrane proteins, as well as viral ones and enzymes.
centriole
a minute cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division. Not important for the formation of mitotic spindles. Plant cells lack them.
adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
a molecule in cells from which stored energy has been released.
guanosine diphosphate (GDP)
a molecule similar to ADP but containing the base guanine instead of adenine.
fetoscopy
a needle-thin tube containing a viewing scope and fiber optics is inserted into the uterus.
nuclear lamina
a netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope from the nuclear side of the envelope. Does not cover the pores.
G protein-coupled receptor
a plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of a G protein. It attaches a GTP to it and releases it. Each has seven alpha helices.
ultracentrifuge
a powerful centrifuge that is able to spin up to 130,000 rpm and apply forces up to 1 million g.
exocytosis
a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane. Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material
enzymatic membrane proteins
a protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution, In some cases, several of these in a membrane are organized as a team that carries out sequential steps of a metabolic pathway.
formin
a protein that directs the construction of microfilaments in yeast cells. A phosphorylation target of Fus3 kinase.
radioactive tracer
a radioactive material that is added to a substance so that its distribution can be detected later
signal transduction membrane proteins
a receptor may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a hormone. the external messenger may cause a shape change that relays the message to the inside (by binding to a cytoplasmic protein)
phenylketonuria (PKU)
a recessively inherited disorder, children cannot properly metabolize phenylalanine.
opium
a reddish-brown heavy-scented addictive drug prepared from the juice of the opium poppy, used as a narcotic and in medicine as an analgesic.
centrosome
a region where the cell's microtubules are initiated; contains a pair of centrioles which are at right angles. Contain 54 microtubules (9 sets times 3 microtubules times 2 centrioles). The single centrosome duplicates during interphase and remain together near the nucleus. They then move away as spindle microtubules grow out of them.
complete dominance
a relationship in which one allele is completely dominant over another. When the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.
calcium carbonate
a salt that encrusts chitin to harden it.
stearic acid
a saturated fatty acid
inositol trisphosphate (IP3)
a second messenger that functions as an intermediate btw certain signaling molecules and a subsequent second messenger, CA2+, by causing a rise in cytoplasmic CA2+ concentration. Diffuses through the cytoplasm after PIP2 is cleaved and activates a calcium pump
inquiry
a seeking for information or knowledge; an investigation; a question, query
signal peptide
a sequence of about 20 amino acids at or near the leading (amino) end of a polypeptide that targets it to the endoplasmic reticulum or other organelles in a eukaryotic cell. Is recognized by a SRP.
cotransport
a single ATP powered pump that transports one solute can indirectly drive the active transport of several other solutes in this mechanism as the solute that has been actively transported diffuses back passively through a transport protein its movement can be coupled with the active transport of another substance against its concentration gradient
corepressor
a small molecule that binds to a bacterial repressor protein and changes its shape, allowing it to switch an operon off
Tympanoctomys barrerae
a species of burrowing rodent that is tetraploid and has an unusually large sperm head
prophase II
a spindle apparatus forms. In the late phase, chromosomes, each still composed of two chromatids associated at the centromere, move toward the metaphase II plate.
capsule
a sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein that enable prokaryotes to adhere to their substrate or to other individuals in a colony. Some protect against dehydration and shield pathogenic prokaryotes from attacks by their host's immune system.
disulfide bridge
a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer
fructose
a structural isomer of glucose. Is a ketose.
porphyrin ring
a structure that consists of chlorophyll and mimics a phospholipid, except that it has one hydrocarbon tail; it fits into the thylakoid membrane, and is responsible for absorbing light; has magnesium at its center.
chorionic villus
a structure used during CVS since they proliferate so often and since the genotype for these cells will be the same later on.
Alfred H Sturtevant
a student of Morgan who constructed the first fenetic map.
middle lamella
a thin layer rich in pectins that sits between the primary walls of adjacent cells. Glues adjacent cells together.
cortical microfilaments
a three-dimensional network formed by microfilaments just inside the plasma membrane that helps support the cell's shape.
carrier proteins
a transport protein that holds onto their passengers and changes shape in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.
light microscope (LM)
a type of microscope in which visible light is passed through a specimen and then through glass lenses. The lenses refract the light in such a way that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eye, onto photographic film or a digital sensor, or onto a video screen.
chloroplast
a type of plastid used for photosynthesis; converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules.
channel proteins
a type of transport protein that functions by having a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel trhough the membrane
color blindness
a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors. Example of X-linked recessive trait
lytic cycle
a viral reproductive cycle in which copies of a virus are made within a host cell, which then bursts open, releasing new viruses
Edward B. Lewis
a visionary American biologist who, in the 1940s, first showed the value of the genetic approach to studying embryonic development in Drosophila. Discovered homeotic genes
biotin
a vitamin found in the minimal medium that Beadle and Tatum used for bread mold
Duroia hirsuta
a willowy flowering tree that makes up "devil's garden" in the Amazon rainforest because ants secrete formic acid to weed off other plants from growing.
lysines
acetyl groups are attached to these amino acids in histones during acetylation
transacetylase
acetylates lactose as it is taken up by the cell
citric acid cycle 7
addition of a water molecule to fumarate rearranges its bonds to make malate.
reduction
addition of electrons to another substance
252
adenoviruses have ___ identifiable protein molecules arranged in a polyhedral capsid
skeletal muscle cell
align in bands of orderly rows and contain many nuclei. Responsible for all voluntary muscle movements.
mutant type
alleles originated as changes in wild-type
succinyl CoA
alpha-ketoglutarate becomes this compound, which catalyzes substrate-level phosphorylation.
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+)
an acceptor that temporarily stores electrons from split H2O when light is absorbed by chlorophyll.
natural reservoir
an animal that holds human disease but does not usually display symptoms; bat from SARS
Biosphere-2
an area in Arizona in which the effects of varying the concentration of carbonate ions on the rate of calcification in the coral reef was tested.
pepsin
an digestive enzyme in the stomach that works best at a pH of 2
Jane Goodall
an ecologist famous for her work with the African Gombe chimpanzee, which she studied for over 30 years
trace elements
an element indispensable for life but required in extremely minimum amounts
guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
an energy transfer molecule similar to ATP that releases free energy with the hydrolysis of its terminal phosphate group.
lysozyme
an enzyme found in saliva and sweat and tears that destroys the cell walls of certain bacteria
beta-galactosidase
an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of lactose into monosaccharides
tyrosine kinase
an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to tyrosine
kinase
an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups
enolase
an enzyme that causes a double bond to form in the 2-phosphoglycerate by extracting a water molecule, yielding PEP. The electrons of the substrate are rearranged in such a way that the resulting phosphorylated compound has a very high potential energy, allowing step 10 to occur.
nucleosomal histone kinase-1 (NHK-1)
an enzyme that phosphorylates a specific amino acid on the tail of histone H2A
cysteine
an important sulfur-containing amino acid
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS)
an inherited disorder in which the absence of a single relay protein leads to abnormal bleeding, eczema, and a predisposition to infections and leukemia. The symptoms are thought to arise from immune system proteins.
glyceraldehyde
an initial breakdown product of glucose (C3H6O3). An aldose
galvanometer
an instrument for detecting and measuring small electric currents. Used in a spec-20.
centrifuge
an instrument that spins test tubes holding mixtures of disrupted cells at various speeds. At lower speeds, the pellet consists of larger components, and higher speeds yield a pellet with smaller components.
pore complex
an intricate protein structure that lines each nuclear pore and plays an important role in the cell by regulating the entry and exit of most proteins and RNAs, as well as large complexes of macromolecules.
allolactose
an isomer of lactose formed in small amounts from lactose. Acts as inducer of lac operon; binds to repressor, which causes it to fall off of operator, allowing for gene expression to occur
recombinant type
an offspring whose phenotype differs from that of the true-breeding P generation parents; also refers to the phenotype itself
parental type
an offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the true-breeding parental (P generation) phenotypes; also refers to the phenotype itself
coenzyme
an organic cofactor required for enzyme activity
ferrodoxin (Fd)
an organic molecule that receives the excited electron from the primary electron acceptor on photosystem 1 and brings it to NADP+ reductase
dihybrid
an organism heterozygous for two characters.
oleic acid
an unsaturated fatty acid
reductional division
another term for meiosis I: one cell which is diploid divides into 2 daughter cells, each of which is a haploid... this is due to the separation of whole replicated chromosomes and not chromatids during metaphas
3' to 5'
anticodons are written
negative gene regulation
any regulation of gene expression that has a negative effect of the expression of the gene; Inhibits transcription. Both the trp and lac operons exhibit this because when the repressors are in their active forms, transcription is off
van der Waals interactions
are individually weak and occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together.
glucose and carbon dioxide
are oxidized in cellular respiration
oxygen and water
are reduced in cellular respiration
allosteric activators
assist the enzyme by building the enzyme on a site other than the active site to boost the activity. The binding of this to a regulatory site stabilizes the shape that has functional active sites.
penicillin
blocks the active site of an enzyme that many bacteria use to make their cell walls
microRNAs (miRNAs)
can bind to complementary sequences on mRNA molecules either degrading the target mRNA or blocking its translation. They are formed from longer RNA precursors that fold back on themselves, forming one or more short, double-stranded hairpin structures, each held together by hydrogen bonds.
ATP hydrolysis
can cause changes in the shapes and binding affinities of proteins that can occur directly, through phosphorylation, or indirectly, via noncovalent binding of ATP and its hydrolytic products, as is the case of motor proteins that move vesicles.
class II mutant
can grow only on citruline or arginine
plasmids and transposons
candidates for the original sources of viral genomes
pentoses
carbohydrates with five carbon atoms
NADP+ reductase
catalyzes the addition of two electrons to NADP+ to form NADPH at the end of the second electron transport chain in the light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis
succinate
catalyzes the sixth step of the citric acid cycle, forming fumarate by its oxidation; this enzyme is covalently bound to FAD, and is an integral protein on the inner mitochondrial membrane
mitochondrial myopathy
causes weakness, intolerance of exercise, and muscle deterioration due to lack of working mitochondria
organic compounds + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + energy
cellular respiration
extracellular side
certain membrane proteins are attached to fibers of the ECM on this side
cell motility
changes in cell location and more limited movements of parts of the cell.
mutations
changes in the genetic information of a cell (or virus)
aquaporins
channel proteins that allow the passage of water molecules through the membrane very readily.
plasmodesmata
channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent plant cells
cytogenetic map
chart of a chromosome that locates genes with respect to chromosomal features distinguishable in a microscope
catalyst
chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction.
point mutations
chemical changes in a single base pair of a gene
M phase checkpoint
chromosomes are properly attached to the mitotic spindle and aligned before division. Anaphase blocked if chromatids are not properly assembled on the mitotic spindle
cisternal maturation model
cisternae of the Golgi actually move forward from the cis to trans face, carrying and modifying their cargo as they move. One hypothesis for how the Golgi apparatus achieves and maintains its polarized structure and how molecules move from one cisterna to another. This model views the cisternae as dynamic structures that mature from early to late by acquiring and then losing specific Golgi-resident proteins as they move through the Golgi stack with cargo. This model describes the Golgi as using molecular identification tags to sort out molecules.
glycogen phosphorylase
cleaves glucose from the nonreducing end of a glycogen branch producing glucose-1-phosphate
condensin
coats chromosomes at the end of prophase I and helps them condense
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
coenzyme that shuttles protons and electrons from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle to the electron transport chain, derived from riboflavin
3-Phosphoglycerate
comes from 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate. substrate-level phosphorylation. transfers a phosphate from 1,3-biphosphoglycerate to ADP, making ATP and this compound. reversible.
recruitment of chromatin-modifying proteins
common mechanism of repression in eukaryotes
NADH, FMN, FeS, Q
complex I of the ETC
FADH2, FAD, FES, Q
complex II of the ETC
Cyt b, FeS, Cyt c1, Cyt c
complex III of the ETC
Cyt a, Cyt a3,
complex IV of the ETC
hydrolytic enzyme
component of lysosomes that catalyze the breakdown of macromolecules by hydrolysis; are acid hydrolases in lysosomes that function best at acidic pH of 5
small nucleotide ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs)
composed of RNA and protein molecules, recognize the splice sites, join with additional proteins to form a spliceseome. Catalyze RNA splicing.
amino acid
compounds with a carboxyl and an amino group. Are found in their ionized form within the cell.
polyploidy
condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes
syndactyly, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, melanoma
consequences of failed apoptosis
fat
constructed from glycerol and fatty acids, which are assembled through dehydration reactions. Used for energy storage. Can store twice as much energy as a polysaccharide. Plants do not require this because they are relatively immobile, and do not need a compact storage for energy.
transduction
converts the signal to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response.
phosphodiester linkage
covalent bonds between phosphate group and carbon rings that join together the sugars of two nucleotides.
James Watson and Francis Crick
created the first model of DNA in 1953
anterior-posterior axis
defines the head (anterior) and rear (posterior)
-686 kcal/mol
delta G of glucose
enthalpy
delta H (change in __); the total energy
lysosome storage diseases
diseases in which the cells of the inflicted lack a functioning hydrolytic enzyme normally present in lysosomes. The result is that lysosomes become engorged with indigestible substrates, which interfere with other cellular activities. Example: Tay Sachs disease
50%
efficiency of photosynthesis
process of oxidative phosphorylation
electron transport and chemiosmosis
master regulatory genes
encode transcription factors that can sometimes target genes that encode for other transcription factors (in a cascade effect); ultimately encodes for proteins specific to corresponding cell
lacY
encodes the lactose permease, required for transport of lactose into the cell
troponin T gene
encodes two different (though related) proteins
energy payoff phase 4 (step 9)
enolase causes a double bond to form in 2-phosphoglycerate by extracting a water molecule, yielding PEP. The electrons of the substrate are rearranged in such a way that the resulting phosphorylated compound has a very high potential energy, allowing step 10 to occur.
cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)
enzyme to which cyclin binds during interphase and mitosis; triggers and controlls activities during the cell cycle
dehydrogenases
enzymes that remove a pair of hydrogen atoms (2 electrons, 2 protons) from the substrate, thereby oxidizing it. The enzyme delivers 2 electrons and 1 proton to NAD+. The other free hydrogen ion is released into the environment.
adipose cell
fat cells. They swell and shrink as fat is deposited and withdrawn from storage. When these cells form tissue, it cushions vital organs such as the kidneys, and the layer of fat beneath the skin insulates the body.
X-O system
females have 2 Xs, while males have only 1 X chromosome. Grasshoppers, cockroaches, and other insects use this system.
30-nm fiber
fiber created because of interactions between histone tails of one nucleosome and linker DNA
Pq
final electron carrier in the ETC of PS II.
trpE gene
first gene of trp operon, therefore first enzyme involved in forming tryptophan
iron-sulfur protein (Fe*S)
flavoprotein passes its electrons to this, which in turns passes its electrons to ubiquinone.
scintillation fluid
fluid that is added to test tubes that is excited by the radiation from the decay of new DNA, giving off flashes of light.
amniotic fluid
fluid within the amniotic sac that surrounds and protects the fetus
Hypothesis-Based Science
form of science that begins with a specific question and potential testable answers
independent assortment
formation of random combinations of chromosomes in meiosis and of genes on different pairs of homologous chromosomes by the passage according to the laws of probability of one of each diploid pair of homologous chromosomes into each gamete independently of each other pair during meiosis I.
refracting prism
formed by two flat surfaces at an angle to one another. (transparent wedge) prisms have a base and an apex. have no focal power. it deviates light passing through it but does not change its mergence.
fumarate
formed in the sixth step of the citric acid cycle via oxidation of succinate; this is the only step of the citric acid cycle that takes place on the inner membrane, rather than in the mitochondrial matrix
outer membrane
forms a boundary between mitochondrion and cytoplasm; helps define the inner membrane space
special pair of chlorophyll a
found in the reaction center complex, and accepts energy from light to boost their electrons to a higher energy level and to transfer it to the primary electron acceptor.
-53 kcal/mol
free energy change of NADH to oxygen.
Tetrahymena
free-living ciliate protozoa that can also switch from commensalistic to pathogenic modes of survival. It can self-splice.
desmosomes (anchoring junctions)
function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong sheets. Intermediate filaments made of study keratin proteins anchor them in the cytoplasm. They attach muscle cells to each other in a muscle.
cytochrome c
functions in mitochondrial electron transport in healthy cells but also as a cell death factor when released from mitochondria.
initiation
gene expression during translation most often occurs during the ___ stage.
HD
gene responsible for Huntington's
tubulin
globular protein subunit forming the hollow cylinder of microtubules. A dimer of alpha and beta tubulin.
maltose
glucose + glucose. Important for brewing beer.
energy investment phase 1 (step 1)
glucose enters the cell and is phosphorylated by the enzyme hexokinase, which transfers a phosphate group from ATP to the sugar. The charge of the phosphate group traps the sugar in the cell because the plasma membrane is impermeable to large ions. Phosphorylation also makes glucose more chemically reactive.
mosaic disease
grain diseases resulting from the destruction of chlorophyll and the formation of yellow spots; caused by virus
Engelmann's experiment
green alga grew in rows and arranged like a bacteria that uses oxygen for respiration so they will congregate where oxygen was high-(where photosynthesis was most active) so in the violent and blue light and some in the red light
p53 gene
guardian angel of the genome
fatty acid
has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length. The carbon at one end is part of a carboxyl group. Attached to this group is a long hydrocarbon chain
influenza virus
has an outer envelope studded with glycoprotein spikes. The genome consists of eight different RNA molecules, each wrapped in a helical capsid.
nuclear pore
holes in the nuclear envelope that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus
thyroid hormones
hormones produced by the thyroid gland primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism; are hydrophobic and are able to pass right through the membrane to be intracellular receptors.
Henrietta Lacks
human source of the widely distributed and essential HELA cells, taken from her uterine tumor.
proteoglycan complex
hundreds of proteoglycans attached noncovalently to a single long polysaccharide molecule
acyclovir
impedes herpesvirus reproduction by inhibiting the viral polymerase that synthesizes viral DNA.
J. Willard Gibbs
in 1878, the professor at Yale who defined a very useful function called the Gibbs free energy of a system.
sucrose-H+ cotransport
in a plant cell, is able to use the diffusion of H+ down its electrochemical gradient into the cell to drive the uptake of sucrose. The H+ gradient is maintained by an ATP-driven proton pump that concentrates H+ outside the cell, thus storing potential energy that can be used for active transport, in this case of sucrose. Thus, ATP indirectly provides the energy necessary for cotransport. (active transport
Z-W system
in birds, some fishes, and some insects; the sex chromosomes present in the egg (not the sperm) determine the sex of the offspring. fish, birds, butterflies (egg determines sex; males have ZZ, females ZW)
start point
in transcription, the nucleotide position on the promoter where RNA polymerase begins synthesis of RNA
cellular respiration
includes aerobic and anaerobic respiration, however, more closely tied with aerobic respiration due its major importance in organismal respiration.
potassium
increased levels of what ion is to blame for muscle fatigue and pain?
membrane fluidity
increases with the presence of more unsaturated hydrocarbon tails and decreases with the presence of more saturated hydrocarbon tails. It remains fluid as temperature decreases until it solidifies.
David Ehrhardt
investigated the role of microtubules in the cell cortex as they guided cellulose synthase as it deposited the fibrils. They found that by orienting cellulose deposition, microtubules affected the growth pattern of cells.
calcium ions
ions that are widely used as a second messenger, even more than cAMP, and many pathways work by increasing the concentration of these. Causes muscle cell contraction, secretion of certain substances, and cell division. In plant cells, a brief increase in these can cause the greening in response to light. Cells use these in both G-protein and receptor tyrosine kinase pathways.
Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
is a mitochondrial disease causing degeneration of retinal ganglion cell that leads to an acute or sub cute loss of central vision seen in 20s or 30s. Mutations affect oxidative phosphorylation.
xeroderma pigmentosum
is caused by an inherited defect in a nucleotide excision repair enzyme. Individuals are hypersensitive to sunlight; mutations in their skin cells caused by UV light are left uncorrected and cause skin cancer.
WAS protein
is located just beneath the cell surface and interacts with microfilaments of the cytoskeleton and with several components of signaling pathways regulating immune cell proliferation.
Caribbean
islands from which the ancestral finch of the Galapagos finches are thought to come from
enantiomer
isomers that are mirror images of each other
DNA ligase
joins 3' end of DNA that replaces primer to rest of leading strand and joins Okazaki fragments of lagging strand.
pigment
light-absorbing molecule used by plants to gather the sun's energy. It becomes the color that it reflects or transmits
steroid
lipids, including cholesterol, which are characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. They are hydrophobic and are able to pass through the plasma membrane and be an intracellular receptor.
thermophilic bacteria
live in hot springs, near volcanic vents, at the bottom of the sea. Have enzymes with higher optimal temperatures.
mitochondrial matrix
location of the citric acid cycle in eukaryotic cells.
metaphase
longest stage of mitosis
citric acid cycle 8
malate is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH and regenerating oxaloacetate.
XY
male sex chromosomes
myoD
mammalian gene regulatory protein that controls the differentiation of cells into muscle cells; is also a BHLH
consanguineous mating
mating between biological relatives
peripheral proteins
membrane proteins that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all; they are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane, often to exposed parts of integral proteins.
integral proteins
membrane proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer. The hydrophobic regions of them consist of one or more stretches of nonpolar amino acids usually coiled into alpha helices. the hydrophilic parts of the molecule are exposed to the aqueous solution on either side of the membrane. Some also have a hydrophilic channel through their center that allows for hydrophilic substances.
genomic imprint
methyl groups added to cytosine nucleotides of an allele
hairpin
miRNAs are formed from a single ______ in a precursor RNA.
attachment membrane proteins
microfilaments or other cytoskeleton elements may be noncovalently bound to these, a function that helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes the location of certain proteins. They can then coordinate extracellular and intracellular changes.
nonkinetochore microtubules
microtubule that connects with other microtubule for cell elongation during anaphase. Overlap each other extensively during metaphase. During anaphase, the region of overlap is reduced as motor proteins attached to the microtubules walk them away from one another, using energy from ATP.
Davson-Danielli model
model of the cell membrane in which the phospholipid bilayer is between two layers of protein. Problems are that not all membranes were the same thickness. Also, proteins in the membrane are not very soluble in water, which means that the model suggested their hydrophobic parts would be in aqueous surroundings.
allosteric inhibitors
modify the active site of an enzyme so that substrate binding is reduced/prevented. The binding of this stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme.
exon shuffling
molecular mechanism for the formation of new genes. 2 or more exons from different genes may be brought together or the same exon may be duplicated. Introns increase the probability of potentially beneficial crossing over
sickle cell disease
most common inherited disorder among people of African descent.
phosphatidylcholine
most common type of phospholipid in most cell membranes; has the small molecules choline attached to a phosphate as its hydrophilic head and two long hydrocarbon chains as hydrophobic tail
RNA
most plant viruses discovered have a ___ genome
dynein proteins
motor proteins that allow the cilia to move and beat in synchronous pattern. They attach the outer microtubule doublets together.
Pacman mechanism
motor proteins walk the chromosomes along the microtubules, which depolymerize at their kinetochore ends after the motor proteins have passed, in this process
nonreciprocal translocation
movement of a chromosome segment to a nonhomologous chromosome or region without any (or with unequal) reciprocal exchange of segments (less common)
motile cilia
moves material across the cell surface; beat in waves that sweep across the surface of an epithelium in the same direction, propelling materials like mucus, an egg cell, or cerebrospinal fluid. 9+2
mitochondrial genes
mutations in these effect ATP synthesis and are though to play a role in the normal ageing process, as well as diabetes and heart disease.
nondisjunction in meiosis I
n+1, n+1, n-1, n-1
nondisjunction in meiosis II
n+1, n-1, n, n
phytochemicals
non-essential, non-nutritive compounds from plants that contribute to health and may play a role in fighting chronic diseases. Are substances that plants produce naturally to protect themselves from harm
gel
nonmoving cortical cytoplasm
vg+
normal wings
20
number of amino acids
100-100000
number of times TTAGGG is repeated in telomeres in humans
dominant
oncogenes act as ___ alleles
small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)
one of multiple small, single-stranded RNA molecules generated by cellular machinery from a long, linear, double-stranded RNA molecule; it associates with one or more proteins in a complex that can degrade or prevent translation of an mRNA with a complementary sequence. It is also crucial to the forming of heterochromatin.
colorectal cancer
one of the best-understood types of cancer. Adenocarcinoma of the colon or rectum, or both
insulin-like growth factor 2 (Igf2)
one of the first imprinted genes to be identified. Although this growth factor is required for normal prenatal growth, only the paternal allele is expressed.
Golgi apparatus (body)
organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products. Has a cis face, which receives vesicles from the rough ER, and a trans face, which sends proteins back out.
mitochondrion
organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated.
peroxisome
organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product then converts it to water. Some use oxygen to break fatty acids down into smaller molecules which are then sent to the mitochondria. They can act in the liver to detox poisons by transferring hydrogen to oxygen. Then, all in the same compartment, the peroxisome breaks down hydrogen peroxide to turn it into water using a special enzyme. They do not bud from the endomembrane system, instead growing larger by incorporating proteins made in the cytosol, lipids made in the ER, and lipids made in itself. They contain a crsyalline core, which is a dense collection of enzyme molecules.
ether and chloroform
organic solvents used to denature proteins, by turning their hydrophobic regions to themselves.
dimerization
pairing of two receptor-hormone complexes, as when a signaling molecule binds two single receptor tyrosine kinase polypeptides together.
Fus3
phosphorylated in cascade and then activates the Formin (phosphorylating it) ...cell growth signaling from G protein
purple sulfur bacteria
photosynthetic; split H2S instead of H2O and produce S2 instead of O2 after going through photosynthesis. Uses cyclic electron flow.
mutagens
physical and chemical agents that interact with DNA to cause mutations
microsomes
pieces of plasma membranes and cells' internal membranes at the bottom of a test tube
hydrangea flowers
plants in which the norm of reaction is great due to acidity and aluminum content in soils
snapdragons
plants that exhibit incomplete dominance
chromoplasts
plastids that have pigments that give fruits and flowers their orange and yellow hues.
pre-mRNA
precursor mRNA; the first strand of mRNA produced by gene transcription that contains both introns and exons
shugoshin
present near centromere, prevents cohesion from being broken down by separase, stay to keep sister chromatids together when they compact and decompact in other phases
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
principal chemical compound that cell uses to store energy
descent with modification
principle that each living species has descended, with changes, from other species over time
polar microtubules
project toward the region where the chromosomes will be found during mitosis (the region between the two spindle poles. the ones that overlap play a role in seperation of the two poles by helping "push" them apart.
Domain Bacteria
prokaryotes, includes bacteria (one kingdom - Eubacteria which includes Cyanobacteria, blue-green algae)
CCG
proline
central vacuole
prominent organelle in older plant cells; functions include storage, breakdown of waste products, hydrolysis of macromolecules; enlargement of this is a major mechanism of plant growth. Acts like the lysosome found in animal cells. Develops from the coalescence of smaller vacuoles. Roles: Holds reserves of important organic compounds, main repository of inorganic ions, acts as disposal sites for metabolic by-products, contain pigements that help attract insects to flowers, can contain compounds that are poisonous or unpalatable to animals, and has a major role in the growth of plant cells, since the growth of the vacuole does not affect the investment of new cytoplasm the plant cell must expend energy on.
fimbriae
protein attachment structures on the surface of some prokaryotes. (look like hairs)
cohesins
protein complexes that attach the two sister chromatids together all along their lengths.
BRCA1
protein found only in the nucleus that is activated when DNA is damaged- stops DNA replication- binds to Rap80 and initiates repair. Gene associated with breast cancer
tissue-specific proteins
proteins are found only in a specific cell type and give the cell its characteristic structure and function; first evidence of differentiation is the appearance of mRNAs for these proteins; different sets of gene are sequentially expressed in a regulated manner as new cells arise form divisions of their precursors
enzymatic proteins
proteins important for selective acceleration of chemical reactions. Example: digestive enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis to break up food.
structural proteins
proteins important for support. Example: the silk fibers made by insects and spiders. Collagen, elastin, and keratin.
integrins
proteins in plasma membrane that connect both to extracellular matrix and cytoskeleton of animal cells. Membrane proteins with two subunits, bind to the ECM on one side and to associated proteins attached to microfilaments on the other, which can transmit signals between the cell's external and internal environment which results in cellular behavior.
specific transcription factors
proteins that bind to control elements associated with a particular gene and, once bound, either increase or decrease transcription of that gene. Account for the majority of transcription of particular genes
DNA replication complex
proteins that participate in DNA replication form a 'DNA replication machine' that is stationary during the replication process. Primase acts as a molecular brake and two DNA polymerase molecules reel in DNA.
gap junctions (communicating junctions)
provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another and consist of membrane proteins that surround a pore through which ions, sugars, amino acids, and others may pass. They are necessary for communication between cells in heart muscle and in animal embryos.
glycerol phosphate
provides backbone for phospholipids
spontaneous mutations
random change in DNA due to errors in replication that occur without known cause
50
rate of elongation of DNA pol I is ___ per second in humans.
500
rate of elongation of DNA pol III is ___ per second in bacteria
3:1
ratio of cross between two heterozygotes
glucose and oxygen
raw materials for cellular respiration and the products of photosynthesis
carbon dioxide and water
raw materials for photosynthesis and the products of cellular respiration
2-Phosphoglycerate
reaction 8 of glycolysis 3-phosphoglycerate gets converted into what?
isomerase
rearranges bonds within a molecule to form an isomer. Used in the 5th step of the energy investment phase of glycolysis to convert dihydroxyacetone phosphate to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, which in fact becomes two molecules of the latter since the equilibroum lies in that direction.
deductive reasoning
reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.) (general to specific)
cis face
receiving side of Golgi apparatus. Located near the ER.
G protein-coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, ion channel receptors
receptors in the plasma membrane, are water-soluble
orbitals
regions around the nucleus in which given electron or electron pair is likely to be found
regulation of transcription initiation
regulate initiation of transcription through 1: activators/repressors 2: gene accessibility through histone modification
transcription initiation
regulation of ______ in eukaryotes involves proteins that bind to DNA and either facilitate or inhibit binding of RNA polymerase.
cytoskeleton
reinforces cell's shape, functions in cell's movement; components are made of protein. Includes microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
dephosphorylation
removal of a phosphate group from a protein residue, usually stops protein activity; determines the duration of a cellular response by turning it off
silencing
repressors recruting proteins that deacetylate histones, leading to reduced transcription
translocation
requires GTP. the ribosome translocates the tRNA in the A site to the P site. At the same time, the empty tRNA in the P site is moved to the E site, where it is released. The mRNA moves along with its bound tRNAs, bringing the next codon to be translated into the A site.
bound ribosomes
ribosomes attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope. These generally make proteins for insertion into membranes, packaging within certain organelles, or for secretion.
free ribosomes
ribosomes suspended in the cytosol. They are unattached to any membrane; site of synthesis of cytosolic and organellar proteins.
Chargaff's rules
rule founded by a biochemist in the 1950s which stated that the amount of guanine always equals the amount of cytosine and the amount of adenine in DNA always equals the amount of thymine
Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod
scientists who discovered the operon model in 1961. The lac operon was what they studied.
George Beadle and Boris Ephrussi
scientists who postulated that in Drosophila, each of the mutations affecting eye color blocks pigment synthesis at a specific step by preventing production of the enzyme that catalyzes that step.
Walter S. Sutton/Theodor Boveri
scientists who proposed the chromosome theory of inheritance around 1902
Hugh Davson and James Danielli
scientists who suggested in 1935 that the membrane had to consist of a sandwich of phospholipid bilayer between two layers of proteins.
egg shell
secreted as the egg passes through the shell gland (uterus). composed of calcareous salts and is porous allowing exchange of gases between embryo and the outside air
a factor
secreted by a cells that bind at alpha receptors
alpha factor
secreted by alpha cells that bind at a receptors
telomeric DNA
sequences (terminal heterochromatic caps) consist of short tandem repeats that contribute to the stability and intergrity of the chromosome. Prevent staggered ends of the daughter molecule from activating the cell's systens for monitoring DNA damage
paracrine signaling
short distance signalling; signal generated by one cell and interacts with receptors on neighbouring cells, transported by diffusion through interstitial fluid
anaphase
shortest stage of mitosis, lasting only a few minutes, occurs when cohesin proteins are cleaved and they part suddenly, the daughter chromosomes move toward opposite parts of the cell (centromere first), cell elongates as the nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen. At the end, the two ends of the cell has equivalent and complete collections of chromosomes.
dihydroxyacetone
simplest ketone sugar. An initial breakdown product of glucose (C3H6O3). A ketose.
Protists
single-celled or simple multicellular eukaryotic organisms that generally do not fit in any other kingdom
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
single-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose
second messengers
small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions that, due to their nature, can readily diffuse throughout the cell. Amplify the signal and transfer it from the receptor to other proteins that carry out the response
cell-cell recognition membrane proteins
some glycoproteins serve as ID tags that are specifically recognized by membrane proteins of other cells.
ultrasound technique
sound waves are used to produce an image of the fetus by a simple noninvasive procedure.
Golgi enzymes
special enzymes that modify carb portions of glycoproteins by removing and substituting sugars to produce a large variety of carbohydrates.
enzymes
specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions in cells
glyoxysomes
specialized peroxisomes that are found in the fat-storing tissues of plant seeds. These organelles contain enzymes that initiate the conversion of fatty acids to sugar, which the emerging seedling uses as a source of energy and carbon until it can produce its own sugar by photosynthesis.
cytochrome complex
stands in between PS II and PS and uses the lost energy from the electrons to pump hydrogen ions into the thylakoid, which is used for ATP synthesis.
glycolysis, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis
steps of cellular respiration
acetyl CoA to oxaloacetate to citrate to isocitrate to alpha-Ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA to succinate to fumarate to malate to oxaloacetate.
steps of citric acid cycle
CO2 and Rubisco and RuBP to short-lived intermediate to 3-Phosphoglycerate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to G3P to RuBP
steps of the Calvin cycle
platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
stimulates fibroblasts and smooth muscles to multiply and repair the damaged blood vessels. Signals cells by binding at a receptor tyrosine kinase.
rumen
stomach chamber in cows and related animals in which symbiotic bacteria digest cellulose
nucleolus
structure involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more of these. Recent studies implicate their importance in cell division.
Christiane Nusslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus
studied segment formation and uncovered genes responsible for segmentation in Drosophila. Looked for recessive mutations, which could propagate in in heterozygous flies.
missense
substitution mutations are usually ___ mutations
catalytic cycle
substrate + enzyme --> enzyme substrate complex --> product + enzyme
dATP
supplies adenine to DNA and is similar to the ATP of energy metabolism, except has a deoxyribose sugar instead of a ribose sugar
3.4 nm
the DNA helix makes one full turn every ___ along its length
Hans Krebs
the German-British scientist who was largely responsible for working out the citric acid cycle pathway in the 1930s.
attachment
the T4 phage uses its tail fibers to bind to specific receptor sites on the outer surface of an E. coli cell
formic acid
the acid secreted by ants in the Amazon rainforest to protect "devil's garden"
methyl
the addition of ___ groups to histone tails can promote condensation of chromatin
2 months
the age in the anatomical signs of sex emerge in an embryo
ethanol
the alcohol present in alcoholic beverages
sugar-phosphate backbone
the alternating chain of sugar and phosphate to which DNA and RNA nitrogenous bases are attached
alternation of generations
the alternation between the haploid gametophyte and the diploid sporophyte in a plant and algae's life cycle
N-terminus
the amino acids in which side of a histone are accessible for chemical modification
histone tail
the amino end of each histone that extends outward from the nucleosome
2m
the approximate length of human DNA in a cell
1.2 million
the approximate number of proteins in which the amino acid sequence is known.
100 nm
the average diameter of a nuclear pore
2-5 micrometers
the average diameter of chloroplasts
8-12 nm
the average diameter of intermediate filaments
20-40 nanometers
the average distance between each lipid bilayer in the nuclear envelope
2-20 micrometers
the average length of a cilium
10-200 micrometers
the average length of a flagellum
150
the average length of a snRNA in nucleotides
5 micrometers
the average length of the nucleus
27000
the average number of base pairs in a transcription unit
1-3
the average number of crossing over events.
20-50
the average number of times a cell divides until it ages and dies.
400
the average sized protein with this many amino acids
0.34 nm
the bases are stacked ___ apart in the DNA helix
mechanical work
the beating of cilia, contraction of muscle cells, and the movement of chromosomes
vitalism
the belief that living things are distinctive because of a vital force inside them that is responsible for growth and movement
109.5
the bond angle when carbon makes 4 single bonds
hydrogen bonds
the bonds that hold DNA paired bases together
hydrogen peroxide
the by-product peroxisomes make before turning it to water.
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
the carbohydrate produced directly from the Calvin cycle is not glucose, but this 3-carbon sugar. For the net synthesis of one molecule, the Calvin cycle must take place 3 times.
pinocytosis
the cell gulps droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles. It is not the fluid itself that is needed, but the molecules dissolved in the droplets. It is nonspecific.
Ced-3
the chief caspase in the nematode
Vibrio cholerae
the cholera bacterium
black
the color seen when an object absorbs all wavelengths
violet/blue-green
the colors that carotenoids absorb
violet-blue/red
the colors that chlorophyll absorbs
mitochondrial matrix
the compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle, as well as ribosomes and DNA
transcription initiation complex
the completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase bound to a promoter
10^-7 M
the concentration of each ion in pure water
CAP
the concentration of this controls the rate of transcription of the lac gene
free water concentration
the concentration of water not attracted to hydrophilic solute molecules.
0.25 micrometers
the diameter of a cilium and flagellum
7 nm
the diameter of a microfilament
78
the diploid number for dogs
8
the diploid number for fruit flies
cytochromes
the electron transferring proteins that contain heme groups. Each are a different protein with a slightly different electron-carrying heme group.
triose phosphate dehydrogenase
the enzyme that converts glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate into 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate and produces 2 NADH
chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
the examination of cells retrieved from the chorionic villi. A physician inserts a narrow tube through the cervix into the uterus and suctions out a tiny sample of tissue from the placenta. Way better than amniocentesis. Not useful for tests requiring amniotic fluid.
differential gene expression
the expression of different genes by cells with the same genome; differences between cell types are not due to different genes, but due to differential gene expresison
first messenger
the extracellular signaling molecule that binds to the membrane receptor
acetaldehyde and pyruvate
the final electron acceptor in fermentation
stroma
the fluid outside the thylakoids, which contains the chloroplast DNA and ribosomes as well as enzymes.
1/400
the fraction of African-Americans with sickle cell disease
1.5%
the fraction of DNA that codes for protein
1/25
the fraction of European cystic fibrosis carriers
1/400
the fraction of babies born with polydactyly
3/4
the fraction of emerging viruses that emerge from animals
1/25000
the fraction of people who have achondroplasia
cdc2
the gene and related kinase whose concentrations fluxed synchronously in the yeast Paul Nurse studied.
telomerase
the gene for this enzyme makes cancer cells immortal since there is no limit to how much they can divide.
1600s
the general century when microscopes were refined,
8
the genome of an influenza virus consists of ___ different RNA molecules, each wrapped in a helical capsid.
higher
the greater the distance between loci, the ____ the recombination frequency
CH3
the group attached to the porphyrin ring that is found in chlorophyll a.
CHO
the group attached to the porphyrin ring that is found in chlorophyll b.
GTP
the hydrolysis of this compound is used to power translation.
histone code hypothesis
the hypothesis that the pattern of histone modification acts much like a language or code in specifying alterations in chromatin structure. Modifications of histone tails facilitates binding of specific proteins to chromatin to perform distinct functions (transcription, replication, repair...) The hypothesis that transcription of DNA is regulated in part by specific chemical modifications to histone proteins
1/2500
the incidence of cystic fibrosis in Europeans
P site
the initiator tRNA is in this site
ER lumen
the inner portion of the ER; aka cisternal space.
acetate
the ionized form of acetic acid, the remaining two-carbon fragment after the carboxyl group is removed in the citric acid cycle turns into this.
lactate
the ionized form of lactic acid. Excess lactate is carried by the blood to the liver cells where it is converted to pyruvate. Appears to enhance muscle performance
hemoglobin
the iron-containing protein of vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body.
ubiquinone (Q/coenzyme Q/CoQ)
the iron-sulfur protein passes electrons to this compound, a small hydrophobic electron carrier that is the only member of the ETC that is not a protein.
isocitrate
the isomer of citrate that is oxidized to alpha-Ketoglutarate
100-200
the length (in nucleotides) of a human Okazaki fragment
1,000-2,000
the length (in nucleotides) of an E. coli Okazaki fragment
0.25 micrometers
the length of a centriole
plasma membrane
the location of electron transport and chemiosmosis in prokaryotes
cytosol
the location of glycolysis
stroma
the location of the Calvin cycle
mitochondrial inner membrane
the location of the ETC in eukaryotes
plasma membrane
the location of the ETC in prokaryotes
cytosol
the location of the citric acid cycle in prokaryotes
chromosome 4
the locus of HD is located at the tip of this chromosome
metaphase
the longest stage of mitosis, lasting about 20 min, asters have grown and are in contact with plasma membrane, the centrosomes are now at opposite poles, metaphase plate forms, kinetochore microtubules attach from opposite poles.
oxidation
the loss of electrons from a substance
alpha-globin and beta-globin
the mRNAs for the hemoglobin polypeptides in developing red blood cells that are usually stable.
caspase
the main proteases responsible for enzymatic cell death in apoptosis by activating proteases and endonucleases
crystallin
the main protein of lenses
carbohydrate A
the marker on red blood cells with symbol I^A.
carbohydrate B
the marker on red blood cells with symbol I^B
pellet
the mass of cellular components that have settled at the bottom of a test tube after being centrifuged. The longer it has been centrifuged, the smaller the components are in the pellet.
10^14 kg (100 billion tons)
the mass of cellulose plants produce in a year
system
the matter under study
1,000,000 g
the maximum force of gravity an ultracentrigue can apply.
130000
the maximum number of rpm an ultracentrifuge can spin.
resolution
the measure of clarity of the image; it is the minimum distance two points can be separated and still be distinguished as two points.
entropy
the measure of disorder or randomness
unsaturated hydrocarbon tails
the membrane remains fluid to a lower temperature if it is rich in phospholipids with _______.
activation energy
the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction
glucose-6-phosphate
the molecule that hexokinase catalyzes to convert glucose to by adding a phosphate group
cystic fibrosis
the most common lethal genetic disease in the US
aerobic respiration
the most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.
diffusion
the movement of molecules of any substance so that they spread out evenly into the available space. In the absence of other forces, a substance will diffuse from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated. It is spontaneous.
CH2O
the multiple of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen in every carbohydrate
2 ATP + 2 NADH
the net energy yield from glycolysis per glucose molecule
3'
the new DNA strand will start from this end of the RNA primer.
turgid
the normal state of a plant cell in a hypotonic solution
8500
the number of 3D protein shapes known.
2
the number of ATP produced by the citric acid cycle per glucose molecule
13700
the number of Drosophila genes
705
the number of F2 plants that had purple flowers
224
the number of F2 plants that had white flowers
4
the number of chromosomes in a fruit fly sex cell
8
the number of chromosomes in a fruit fly somati cell
23
the number of chromosomes in a human sex cell
46
the number of chromosomes in a human somatic cell
78
the number of genes on the Y chromosome
1200
the number of genes responsible for pattern formation in Drosophila
120
the number of genes responsible for segmentation in Drosophila
24
the number of hours a particular human cell may undergo one division.
4-6
the number of hours the G2 phase usually takes
10-12
the number of hours the S phase might occupy.
1 million
the number of insect species
150 million
the number of kilometers sunlight travels to reach Earth.
10
the number of layers of base pairs in every full turn of the DNA helix
1/3500
the number of males affected by DMD in the US
38
the number of molecules of ATP the cell makes when each molecule of glucose is degraded to carbon dioxide and water by respiration.
3
the number of molecules of rRNA in bacteria
4
the number of molecules of rRNA in eukaryotes
9
the number of neuraminidases
3 billion
the number of nucleotides in a set of chromosomes
5-10
the number of nucleotides long an RNA primer is.
290,000
the number of plant species
2^n
the number of possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes in the resulting gametes.
3
the number of stop codons
45
the number of tRNAs
20
the number of triangular facets in a icosahedron
52,000
the number of vertebrate species
2.7 billion
the number of years ago appreciable amounts of oxygen existed.
475 million
the number of years ago plants moved onto land
3.5 billion
the number of years the oldest known fossils of bacteria date back to
cortex
the outer cytoplasmic layer of a cell, which has the semisolid consistency of a gel due to microfilaments
radial spoke
the outer microtubule doublets and the two central microtubules are held together by flexible cross-linking proteins, including the ___
5
the pH in the thylakoid space
6-8
the pH range in which enzymes work best in
7.2
the pH within a cell.
abdomen
the part of an animal body located between the thorax (chest) and pelvis (hips); the hind section of an insect or spider's body
thorax
the part of the body of an animal that is between the neck or head and the abdomen (midbody, from which legs and wings extend)
arm
the part of the chromatid on either side of the centromere
combination
the particular ____ of control elements in an enhancer associated with a gene turns out to be more important than the presence of a single unique control element in regulating transcription of the gene.
90%
the percentage of ATP generated by respiration
26.0%
the percentage of E. coli DNA nucleotides that have base A
15%
the percentage of colorectal cancers due to inheritance
30.3%
the percentage of human DNA nucleotides that have base A
90%
the percentage of interphase in the cell cycle.
synthesis of viral genomes and proteins
the phage DNA directs production of phage proteins and copies of the phage genome by host enzymes, using components within the cell.
cytosine
the phage DNA is protected from breakdown because it contains a modified form of ___ not recognized by the enzyme
release
the phage directs production of an enzyme that damages the bacterial cell wall, allowing fluid to enter. The cell swells and finally bursts, releasing 100-200 phage particles.
T2
the phage used by Hershey and Chase to infect E. Coli bacteria
rhodopsin
the pigment in rod cells that causes light sensitivity; changes from a cis to a trans isomer in vision
triploid
the ploidy of bananas
hexaploid
the ploidy of wheat
cross-pollination
the pollination of the pistil of one flower with pollen from the stamen of a different flower of the same species
elongation
the polymerase moves downstream, unwinding the DNA and elongating the RNA transcript 5' to 3'. In the wake of transcription, the DNA strands re-form a double helix.
free energy
the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system.
hydronium ion
the positive ion formed when a water molecule gains a hydrogen ion
chemical energy
the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
cell differentiation
the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function.
transformation
the process that converts a normal cell to a cancer cell. Most cells are eradicated, but some escape and can form a tumor.
heme group
the prosthetic group of a cytochrome that has an iron atom that accepts and donates electrons.
keratin
the protein of hair, horns, feathers, and other skin appendages.
MyoD
the protein that causes muscle cell differentiation
transport work
the pumping of substances across membranes against the direction of spontaneous movement
chemical work
the pushing of endergonic reactions
phosphorus
the radioactive isotope of this element was used to tag DNA in one batch of T2
sulfur
the radioactive isotope of this element was used to tag protein in one batch of T2
-50 to -200 mV
the range of membrane potentials for cells
1:1
the ratio of a cross between heterozygote and homozygous recessive, when half are recessive and 1/2 are dominant
magnification
the ratio of an object's image size to its real size
precursor
the raw material that starts at a metabolic pathway
variety, short generation time, large number of offspring
the reasons Mendel worked with peas.
concentration gradient
the region along which the density of a chemical substance decreases. Represents potential energy and drives diffusion.
hot spots
the regions of an organ that are most chemically active at the time, seen in PET.
trpR
the regulatory gene for the trp operon. it encodes a repressor protein that is active when bound to the effector
directly proportional
the relationship between frequency of flashes and radioactive tracer present.
hydrogenated vegetable oil
the result when unsaturated fats have been synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen. Examples are peanut butter and margarine
homogenate
the resulting mixture of tissue and cells that have been homogenized. Used in cell fractionation.
terminal electron acceptor
the role of oxygen in the electron transport chain of ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation is to be the...
genetics
the scientific study of heredity and variation
Hiroyasu Itoh
the scientist who proved that ATP synthesis occurred when the rotor turned in the opposite direction of that for ATP hydrolysis.
energy payoff phase
the second phase of glycolysis when when ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation and NAD+ is reduced to NADH by electrons released from the oxidation of glucose.
N-terminus
the side of a peptide chain/protein that ends in an amino group
anaphase II
the sister chromatids are finally separated at their centromeres and pulled to opposite sides of the cell.
inner membrane
the site of of electron transport and chemiosmosis
telophase
the stage in mitosis in which the two daughter nuclei form, nuclear envelope arise from fragments of the parent cell's nuclear envelope and other portions of the endomembrane system. Nucleoli reappear, chromosomes become less condensed, mitosis is complete
prophase
the stage of mitosis in which chromatin fibers become condensed, nucleoli disappear, sister chromatids form and cohere, mitotic spindle begins to form, centrosomes move away from each other.
prometaphase
the stage of mitosis in which the nuclear envelope fragments, the microtubules from each centrosome invade nuclear area, chromosomes become more condensed, kinetochores form, kinetochore microtubules form (jerks sister chromatids), nonkinetochore microtubules interact with those from the opposite pole of the spindle.
AUG
the start codon; also translates into Met
condensed
the state of DNA in chromosome versus existing as chromatin
plasmolyzed
the state of a plant cell in a hypertonic solution
flaccid
the state of a plant cell in an isotonic solution
shriveled
the state of an animal cell being placed in a hypertonic solution
lysed
the state of an animal cell being placed in a hypotonic solution
normal
the state of an animal cell being placed in an isotonic solution
lac repressor
the state of what (with or without allolactose) determines whether or not transcription of the lac gene occurs at all.
5
the step of the citric acid cycle that produces ATP
6
the step that takes place in the inner membrane during TCA, also makes FADH2
coding strand
the strand of DNA that is not used for transcription and is identical in sequence to mRNA, except it contains uracil instead of thymine
recovery stroke
the stroke cilia use to bend and sweep
power stroke
the stroke cilia use to move forward
alpha keratin
the structural protein of hair that has alpha helices over most of their length.
basal body
the structure just beneath the cell surface to which microtubules are anchored in a cilium. At this surface, the doublets join with another microtubule to form triplets. The two central microtubules terminate above the basal body. It is structurally similar to a centriole, and turns into one when a sperm cell enters the egg.
ribose
the sugar found in RNA.
mass number
the sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus
w+
the symbol for a wild type for red eye color in drosophila flies
i
the symbol used to denote no presence of carbohydrate as a marker on red blood cells.
X-Y system
the system of sex determination which operates in mammals; the sex of an offspring depends on whether the sperm cell contains an X chromosome or a Y
hydrophobic tail
the tails of phospholipids that do not like interacting with water, and have kinks.
reception
the target cell's detection of a signaling molecule coming from outside the cell. A chemical signal is detected when the signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein located at the cell's surface or inside the cell.
complementary
the term used to describe how the DNA base sequences pair, they fashion themselves in opposite directions.
1960s
the time in which the Davson-Danielli model was accepted as the structure of the plasma membrane and the cell's internal membranes.
isotonic
the tonicity of seawater
64
the total number of codons
metabolism
the totality of an organism's chemical reactions
heredity
the transmission of traits from one generation to the next
10 mL
the volume of amniotic fluid extracted during amniocentesis
14-16
the week number amniocentesis is used
8-10
the weeks in which CVS can be performed
1.7 x 10^-24 g
the weight of a neutron/proton
700 nm
the width of a chromatid
1925
the year in which E. Gorter and F. Grendel reasoned that cell membranes must be phospholipid bilayers.
1935
the year in which Hugh Davson and James Danielli proposed the sandwich model for phospholipid bilayers
1915
the year membranes isolated from red blood cells were analyzed and found to have lipids and proteins
1928
the year we can trace back the discovery of the genetic role of DNA
water birds
these animals have been found to carry viruses with all possible combinations of H and N
plant variegation
these coloration patterns are due to mutations in plastid genes that control pigmentation. In most plants, a zygote receives all its plastids from the cytoplasm of the egg and none from the sperm, which contributes more than a haploid set of chromosomes. Half of the plastids are wild and half are mutant.
alpha and beta chains
these polypeptide subunits, which consist primarily of alpha-helices, are found in hemoglobin as part of its quaternary structure.
phenylpyruvate
this compound is a by-product of phenylalanine that accumulates as more of it enters a PKU patient, causing retardation.
H1
this histone ties DNA-histone nucleosome beads and linker DNA into 30-nm fiber
substrate-level phosphorylation
this mode of ATP synthesis occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP; rather than adding an inorganic phosphate to ADP as in oxidative phosphorylation.
calcium pump
this pump keeps the concentration of calcium low, and ensures that even a small change will lead to a massive change within the cell, like releasing a neurotransmitter. Uses active transport.
A
this/these types of flu strains infect animals
B and C
this/these types of flu strains infect only humans
assembly
three separate sets of proteins self-assemble to form heads, tails, and tail fibers. The phage genome is packaged inside the capsid as the head forms.
reception, transduction, response
three stages of cell signaling
initiation, elongation, termination
three stages of transcription
longitudinal section
tissue that is visible along its long axis
polymerize
to grow longer, as when the mitotic spindle grows longer by adding more tubulin.
sickle cell trait
trait that gives explosed people to malaria decrease their changes of getting it
chemotherapy
treatment of malignancies, infections, and other diseases with chemical agents that destroy selected cells or impair their ability to reproduce. Uses radiation to destroy DNA, which cannot be recovered in cancer cells. Can affect otherwise healthy, rapidly dividing cells and cause unwanted side effects.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
type of RNA that associates with proteins to form ribosomes. Created in the nucleolus.
Neurospora crassa
type of bread mold used by George Beadle and Edward Tatum for experimentation
George Beadle and Edward Tatum
using bread mold were able to discern that each gene appears to be responsible for making one enzyme that is needed for a biological process.
inducible operon
usually off, but can be stimulated (induced) when a specific small molecule interacts with a regulatory protein (example lac operon)
membrane carbohydrates
usually short, branched chains of fewer than 15 sugar units. Example: glycolipids
vg
vestigial wings
adenovirus
viruses that infect the respiratory tracts of animals. Has an icosahedral capside with a glycoprotein spike at each vertex. Does not have an envelope.
Peyton Rous
was involved in the discovery of the role of viruses in the transmission of certain types of cancer.
Archibald Garrod
was the first to suggest that genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes that catalyze specific chemical reactions in the cell.
DNA-bending protein
what bends the DNA during gene regulation, allowing activators to bind to general transcription factors and mediator proteins which ultimately helps RNA polymerase II find the promoter
phosphoglyceromutase
what enzyme converts 3-phosphoglycerate into 2-phosphoglycerate by relocating the remaining phosphate group of 3-phosphoglycerate, preparing the substrate for the next reaction.
virulent
what type of phage is T4?
temperate
what type of phage is lambda?
self-splicing
when RNA itself can catalyze the removal of its own intron
vertical transmission
when a plant inherits a viral infection from a parent, such as asexual propagation or sexual reproduction with infected seeds
horizontal transmission
when a plant is infected from an external source of the virus. Usually, plants must be damaged by wind, injury, or herbivores in order for the virus to get into the plant
sickle cell crises
when angular cells clog tiny blood vessels, impeding blood flow in people with sickle cell disease.
malate
when fumarate has water added to it
global translation
when stored mRNAs in eggs lack poly-A tails of sufficient length to allow translation initiation. At the appropriate time, a cytoplasmic enzyme adds more A nucleotides, prompting translation to begin. Involves the activation or inactivation of one or more protein factors required to initiate translation
9:3:3:1
when two genes are involved, this cross means two heterozygotes are parents
cross-linking
when two sulfhydryl groups react, forming a covalent bond. This helps stabilize protein structure.
parasite-host relationship
where one organism (parasite) lives off another organism (the host) causing harm or potential death.
histone phosphorylation
which of the following histone code chemical modifications could either increase of decrease transcription, depending on the gene and the amino acid being modified?
macrophages
white blood cells that help defend the body by engulfing and destroying bacteria and other invaders.
w
white eyes
dominant
widow's peak
Thomas Hunt Morgan
worked with fruit flies, he discovered that the flies had genes that were linked he used the terms wild for dominant and mutant for recessive. He created a chromosome map for the flies to show the order of genes
p53
(53,000 dalton product weight) This tumor suppressor gene causes cell cycle arrest in G1, providing time for DNA repair. If repair is successful, cells re-enter the cycle. If unsuccessful, apoptosis. Changes in activity result in cancer
ethylene
(C2H4) The only gaseous plant hormone. Among its many effects are response to mechanical stress, programmed cell death, leaf abscission, and fruit ripening.
HeLa cells
(Interview and Except from Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks) cells taken from the cervix of a women named Henrietta Lacks during her cancer treatment. These cells are the first known "Immortal" cells and have been used to cure diseases such as polio.
nitric oxide
(NO) a gas that is small enough to pass through the membrane, is a chemical signaling molecule.
bacteriorhodopsin
(a bacterial transport protein) Membrane protein that uses light energy to pump protons out of the cell generating a proton gradient which drives ATP synthesis in an archaean.
aspartic acid (Asp or D)
(acidic)
glutamic acid (Glu or E)
(acidic)
polynucleotide
(aka nucleic acid) A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain; nucleotides can be those of DNA or RNA. This contains a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases, or a nucleoside and a phosphate.
nucleotide
(aka nucleoside monophosphate) The building blocks of nucleic acids; they consist of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base: adenine thymine (in DNA), cytosine, guanine, or uracil (in RNA).
arginine (Arg or R)
(basic)
histidine (His or H)
(basic)
lysine (Lys or K)
(basic)
anabolic pathways
(biosynthetic pathways) Metabolic pathways that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
map unit
(centimorgans) The distance on a chromosome within which recombination occurs 1 percent of the time
aminoacyl tRNA
(charged tRNA) A tRNA with an amino acid attached. This is made by an animoacyl-tRNA synthetase specific to the amino acid being attached
chemical reaction
(chemistry) a process in which one or more substances are changed into others
heterotrophs
(consumers) An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products. Require at least one organic nutrient to make other organic compounds.
extranuclear genes
(cytoplasmic genes) Genes outside the nucleus, in the mitochondria and chloroplasts
Calvin cycle
(dark/light-independent cycle) reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars. The cycle begins by incorporating CO2 from the air into organic molecules already present in the chloroplast. Next, the fixed carbon is reduced to carbohydrate by the addition of electrons, which was acquired by NADPH during the light reactions. It also needs ATP. Takes place in the stroma. Returns ADP, Pi, and NADP+ to the light reactions.
transcription
(genetics) the organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA
translation
(genetics) the process whereby genetic information coded in messenger RNA directs the formation of a specific protein at a ribosome in the cytoplasm
confocal
(light microscopy) A fluorescent "optical sectioning" technique that uses a pinhole aperture to eliminate out-of-focus light from a thick sample, creating a single plane of fluorescence in the image, By capturing sharp images at many different planes, a 3-D reconstruction can be created.
phase-contrast
(light microscopy) Enhances contrast in unstained cells by amplifying variations in density within specimen, especially useful for examining living, unpigmented cells.
differential-interference-contrast (Nomarski)
(light microscopy) Like phase-contrast microscopy, uses optical modifications to exaggerate differences in density, making the image appear almost 3-D.
brightfield (unstained specimen)
(light microscopy) Passes light directly through specimen. Unless cell is naturally pigmented or artificially stained, image has little contrast.
brightfield (stained specimen)
(light microscopy) Staining with various dyes enhances contrast. Most staining procedures requires that cells be fixed (preserved).
lysogeny
(lysogenic replication cycle) Process of viral replication in which a bacteriophage enters a bacterial cell, inserts into the DNA of the host, and remains inactive. The phage is then replicated every time the host cell replicates its chromosome. Later, the phage may leave the chromosome.
mimivirus
(mimicking microbe) the largest virus yet discovered, with an icosahedral capsid 400 nm in diameter. Its genome contains 1.2 million bases. Some of its genes can code for products once though to be made only by cells, such as doing translation, DNA repair, protein folding, and polysaccharide synthesis
isoleucine (Ile or I)
(nonpolar)
leucine (Leu or L)
(nonpolar)
methionine (Met or M)
(nonpolar)
phenylalanine (Phe or F)
(nonpolar)
proline (Pro or P)
(nonpolar)
tryptophan (Trp or W)
(nonpolar)
valine (Val or V)
(nonpolar)
asparagine (Asn or N)
(polar)
cysteine (Cys or C)
(polar)
glutamine (Gln or Q)
(polar)
serine (Ser or S)
(polar)
threonine (Thr or T)
(polar)
tyrosine (Tyr or Y)
(polar)
first law of thermodynamics
(principle of conservation of energy) the energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
autotrophs
(producers) Organisms that are able to make their own food. They only need an inorganic compound as a carbon source for energy.
Ced-9
(product of gene ced-9): master regulator of apoptosis--brake in absence of signal promoting apoptosis; death signal overrides break
ras gene
(rat sarcoma) This gene codes for Ras protein, a G protein that relays a growth signal from a growth-factor receptor on the plasma membrane to a cascade of protein kinases that ultimately results in the stimulation of the cell cycle. Many ras oncogenes have a point mutation that leads to a hyperactive version of the Ras protein that can lead to excessive cell division.
G1 checkpoint
(restriction checkpoint) Is the most important checkpoint. If received a go-ahead, the cell will usually complete the G1, S, G2 and M phases and divide. If it does not receive a go-ahead, it enters G0 phase.
microtubules
(tubulin polymers) Compression-resisting. A hollow rod of the protein tubulin in the cytoplasm of all eukaryote cells that make up cilia, flagella, spindle fibers, and other cytoskeletal structures of cells. Wall consists of 13 columns of tubulin molecules. It maintains cell shape, cell motility, chromosome movements in cell division, and organelle movements. 25 nm diameter with 15 nm lumen. Separates chromosomes during cell division. These grow out of centrosomes.
standard conditions
1 M, 25 C, pH=7
kilocalorie
1000 calories
looped domain
30nm fibers that are gathered into a series of large, supercoiled loops/domains to form even thicker fibres; attached to nuclear proteins that are part of the nuclear matrix
triploidy
3N all chromosomes - plants are okay with odd number of chromosome sets
mole
6.022 x 10^23 objects
nuclease
A DNA cutting enzyme that excises damaged DNA.
phenobarbital
A barbiturate that is detoxed by smooth ER through its detoxitative actions.
chromosome theory of inheritance
A basic principle in biology stating that genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns.
ecosystem
A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
double bond
A chemical bond formed when atoms share two pairs of electrons
methylation
A chemical modification of DNA that does not affect the nucleotide sequence of a gene but makes that gene less likely to be expressed.
dehydration reaction
A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.
redox reactions
A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction
endergonic reaction
A chemical reaction that requires the input of energy in order to proceed.
reactant
A chemical substance that is present at the start of a chemical reaction
aneuploidy
A chromosomal aberration in which one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number due to nondisjunction in a gamete.
trisomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two due to nondisjunction in a gamete. 2n+1
Paramecium
A ciliated (it propels itself via cilia) protist that lives in fresh water and eats other tiny organisms for food. It uses a contractile vacuole and has a less fluid membrane in order to combat hypotonic conditions. It has an oral groove and food vacuoles.
exons
A coding region of a eukaryotic gene. Exons, which are expressed, are separated from each other by introns. Not all exons are expressed, such as the UTRs at the ends of the exons.
organ
A collection of tissues that carry out a specialized function of the body
molarity
A common measure of solute concentration, referring to the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
reaction-center complex
A complex of proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor. Located centrally in a photosystem, this complex triggers the light reactions of photosynthesis. Excited by light energy, the pair of chlorophylls donates an electron to the primary electron acceptor, which passes an electron to an electron transport chain. Includes a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules.
light-harvesting complex
A complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules (including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids bound to proteins) that captures light energy and transfers it to reaction-center pigments in a photosystem. Acts as an antenna for the reaction-center complex.
glycosidic linkage
A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.
polar covalent bond
A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally
trilobite
A crablike invertebrate that is the most common fossil of the Cambrian Period
checkpoint
A critical control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle.
monohybrid cross
A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits
cell cycle control system
A cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.
release factor
A cytoplasmic protein that binds to a stop codon where it appears in the A-site of the ribosome. They modify the peptidyl transferase activity of the ribosome, such that a water molecule is added to the end of the completed protein. This releases the finished protein from the final tRNA, and allows the ribosome subunits and mRNA to disassociate.
heme
A deep red, iron-containing compound, C34H32FeN4O4, that constitutes the nonprotein component of hemoglobin and certain other proteins.
Barr body
A dense object lying along the inside of the nuclear envelope in female mammalian cells, representing an inactivated X chromosome. RNA products made by XIST cover the X chromosome to inactivate it.
nucleoid
A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.
plaque
A deposit of fatty material on the inner lining of an arterial wall
follicle
A developing oocyte and all of its surrounding (supporting) cells.
spectrophotometer
A device that measures the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution in order to identify that solution or determine its concentration
pedigree
A diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family.
pathogen
A disease causing agent
disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage through dehydration synthesis.
picornavirus
A family of Type 4 virus. does not have an envelope. Includes rhinovirus (common cold); poliovirus, hepatitis A virus, and other enteric (intestinal) viruses
filovirus
A family of Type 5 viruses. Has an envelope. Includes Ebola virus (hemorrhagic fever)
orthomyxovirus
A family of Type 5 viruses. Has an envelope. Includes influenza virus
paramyxovirus
A family of Type 5 viruses. Has an envelope. Includes measles virus, mumps virus.
retrovirus
A family of Type 6 viruses. Has an envelope. Includes HIV (AIDS) and RNA tumor viruses (leukemia)
unsaturated fat
A fat that is liquid at room temperature and found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds. Due to the presence of a double bond in the skeleton, kinks (cis double bond) do not allow for compactness. Fishes and plants are unsaturated and their fat is known as oil.
saturated fatty acid
A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton.
unsaturated fatty acid
A fatty acid possessing one or more cis double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
A fission yeast that is distantly related to budding yeast. Cells divide into two by fission in the middle of the rod-shaped cell. A model system for basic eukaryotic cellular processes, such as the cell cycle control mechanisms Paul Nurse experimented with.
achondroplasia
A form of human dwarfism caused by a single dominant allele; the homozygous condition is lethal
collagen
A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers, found extensively in connective tissue and bone; the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom. Accounts for 40% of the protein in a human body.
plastid
A group of membrane‐bound organelles commonly found in photosynthetic organisms and mainly responsible for the synthesis and storage of food.
cyclins
A group of proteins whose function is to regulate the progression of a cell through the cell cycle and whose concentrations rise and fall throughout the cell cycle.
tissue
A group of similar cells that perform the same function.
pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
A group of three enzymes that decarboxylates pyruvate, creating an acetyl group and carbon dioxide. The acetyl group is then attached to coenzyme A to produce acetyl-CoA, a substrate in the Krebs cycle. In the process, NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
gametes
A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
character
A heritable feature that varies among individuals
Tay-Sachs disease
A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that leads to the accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth.
sickle cell disease
A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that results in the substitution of valine for glutamic acid in the hemoglobin protein; characterized by deformed red blood cells that can lead to numerous symptoms.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue.
blending hypothesis
A hypothesis proposed in 1800s to explain how offspring inherit traits from different parents.
T4 bacteriophage
A large virus with an icosahedral head with dsDNA and complex long tail which attaches and injects the viral DNA to the host cell; when entering a bacteria synthesis of DNA RNA Protein stops and phage mRNA begins. Infects E. coli.
photosystem I (PS I)
A light-capturing unit in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane or in the membrane of some prokaryotes; it has two molecules of P700 chlorophyll a at its reaction center.
cholesterol
A lipid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, including sex hormones. In vertebrates, this is synthesized in the liver.
flagellum
A long, hairlike structure that grows out of a cell and enables the cell to move. Usually 1-2 per cell. Moves in an undulating motion parallel to its axis
electronegativity
A measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract electrons
food vacuole
A membranous sac formed by phagocytosis of microorganisms or particles to be used as food by the cell. This fuses with a lysosome in order for the enzymes to digest the food.
familial hypercholesterolemia
A metabolic disorder that is caused by defective or absent receptors for LDLs on cell surfaces, that is marked by an increase in blood plasma LDLs and by an accumulation of LDLs in the body resulting in an increased risk of heart attack and coronary heart disease, and that is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait.
galactose
A monosaccharide derived from lactose. Helps with central nervous system development. Differs from glucose based on an asymmetric carbon
ATP synthase
A multisubunit complex with four main parts that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP. The enzyme that make ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
endomembrane system
A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles. Tasks include synthesis of proteins and their transport into membranes and organelles or out of the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids, and detoxification of poisons. Includes nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and the plasma membrane.
adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
A nucleotide with one phosphate group, that is found only in RNA, and contains the nitrogenous base adenine.
single bond
A pair of shared electrons
tetrad
A paired set of homologous chromosomes, each composed of two sister chromatids. Form during prophase I of meiosis.
activation domain
A part of a transcription factor required for the activation of target-gene transcription; it may bind to components of the transcriptional machinery or may recruit proteins that modify chromatin structure or both.
incomplete dominance
A pattern of inheritance in which two alleles, inherited from the parents, are neither dominant nor recessive. The resulting offspring have a phenotype that is a blending of the parental traits.
model
A pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show the structure or workings of an object, system, or concept
plasmolysis
A phenomenon in walled cells in which the cytoplasm shrivels and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall; occurs when the cell loses water to a hypertonic environment.
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants
A plant that uses crassulacean acid metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions. In this process, carbon dioxide entering open stomata during the night is converted to organic acids, which release CO2 for the Calvin cycle from the vacuoles in mesophyll cells during the day, when stomata are closed.
C3 plants
A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound (3-phosphoglycerate) as the first stable intermediate. Rice, wheat, and soybeans.
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
facilitated diffusion
A process in which substances are transported across a plasma membrane with the concentration gradient with the aid of carrier (transport) proteins; does not require the use of energy, but it makes the substances move faster.
feedback regulation
A process in which the output, or product, of a process regulates the very process itself.
calcification
A process occurring in dry regions where limited precipitation results in less leaching of soluble materials and thus the accumulation of calcium carbonates in the soil.
mitosis
A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. It conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei. Happens in somatic cells.
action spectrum
A profile of the relative performance of the different wavelengths in photosynthesis.
tolerance
A progressive decrease in a person's responsiveness to a drug.
gated channels
A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.
catabolite activator protein (CAP)
A protein that can bind to the CAP binding site upstream of certain prokaryotic operons, facilitating binding of RNA polymerase and stimulating gene expression. It is a transcription activator protein. It has a characteristic helix-turn-helix structure that allows it to bind to successive major grooves on DNA <-- This opens the DNA molecule up, allowing RNA polymerase to bind and transcribe the genes involved in lactose catabolism. cAMP and this is required for transcription of the lac operon.
glycoprotein
A protein with one or more carbohydrates covalently attached to it. The carbohydrates are attached to the proteins in the ER by specialized molecules built into the ER membrane. These are the most common secretory proteins.
element
A pure substance made of only one kind of atom
receptor tyrosine kinase
A receptor with enzymatic activity that can trigger more than one signal transduction pathway at once, helping the cell regulate and coordinate many aspects of cell growth and reproduction. Membrane receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosines. The head with the ligand-binding site points into the cytoplasm while the tyrosine tail spans the membrane. A signaling molecule creates the dimer, which then uses ATP to phosphorylate its tyrosines so that relay proteins bind to those sites to activate cellular responses. Absence of these can cause some types of cancer.
nucleotide excision repair
A repair system that removes and then correctly replaces a damaged segment of DNA using the undamaged strand as a guide.
asexual reproduction
A reproductive process that involves only one parent and produces offspring that are identical to the parent.
sexual reproduction
A reproductive process that involves two parents that combine their genetic material to produce a new organism, which differs from both parents.
linear electron flow
A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems (I and II) and produces ATP, NADPH, and O2. The net electron flow is from H2O to NADP+.
electron transport chain
A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP. It breaks the fall of electrons to oxygen into several energy-releasing steps so that there isn't one explosive reaction. Consists of a number of molecules, mostly proteins built into the inner membrane of mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membrane of aerobically respiring prokaryotes. Electrons removed from glucose are shuttled by NADH to the top, high energy end of the chain. At the bottom, O2 captures these electrons along with hydrogen nuclei, forming water.
scientific method
A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.
monosaccharide
A single sugar molecule such as glucose or fructose, the simplest type of sugar.
allosteric site
A site on an enzyme other than the active site, to which a specific substance binds, thereby changing the shape and activity of the enzyme.
initiation
A small ribosomal subunit binds to a molecule of mRNA. In a bacterial cell, the mRNA binding site on this subunit recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence on the mRNA just upstream of the start codon. An initiator tRNA, with the anticodon UAC, base-pairs with the start codon AUG. The arrival of a large ribosomal subunit completes the initiation complex. Initiation factors are required to bring all the translation components together. GTP provides the energy for the assembly. The initiator tRNA is in the P site; the A site is available to the tRNA bearing the next amino acid.
plasmid
A small, circular section of extra DNA that confers one or more traits to a bacterium and can be reproduced separately from the main bacterial genetic code.. Candidate for the original source of viral genomes.
buffer
A solution that minimizes changes in pH when extraneous acids or bases are added to the solution. Solutions that contain a weak acid and its corresponding base
alpha carbon
A special type of asymmetric atom. Any carbon attached directly to a carbonyl carbon. Central carbon atom in an amino acid. Movement can only occur around this in a peptide bond. Its four partners are an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain.
initiator tRNA
A special type of transfer ribonucleic acid (RNA) that initiates protein synthesis by binding to the amino acid methionine and delivering it to the small ribosomal subunit.
primary electron acceptor
A specialized molecule sharing the reaction center with the pair of reaction-center chlorophyll a molecules; it accepts an electron from one of these two chlorophylls.
telomere
A specialized region at the ends of eukaryotic chromosmes that contains several repeats of a particular DNA sequence. These ends are maintained (in some cells) with the help of a special DNA poymerase called telomerase. In cells that lack telomerase, these slowly degrade with each round of DNA replication (as the RNA primer, is not replaced and the 5' of the new DNA would not exist); this is though to contribute to the eventual death of the cell.
promoter
A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing RNA.
codon
A specific sequence of three adjacent bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that provides genetic code information for a particular amino acid
inducer
A specific small molecule that inactivates the repressor in an operon.
starch
A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose. Most glucose monomers are joined by 1-4 linkages (carbon 1 to 4). All the glucose molecules are in the alpha configuration. Starches are helical.
nucleosome
A structure composed of two coils of DNA wrapped around an octet of histone proteins. The primary form of packaging of eukaryotic DNA.
kinetochore
A structure of proteins attached to the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.
placenta
A structure that allows an embryo to be nourished with the mother's blood supply
electron
A subatomic particle that has a negative charge
proton
A subatomic particle that has a positive charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom
neutron
A subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom
cellulose
A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms. A large polysaccharide composed of many glucose monomers linked into cable-like fibrils that provide structural support in plant cell walls. The most abundant organic compound on Earth. All the glucose molecules are in the beta configuration. The molecules are straight. An unbranched beta glucose polymer. Some hydroxyl groups on its glucose monomers are free to hydrogen bond with the hydroxyls of other molecules. This substance is the major constituent of paper and the only component of cotton. This substance abrades the digestive tract to secrete mucus that aids in smooth digestion. Insoluble fiber refers mainly to this.
low density lipoproteins (LDLs)
A substance often referred to as bad cholesterol because it carries cholesterol that is most likely to deposit in the arteries.
product
A substance produced in a chemical reaction
base
A substance that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
acid
A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
solute
A substance that is dissolved in a solution.
biofilm
A surface-coating colony of one or more species of prokaryotes that engage in metabolic cooperation. An aggregation of bacteria embedded in a matrix. This can be made through quorum sensing.
open system
A system in which matter can enter from or escape to the surroundings.
isolated system
A system that can exchange neither energy nor matter with its surroundings.
80
A tRNA molecule consists of a single RNA strand that is ___ nucleotides long.
periodic table
A table that shows the elements, their atomic number, symbol, and average atomic mass; elements with similar chemical properties are grouped together.
amniocentesis
A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which amniotic fluid, obtained by aspiration from a needle inserted into the uterus (about 10 mL) , is analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus. Cells must be cultured for weeks for karyotyping.
X-ray crystallography
A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule.
enzyme-substrate complex
A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s).
chromosome
A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.
organelle
A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell
Y-linked
A trait that is always transmitted from father to son but never occurs in females has what mechanism of inheritance?
transport proteins
A transmembrane protein that helps a certain substance or class of closely related substances to cross the membrane.
magnolia blossom
A tree of ancient lineage that is native to Asian and American forests. It depends on beetles to carry pollen from one flower to another, and the beetles eat from its flowers. The bowl shape, multiple reproductive organs, and tough petals ensure they survive the beetles.
small nuclear RNA (snRNA)
A type of RNA found only in the nucleus of eukaryotes and functions to remove introns from mRNA
transfer RNA (tRNA)
A type of RNA that connects mRNA to amino acids during protein synthesis. Its function is to transfer amino acids from the cytoplasmic pool of amino acids to a ribosome.
amoeba
A type of Rhizarian protist characterized by great flexibility and the presence of threadlike pseudopodia.
chlorophyll a
A type of blue-green photosynthetic pigment that participates directly in the light reactions. Blue green
meiosis
A type of cell division that results in four nonidentical daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
eukaryotic cell
A type of cell subdivided by internal membranes into organelles. Most DNA is found in nucleus.
prokarytoic cell
A type of cell that is simpler and generally smaller. The DNA is not separated from the rest of the cell.
nonpolar covalent bond
A type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms of similar electronegativity.
alternative RNA splicing
A type of eukaryotic gene regulation at the RNA-processing level in which different mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns. This allows for few genes but a huge variety of proteins.
macromolecule
A type of giant molecule formed by joining smaller molecules which includes proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids.
positive feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from a steady state.
hydrogen bond
A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule.
operon
A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions. Operator, promoter and genes
joule
A unit of work equal to one newton-meter
cell fractionation
A useful technique for studying cell structure and function, which takes cells apart and separates the major organelles and other subcellular structures from one another. The instrument used is the centrifuge.
platelet
A very small blood cell derived from the fragmented cytoplasm of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. They participate in coagulation, wound healing, and inflammation
emerging virus
A virus that has appeared suddenly or has recently come to the attention of medical scientists. HIV, Ebola, West Nile, SARS
bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
epidemic
A widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time
2/3
About __ of the mass of a ribosome consists of rRNAs.
30-40
About how many chloroplasts are in a mesophyll cell
2%
About what percent of our genes code for protein kinases?
duplication
An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from an error in meiosis or mutagens; repetition of a portion of a chromosome resulting from fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome.
Philadelphia chromosome
An abnormal chromosome formed by a rearrangement of chromosomes 9 and 22 that is associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia.
benign tumor
An abnormal mass of cells that remains at its original site in the body. Most don't cause problems and can be taken out through surgery.
carotenoids
An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, they broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis. These are hydrocarbons that absorb violet and blue-green light. Also are important for photoprotection.
cholera
An acute epidemic where the water supply is contaminated with human feces. This disease produces a toxin in the lining of the small intestine that chemically modifies a G protein involved in regulating salt and water secretion. The G protein is always active, and it causes a high buildup of cAMP which causes the intestine to secrete large amounts of salts. Symptoms include dehydration and profuse diarrhea.
polygenic inheritance
An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.
polyribosomes (polysomes)
An aggregation of several ribosomes attached to one messenger RNA molecule that enable the cell to make many copies of a polypeptide very quickly.
recessive allele
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
dominant allele
An allele that will determine phenotype if just one is present in the genotype
primer
An already existing RNA chain bound to template DNA to which DNA nucleotides are added during DNA synthesis.
mitotic spindle
An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis. Forms in the cytoplasm during prophase.
adhesion
An attraction between molecules of different substances The intermolecular attraction between unlike molecules. Capillary action results from the adhesive properties of water and the molecules that make up plant cells.
chemical bonds
An attraction between two atoms resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells.
NADPH
An electron carrier involved in photosynthesis. Light drives electrons from chlorophyll to NADP+, forming _____, which provides the high-energy electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide to sugar in the Calvin cycle (better than using plain H2O)
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)
An endomembrane system lacking ribosomes where lipids are synthesized, calcium levels are regulated, and toxic substances are broken down.
NADH
An energy-carrying coenzyme produced by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. NADH carries energy to the electron transport chain, where it is stored in ATP.
ribozyme
An enzymatic RNA molecule that catalyzes reactions during RNA splicing.
reverse transcriptase
An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for its own DNA synthesis.
competitive inhibitor
An enzyme inhibitor that competes with substrate for binding at the active site of the enzyme. When the inhibitor is bound, no product can be made. This can be overcome by adding more substrates.
PEP carboxylase
An enzyme that adds CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate in mesophyll cells of C4 plants. It acts prior to photosynthesis. The never fail enzyme that always grabs carbon dioxide for C4 plants, better than rubisco.
DNA polymerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA at a replication fork by the addition of nucleotides to the existing chain. Catalyzes the addition of a nucleoside triphosphate to the 3' end of a growing DNA strand, with the release of two phosphates. Also proofreads the DNA.
sucrase
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose
telomerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells, not somatic ones.
primase
An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template. Synthesizes an RNA primer at 5' end of leading strand and of each Okazaki gragment of lagging strand.
protein phosphatase
An enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins, often functioning to reverse the effect of a protein kinase. Also make kinases available for reuse
RuBP carboxylase (rubisco)
An enzyme that starts the Calvin cycle reactions by catalyzing attachment of the carbon atom from CO2 to RuBP. Is said to be the most abundant protein in the chloroplast and on Earth.
protein kinase
An enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein and activating or inactivating it. Most amino acids involved are serine or threonine. Also play an important role in the cell cycle clock by being inactive during growth, but active when the cell goes through checkpoints. To be active, it attaches to a cyclin.
inducible enzymes
An enzyme whose transcription can be stimulated by an abundance of its substrate (as opposed to repressible enzyme). Usually in catabolism.
nondisjunction
An error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other.
controlled experiment
An experiment in which an experimental group is compared with a control group that varies only in the factor being tested.
ligand-gated ion channels
An ion channel that is opened or closed based on the binding of a specific ligand to the channel. Once opened, the channel allows the ion to cross the plasma membrane according to its concentration gradient. An examples is the acetylcholine receptor at the neuromuscular junction, which, when Ach binds, opens a cation channel in the muscle cell membrane.
voltage-gated ion channels
An ion channel that is opened or closed based on the electrical potential across the plasma membrane. Once opened, the channel allows ions to cross the membrane according to their concentration gradients. Examples are the Na+ and K+ voltage-gated channels involved in the action potential of neurons.
trans isomer
An isomer with two substituents on opposite sides of a double bond.
cis isomer
An isomer with two substituents on the same side of a double bond.
radioactive isotope
An isotope (an atomic form of a chemical element) that is unstable; the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off detectable particles and energy.
genetic map
An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome.
nitrogenous base
An organic base that contains nitrogen, such as a purine or pyrimidine; a subunit of a nucleotide in DNA and RNA
heterozygous
An organism that has two different alleles for a trait
clone
An organism that is genetically identical to the organism from which it was produced
obligate anaerobes
An organism that only carries out fermentation or anaerobic respiration. cannot use oxygen and may be poisoned by it
genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
citric acid cycle 4
Another CO2 is lost from alpha-Ketoglutarate, and the resulting compound is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH. The remaining molecule is then attached to coenzyme A by an unstable bond, forming Succinyl CoA.
somatic cells
Any cells in the body other than reproductive cells
autosomes
Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
cofactor
Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely with the substrate during catalysis.
protein
Any of a group of complex organic macromolecules that are composed of one or more chains of polypeptides. They account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells. They have enzymatic, structural, storage, transport, hormonal, receptor, motor, and defensive uses.
blood group
Any of the classifications based on the antigens that are found on RBC's
homeotic genes
Any of the genes that control the overall body plan of animals by controlling the developmental fate of groups of cells.
Domain Archaea
Any of various single-celled prokaryotes genetically distinct from bacteria, often thriving in extreme environmental conditions
2 nm
Any smaller than this distance, and electron microscopes cannot resolve biological structures.
centromere
Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached
spontaneous
Arising naturally; not planned or engineered in advance
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
Becomes G3P after its carboxyl group is reduced to the aldehyde group of G3P from the electrons of NADPH.
facultative anaerobes
Can make enough ATP to survive using fermentation or respiration, such as muscle cells.
melanoma
Cancer of melanocytes, is the most dangerous skin cancer because it is highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy. May be the cause of faulty forms of the human version of C. elegans Ced-4 protein.
quorum sensing
Cells of many bacterial species secrete small molecules that can be detected by other bacterial cells. The concentration of such signaling molecules allows bacteria to sense the local density of bacterial cells.
structural polysaccharide
Cellulose and chitin
neurotransmitter
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
biochemistry
Chemistry dealing with chemical compounds and processes in living plants and animals
prophase I
Chromosomes begin to condense, and homologs loosely pair along their lengths, aligned gene by gene. Crossing over is completed while homologs are in synapsis. Synapsis ends in the middle of this time, and the chromosomes in each pair move apart slightly. Each homologous pair has one or more chiasmata. Centrosome movement, spindle formation, and nuclear envelope breakdown occur. In the late stage of this, microtubules from one pole or the other attach to kinetochores and move toward the metaphase plate.
primary cilium
Cilium that acts as a signal-receiving "antenna" for the cell. These signals are crucial to brain function and embryonic development. Nonmotile. 9+0
geometric isomer
Compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms.
addition rule
Considering mutually exclusive events, the probability of both occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each event.
biosphere
Consists of all life on Earth and all parts of the Earth in which life exists, including land, water, and the atmosphere.
Kingdom Fungi
Consists of unicellular and multicellular organisms that cannot make their own food (heterotrophs/detritivores)
combinatorial control of gene activation
Control of gene expression requiring presence or absence of a particular combination of regulatory proteins.
acid precipitation
Conversion of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides to acids that return to Earth as rain, snow, or fog
gene expression
Conversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein, or sometimes just RNA.
prosthetic groups
Covalently attached molecules on proteins. Proteins with lipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid prosthetic groups are referred to as lipoproteins, glycoproteins, and nucleoproteins, respectively. An example is heme, which is used to bind and carry oxygen in hemoglobin. These are tightly bound to the proteins of the ETC and are essential for the catalytic functions of certain enzymes.
dihybrid cross
Cross or mating between organisms involving two pairs of contrasting traits
Wendell Stanley
Crystaliized and studied the tobacco mosaic virus
sliding clamp
DNA polymerases are processive, which means that they remain tightly associated with the template strand while moving rapidly and adding nucleotides to the growing daughter strand. Which piece of the replication machinery accounts for this characteristic? Holds DNA polymerase in place during strand extension
gene
DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission. A region of DNA that can be expressed to produce a final functional product that is either a polypeptide or an RNA molecule.
10-nm fiber
DNA winds around histones to form nucleosome "beads". Nucleosomes are strung together like beads on a string by linker DNA
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
Darwin's book published in 1859 that presented evidence and proposed a mechanism for evolution that he called natural selecion
qualitative data
Data associated with a more humanistic approach to geography, often collected through interviews, empirical observations, or the interpretation of texts, artwork, old maps, and other archives.
quantitative data
Data associated with mathematical models and statistical techniques used to analyze spatial location and association.
Peter and Rosemary Grant
Demonstrated that natural selection is still a force in the evolution of the Galapagos finches. Proved that natural selection takes place frequently and sometimes very rapidly
electron shells
Depicted as simple circles around nucleus; each shell holds differing numbers of electrons
hemizygous
Describes an individual who has only one member of a chromosome pair or chromosome segment rather than the usual two; refers in particular to X-linked genes in males who under usual circumstances have only one X chromosome due to the presence of one x chromosome, males are said to be _______ for the mutant allele on that chromosome
osmosis
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from high to low in order to dissolve the solutes on the side with more of them. (higher to lower free water concentration (lower to higher solute concentration))
sporophyte
Diploid, or spore-producing, phase of an organism.
Erwin Chargaff
Discovered that DNA composition varies between organisms, but the amount of adenine is always the same as thymine and the amount of cytosine is always the same as guanine.
C.B. van Niel
Discovered that the O2 in photosynthesis is derived from the splitting of the water molecule
Oswald Avery
Discovered that the nucleic acid in DNA stores and transmits genetic information from one generation of bacteria to the next. Verified Griffith's experiment using extract from heat-killed pathogen stain. He used a specific enzyme to see which macromolecule, if destroyed, would not cause death in the mouse. Found that DNA that had been broken down would not cause death.
cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm during cell division. Usually well under way by late telophase, so the two daughter cells appear shortly after the end of mitosis. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow pinches the cell in two.
no
Does prokaryote binary fission involve mitosis?
single-strand binding protein
During DNA replication, molecules that line up along the unpaired DNA strands, holding them apart while the DNA strands serve as templates for the synthesis of complimentary strands of DNA.
blebbing
During apoptosis, the cell detaches its cytoskeleton from the membrane, causing the membrane to swell into spherical lobes, greatly distorting the shape of the cell.
cell plate
During telophase, vesicles from Golgi move along microtubules to the middle of the cell, where they coalesce to produce this in plant cells. Cell wall materials carried in the vesicles collect in this as it grows, until it touches the plasma membrane of the plant cells and separates them.
tryptophan
E. coli depend on this amino acid in the human colon. If it isn't there, they make it from another compound.
3
Each NADH that transfers a pair of electrons from glucose to the ETC contributes enough to the proton-motive force to make how many ATP?
dispersive model
Each strand of both daughter molecules contains a mixture of old and newly synthesized DNA (false)
visible light
Electromagnetic radiation that can be seen with the unaided eye; 380-750 nm. Photosynthesis is driven by this.
lacA
Encodes a transacetylase enzyme that modifies lactose and lactose analogs.
active transport
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration gradient.
lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They do not have true polymers nor are they big enough to be considered macromolecules. They mix poorly, if at all, with water. These include fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
John Dalton
English chemist and physicist who formulated atomic theory and the law of partial pressures
Charles Darwin
English naturalist. He studied the plants and animals of South America and the Pacific islands, and in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) set forth his theory of evolution.
Phospholipase C
Enzyme associated with the plasma membrane that generates two small messenger molecules in response to activation, one of them releases calcium into the cytosol.
RNA polymerase
Enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands during transcription. They are able to start from scratch and do not need a primer
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
Enzyme that attaches an amino acid to a tRNA. Each is specific for a particular amino acid. There is 20 for each amino acid. It catalyzes the covalent bond between the tRNA and the amino acid driven by the hydrolysis of ATP.
topoisomerase
Enzyme that functions in DNA replication, helping to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork.
termination
Eventually, the RNA transcript is released, and the polymerase detaches from the DNA.
intermediate filaments
Fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables. Cytoskeletal filaments with a diameter in between that of the microtubule and the microfilament. Intermediate filaments are composed of many different proteins and tend to play structural roles in cells. 8-12 nm. It is made of one of several different proteins of the keratin family. Roles: Maintenance of cell shape, anchorage of nucleus and certain other organelles, and the formation of nuclear lamina.
microvillus
Fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells, increase surface area, aid in absorbtion, exist on every moist epithelia, but most dense in small intestine and kidney. Projections that increase the cell's surface area. Microfilaments control these.
tight junction
Form a seal between cells that prevents the movement of substances across the cell layer, except by diffusion through the cell membranes themselves. Tight junctions are found between the epithelial cells lining the intestines and between the cells forming the capillaries in the brain (the blood-brain barrier). Prevent leakage of extracellular fluid.
oxaloacetate
Found in the beginning and end of the Krebs cycle. A four-carbon molecule that binds with the two-carbon acetyl unit of acetyl-CoA to form citric acid in the first step of the Krebs cycle
central dogma
Francis Crick's theory that states that, in cells, information only flows from DNA to RNA to proteins
GTPase
G proteins have intrinsic _____ activity that determines how long the switch stays on (GTP-bound).
linked genes
Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses.
beta-glucose
Glucose molecules that have the hydroxyl group above their 1-carbon. They make polymers straight.
alpha-glucose
Glucose molecules that have the hydroxyl group on the bottom of their 1-carbon. They make polymers helical.
energy investment phase 2 (step 2)
Glucose-6-phosphate is converted to its isomer, fructose-6-phosphate.
energy payoff phase 2 (step 7)
Glycolysis produces some ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation. The phosphate group added in the previous step is transferred to ADP in an exergonic reaction. For each glucose molecule that began glycolysis, step 7 produces 2 ATP, since every product after the sugar-splitting step is doubled. The 2 ATP debt has been repaid. Glucose has been converted to two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, which is not a sugar. The carbonyl group that characterizes sugars is absent, it has been oxidized to a carboxyl group, making the compound acidic.
syndrome
Group of symptoms that, when occurring together, reflect a specific disease or disorder
rotor
H+ ions enter binding sites within this part of the ATP synthase, changing the shape of each subunit so that the rotor spins within the membrane.
gametophyte
Haploid, or gamete-producing, phase of an organism
citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle/Krebs cycle)
Has 8 steps. Works as a metabolic furnace that oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate. Takes place within the mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells or simply in the cytosol of prokaryotes, completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide. Generates 1 ATP per turn by substrate-level phosphorylation, but most of the chemical energy is transferred to carriers during redox reactions.
Klinefelter syndrome
Have male sex organs, but the testes are abnormally small and the man is sterile. Some female secondary sexual characteristics are seen. Subnormal intelligence. XXY
hydrophobic
Having an aversion to water; tending to coalesce and form droplets in water.
isotonic
Having the same solute concentration as another solution. No net movement of water across the membrane
homozygous
Having two identical alleles for a trait
Hermann Kolbe
He proved that organic compounds could be derived from inorganic ones, thus disproving the doctrine of vitalism. In the 1840s, which German chemist (1818-84) also synthesised salycylic acid, and indeed coined the term 'synthesis'?
Viagra
Helps to increase blood flow to the penis to maintain an erection. Helps with the synthesis of nitric oxide (which acts on another enzyme that helps dilate blood vessels) or by the addition of cGMP
lower
Highly differentiated cells express a (lower or higher) fraction of their genes at any given time.
ATP cycle
How a cell regenerates its ATP supply. ADP forms when ATP loses a phosphate group, then ATP forms as ADP gains a phosphate group.
mutation of existing virus, dissemination from a small population, zoonoses
How do emerging viruses burst on the human scene?
structurally
How is carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle separated in C4 plants?
temporally
How is carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle separated in CAM plants?
inversely proportional
How is speed and pellet component size related?
inversely proportional
How is the density of a cellular structure related to electrons transmitted in a TEM?
directly proportional
How is the rate of protein synthesis and the number of ribosomes related?
20 min
How long does metaphase last?
2
How many FADH2s from the citric acid cycle go to the ETC?
4
How many NADH leaves glycolysis?
6
How many NADHs from the citric acid cycle go to the ETC?
7
How many alpha helices does a G protein-coupled receptor have?
7.3 kcal
How many kcal of energy per mole of ATP hydrolysed?
2
How many of either NADH or FADH2 leave glycolysis to the ETC?
9
How many sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring does a centriole contain?
10^7
How many times per second do adjacent phospholipids switch positions?
movement of DNA within the genome, amplification of a proto-oncogene, and point mutations in a control element
How might a proto-oncogene become an oncogene?
homozygote
If a sex-linked trait is due to a recessive allele, a female expresses the phenotype only if she is a _____
red-orange
If a solution of chlorophyll isolated from chloroplasts is illuminated, it will fluoresce in the ___ part of the spectrum and also give off heat.
recessive
If both parents have the trait, then in order for it to be ____, all offspring must show the trait.
recessive/carriers
If parents without the trait have offspring with the trait, the trait must be ____ and the parents both ______.
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
In 1952, these scientists performed experiments showing that DNA is the genetic material of a phage known as T2.
Earl W. Sutherland
In 1971, a Nobel prize winner who investigated how epinephrine stimulates the breakdown of glycogen. He found that the breakdown was activated by an intermediate step or series, and that the plasma membrane was also responsible. It only works with live cells.
Gary Borisy
In 1987, carried out an experiment that suggested motor proteins on the kinetochores walk the chromosomes along the microtubules, which depolymerize at their kinetochore ends after the motor proteins have passed.
bundle-sheath cells
In C4 plants, a type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf. Cells in the leaves of C₄ plants in which the four-carbon acids produced during carbon fixation are broken down to three-carbon acids and CO₂. in C4 plants; arranged into tightly packed sheaths around veins of the leaf with loosely arranged mesophyll cells surrounding them; Calvin cycle happens only in the bundle-sheath area.
bundle-sheath cells
In C4 plants, where does the Calvin cycle occur exclusively?
bacterial mRNAs
In RNA processing, what can be translated into polypeptides as soon as they are made? Are mature as primary transcripts. They undergo no processing, unlike eukaryotic transcripts rapidly degraded- half lives=2-3 minute
bacterium
In a ___, the RNA transcript is immediately usable as mRNA
chemical equilibrium
In a chemical reaction, the state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, so that the relative concentrations of the reactants and products do not change with time.
nucleoside
In a nucleotide, the portion consisting of the base + sugar, not the phosphate.
energy coupling
In cellular metabolism, the use of energy released from an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction.
transcription factors
In eukaryotes, mediates the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription. Controls which genes are turned on - that is, which genes are transcribed into mRNA - in a particular cell at a particular time. Molecules that regulate gene expression by binding onto enhancer or silencer regions of DNA and causing an increase or decrease in transcription of RNA.
Dicer/heterochromatin
In experiments in which the enzyme ___ is inactivated in chicken and mouse cells, ____ fails to form at centromeres.
sucrose
In most plants, carbohydrate is transported out of the leaves in the form of this.
microfibril
In plant cell walls, parallel cellulose molecules held together by hydrogen bonds between OH groups between carbons 3 and 6 form into these subunits. A threadlike component of the cell wall, composed of about 80 cellulose molecules.
hydrolysis
In plants and fungi, which lack lysosomes, vacuoles carry out ____.
primary cell wall
In plants, a relatively thin and flexible layer first secreted by a young cell.
terminator
In prokaryotes, a special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene. It signals RNA polymerase to release the newly made RNA molecule, which then departs from the gene
Hermann Muller
In the 1920s, this research discovered that x-rays could cause genetic changes in fruit flies, and humans
Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl
In the 1950s, these researchers corroborated the semiconservative model of replication.
citric acid cycle 3
In the 3rd step of the TCA cycle, isocitrate is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH. In the process, a carbon is lost in the form of carbon dioxide, and an NADH is formed. Any step where NADH is formed is a rate limiting step. This is one of three key regulation points of the TCA cycle.
bacterial operons
In these operons, the controlled genes are clustered into an operon, which is regulated by a single promoter and transcribed into a single mRNA with start and stop codons to signal where each polpeptide starts and stops.
1972
In this year, S. J. Singer and G. Nicolson proposed that membrane proteins are dispersed, individually inserted into the phospholipid bilayer with their hydrophilic regions protruding.
solation
Increase in fluidity of the cytoplasm
cristae
Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP. Increases surface area.
epigenetic inheritance
Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence. Modifications to the chromatin can be reversed, unlike DNA
phosphodiesterase
Inhibits cyclic AMP, leading to increased levels of adenosine monophosphate within the cells.
pro-insulin
Insulin is made in a very inactive form in the pancreas as ______
acetaldehyde
Intermediate product during alcohol fermentation that is formed from pyruvate after CO2 is taken out and is later converted into ethanol by being reduced by NADH.
phage lambda
Is a bacterial virus, or bacteriophage, that infects the bacterial species Escherichia coli (E. coli). Is a type of temperate bacteriophage or bacterial virus that infects the Escherichia coli (E. coli) species of bacteria. The virus may be housed in the genome of its host via lysogeny. Similar to T4 but has only one hsort tail fiber
cyclic GMP (cGMP)
Is an intracellular second messenger that causes smooth muscles to relax. Medications that inhibit its hydrolysis to GMP are at the root of Viagra.
energy investment phase 5 (step 5)
Isomerase catalyzes the reversible conversion between the two three-carbon sugars. This reaction never reaches equilibrium in the cell because the next enzyme in glycolysis uses only glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate as its substrate (and not dihydroxyacetone phosphate.) This pulls the equilibrium in the direction of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, which is removed as fast it forms. Thus, the net result of steps 4 and 5 is cleavage of a six-carbon sugar into two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate; each will progress through the remaining steps of glycolysis.
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
Isomerase turns dihydroxyacetone phosphate into this molecule, which is then dehydrogenated in the energy payoff phase of glycolysis. After fats are digested to glycerol and fatty acids, the glycerol is converted to this.
dihydroxyacetone phosphate
Isomerase turns glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate into this isomer, but eventually it turns back into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Can be converted to one one of the major precursors of fats.
fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
Lies within the glycolysis metabolic pathway and is produced by phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate. It is, in turn, broken down into two compounds: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
0.2 micrometer/200 nanometers
Light microscopes are unable to resolve details finer than what distance?
1000
Light microscopes can effectively magnify to about how many times the actual size of the specimen?
secretory vesicles
Many cells store proteins in these, matures ones fuse with w plasma membrane to release secretory product. Microtubules can guide them.
contractile vacuoles
Many freshwater protists have these vacuoles that pump excess water out of the cell, thereby maintaining a suitable concentration of ions and molecules inside the cell.
operon model
Many genes of bacterial genomes are switched on or off by changes in metabolic status , one basic mechanism for this control of gene expression in bacteria is the _____
substratum
Matter; that which endures throughout change. A supporting layer, like the inside of a jar or a matrix.
MPF
Maturation-promoting factor (or M-phase-promoting factor); a protein complex required for a cell to progress from late interphase to mitosis. The active form consists of cyclin and a protein kinase. The cyclin-Cdk complex to be discovered first (in frog eggs). The cyclin level rises during the S and G2 phases and falls during M phase. During anaphase, it degrades cyclin to inactivate itself. Causes phosphorylation of proteins of the nuclear lamina, causing dissolution of the nuclear envelope during prometaphase. Also important for chromosome condensation and spindle formation.
complete growth medium
Medium that contains the minimal medium plus all 20 amino acids and a few other nutrients for bread mold
glycolipids
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.
law of segregation
Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete
post-transcriptional regulation
Modifications to gene product that occur AFTER DNA has been transcribed to mRNA. Examples of this include mRNA splicing, mRNA stability, mRNA translation rates, and mRNA localization
poly-A tail
Modified end of the 3' end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides.
relay molecules
Molecules (often protein) that are involved in signal transduction within a cell. It is the molecule that the receptor protein activates.
base analogs
Molecules similar to DNA bases are inserted into DNA strands during replication. Chemical mutagens that can be substituted for a true base.
inside/outside
Molecules that start out on the ___ face of the ER end up on the ____ face of the plasma membrane.
1-100 micrometers
Most cells are between this distance.
cytosine
Most common methylated base
sucrose
Most prevalent disaccharide: glucose + fructose. Table sugar.
protein kinases
Most relay molecules in signal transduction pathways are these.
methylated compounds
Name of Methyl Compounds
X-linked
Name the pattern of genetic transmission characterized thus: both M and F affected; no M-to-M transmission; affected M passes trait to all daughters, every generation; affected F passes trait to both sons and daughters; a single mutant allele can produce the disease.
emergent properties
New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.
untranslated regions (UTRs)
Not all of RNA nucleotides will be translated into amino acids. The regions not translated are called _____.
telophase II
Nuclei form, chromosomes decondense, meiotic division of one parent cell produces four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of unreplicated chromosomes.
UTRs
Nucleotide sequences that affect how long an mRNA remains intact are often found in this region of the 3' end.
recombination frequency
Number of recombinant phenotypes resulting from a cross divided by the total number of progeny.
hydrophobic interaction
Occurs among the sidechains of amino acids as part of tertiary structure. As a polypeptide folds into its functional shape, amino acids with hydrophobic (nonpolar) side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein away from water
third type of life cycle
Occurs in the life cycle in most fungi and some protists, including algae. After gametes fuse and from a diploid zygote, meiosis occurs without a multicellular diploid offspring developing. Meiosis produces not gametes but haploid cells that then divide by mitosis and give rise to either unicellular descendants or a haploid multicellular adult organism. Subsequently, the haploid organism carries out further mitoses, producing the cells that develop into gametes. The only known diploid stage found in these species is the single-celled zygote.
F2 generation
Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation.
1.Rate of synthesis at the ribosome. 2.Degradation of the protein. 3.Post translational modification of the protein (eg. phosphorylation). 4.Inhibition -eg.allosteric control of enzymes. 5.Activation -eg. allosteric control of enzymes, avtivation by cofactors by ions such as Ca++, Cl- etc
Once mRNA encoding a particular protein reaches the cytoplasm, what are four mechanisms that can regulate the amount of the active protein in the cell?
nuclease
Once the 5' cap is removed, ____ enzymes rapidly chew up the mRNA.
exit (E) site
One of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. The site is the place where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome.
chlorophyll b
One type of chlorophyll that acts as an antenna pigment, expanding the wavelengths of light that can be used to power photosynthesis. Olive green
TATA box
Only a few general transcription factors independently bind a DNA sequence, such as the ____ within the promoter; the others primarily bind proteins, including each other and RNA polymerase II.
morphine
Opioid analgesic prototype: strong mu receptor agonist. Poor oral bioavailability. Effects include analgesia, constipation, emesis, sedation, respiratory depression, miosis, and urinary retention. Tolerance may be marked; high potential for psychologic and physical dependence. Additive effects with other CNS depressants
biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, molecule, atom, subatomic particle, quark, preon
Order of life
aldehydes
Organic compounds characterized by the presence of a carbonyl group on an end carbon
ketones
Organic compounds characterized by the presence of a carbonyl group on an inner carbon
carboxylic acids
Organic compounds characterized by the presence of a carboxyl group on an end carbon
alcohols
Organic compounds that contain the hydroxyl group (R-OH). Noted by the the suffix "-ol"
photoautotrophs
Organisms that use light as a source of energy to synthesize organic substances.
cell wall
Outer layer that maintains cell's shape and protects cell from mechanical damage made of cellulose, other polysaccharides, and protein.
multiplication rule
P(A ∩ B) = P(A) * P(B|A) is used when we are interested in the probability of two events occurring simultaneously, or in succession.
phosphate
PO4 3-: Contributes negative charge to which it is a part (2- when at the end of a molecule (1- when inside a chain of phosphates) Can react react with water releasing energy
homologous chromosomes (homologs)
Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same bands, and same genes.
metaphase I
Pairs of homologous chromosomes are now arranged on on the metaphase plate, with a chromosome facing each pole. Both chromatids of one homolog are attached to kinetochore microtubules from one pole, the other homolog from the other.
subatomic particles
Particles found within the atom, mainly protons, neutrons, and electrons.
lysogenic cycle
Phage DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome, becoming a prophage. It reproduces normally, copying the prophage and transmitting it to daughter cells. Many cell divisions produce a large population of bacteria infected with the prophage. Occasionally, a prophage exits the bacterial chromosome, initiating a lytic cycle.
300
Phage T4 has almost ___ genes, which are transcribed and translated.
temperate phages
Phages that are capable of using either the lytic or lysogenic cycle.
carbon fixation
Phase 1: the Calvin cycle incorporates each CO2 molecule, one at a time, by attaching it to RuBP. The product of the reaction is a six-carbon intermediate so unstable that it splits and forms two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate per fixed CO2.
reduction
Phase 2: Each molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate receives an additional phosphate group from ATP, becoming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, which also loses a phosphate group, becoming G3P, since NADPH reduced a carboxyl group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to the aldehyde group of G3P, which stores more potential energy.
regeneration of RuBP
Phase 3: In a complex series of reactions, the carbon skeletons of five molecules of G3P are rearranged by the last steps of the Calvin cycle into three molecules of RuBP. To accomplish this, the cycle spends three more molecules of ATP. The RuBP is now prepared to receive CO2 again, and the cycle continues.
energy investment phase 3 (step 3)
Phosphofructokinase transfers a phosphate group from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate , investing another molecule of ATP in glycolysis. So far, 2 ATP have been used. With phosphate groups on its opposite ends, the sugar is now ready to be split in half. This is a key step for regulation of glycolysis, phosphofructokinase is allosterically regulated by ATP and its products.
energy payoff phase 3 (step 8)
Phosphoglyceromutase relocates the remaining phosphate group of 3-phosphoglycerate, preparing the substrate for the next reaction.
phospholipid bilayer
Plasma membrane layers composed of phospholipid molecules arranged with polar heads facing the outside and nonpolar tails facing the inside.
polypeptides
Polymers of amino acids.
chitin
Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls. Pure ___ is leathery and flexible, but it becomes hardened when encrusted with calcium carbonate. It it similar to cellulose, except that the glucose monomers have a nitrogen-containing appendage.
pyrophosphate
Ppi
differential centrifugation
Procedure for separating cellular components according to their size and density by spinning a cell homogenate in a series of centrifuge runs. After each run, the supernatant is removed from the deposited material (pellet) and spun again at progressively higher speeds.
cell division
Process by which a cell divides into two new daughter cells
RNA splicing
Process by which the introns are removed from RNA transcripts and the remaining exons are joined together.
fertilization
Process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
apoptosis
Programmed cell death. Cellular agents chop up the DNA and fragment the organelles and other cytoplasmic components. The cell shrinks and becomes lobed, and its parts are packaged into vesicles which scavenger cells eat. Important for embryonic development, since apoptotic genes are inactive until needed.
ubiquitin
Proteasomal degradation of misfolded proteins is done by the attachment of ________ to defective proteins to tag them for breakdown.
chaperonin
Protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins. They keep the new polypeptide segregated from bad influences in the cytoplasm where it folds spontaneously.
bound ribosomes
Protein parts of envelope glycoproteins are made by ____
defensive proteins
Proteins important for protection against disease. Example: Antibodies that combat bacteria and viruses.
hormonal proteins
Proteins important for the coordination of an organism's activities. Example: insulin
storage proteins
Proteins important for the storage of amino acids. Example: Ovalbumin, casein, and plant seeds.
transport proteins
Proteins important for the transport of other substances. Example: Hemoglobin
elongation factors
Proteins involved in the elongation phase of translation, assisting ribosomes in the synthesis of the growing peptide chain.
contractile and motor proteins
Proteins responsible for movement. Example: Actin and myosin, and the proteins that move cilia and flagella.
receptor proteins
Proteins responsible for the response of a cell to chemical stimuli. Example: nerve cell receptors.
cross-linking proteins
Proteins that bind microtubule doublets and dynein arms together to form "whips" that move cilia. They make sure the dynein proteins are restrained and do not slide past one another.
initiation factors
Proteins that bring in the large subunit that completes the translation initiation complex. Proteins that bring in the large subunit that completes the translation initiation complex
mediator proteins
Proteins that mediate the interaction between regulatory proteins and the transcription factors
chromatin-modifying enzymes
Provide initial control of gene expression by making a region of DNA either more or less able to bind the transcription machinery
pyruvate to acetyl CoA 1
Pyruvate's carboxyl group, which is already oxidized and has little chemical energy, is removed and given off as a molecule of CO2.
noncoding RNAs
RNA molecules that regulate gene expression at two points: mRNA translation and chromatin configuration. Do not encode protein.
10-20
RNA polymerase exposes about ___ bases at a time for pairing with RNA nucleotides
P680
Reaction center chlorophyll in the photosystem II. Best at absorbing light at 680 nm (red light)
multifactorial
Referring to a phenotypic character that is influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors.
active site
Region of an enzyme into which a particular substrate fits.
allosteric regulation
Regulation of the activity of a protein (usually an enzyme) by the binding of an effector molecule to a site other than the active site.
growth factors
Regulatory proteins that ensure that the events of cell division occur in the proper sequence and at the correct rate.
directly proportional
Relationship between cell motility and number of mitochondria?
viral reproductive cycle
Release: lysis of host cell(bacteriophage produce lysozyme-breaks glycogentrate walls to make cell wall weak and lyse), budding(enveloped virus- docking of nucleocapsid to modified portion of host cell membrane gives the fate of host cell), exocytosis(release of virion, fate of host cell)
germ cells
Reproductive cells that give rise to sperm and ovum
codominance
A condition in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed
solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
photorespiration
A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide. Possible benefits include protecting the plant from excessive light damage.
phosphorylated intermediate
A molecule (often a reactant) with a phosphate group covalently bound to it, making it more reactive (less stable) than the unphosphorylated molecule.
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
A molecule that has a high energy bond connecting the phosphate group. This last phosphate group phosphorylates ADP to ATP converting it to a 3-carbon pyruvate in fermentation. Has the most highly exergonic hydrolysis in glycolysis
amphipathic
A molecule that has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region.
polar molecule
A molecule that has electrically charged areas.
pleiotropy
A single gene having multiple effects on an individuals phenotype
isomer
Compounds with the same formula but different structures.
catalysis
The action of a catalyst
monomer
The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.
plasma membrane
Where is cellulose made?
Eastern coral snake
a poisonous snake that has warning colors of red, yellow (or white), and black
hydrogen ion
a positively charged ion (H+) formed of a hydrogen atom that has lost its electron
activator
a protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a gene
tumor viruses
causes cancer in various animals and humans by integrating viral nucleic acid in DNA
anaphase
shortest stage of mitosis
sol
streaming cytoplasm
chromosome 5
this chromosomal deletion that results in cri du chat
depolymerize
to shorten, as when the mitotic spindle loses more subunits.
40
transcription progresses at a rate of about ___ nucleotides per second in eukaryotes
ced-3/ced-4
two key apoptotic genes in C. elegans. (stands for cell death)
Theodosius Dobhansky
"Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution"
positive gene regulation
- cAMP is an allosteric regulatory protein that binds to an inactive CAP (activator) and then CAP binds to the promotor. Regulatory protein interacts directly with the genome to switch transcription on
amino group
-NH2: acts as a base; ionized with a charge of 1+
hydroxyl
-OH: What functional group can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, is polar as a result of the electrons spending more time near electronegative oxygen atoms and is an alcohol. Example Ethanol.
sulfhydryl
-SH: What functional group forms a covelant bond called cross-linking and helps stabilize protein structure, example: Cysteine (perm for hair)?
methods of catalysis
1. acting as a template for substrate orientation 2. stressing the substrates and stabilizing the transition state 3. providing a favorable microenvironment 4. participating directly in catalytic reaction.
Martinus Beijerinck
1. first to characterize viruses (determined why some filtrates that went through Chamberland's filter remained infectious even after bacteria were removed: saw that they reproduced)
T-even phages
3 phages out of seven that infect E. coli that turned out to be similar in structure.
tetraploidy
4 sets of chromosomes
9+0 pattern
9 pairs of microtubules in a ring with the member of each pair sharing a part of the wall, with none in the center. Only nonmotile cilia have this pattern.
TATA box
A DNA sequence in eukaryotic promoters crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.
enhancers
A DNA sequence that recognizes certain transcription factors that can stimulate transcription of nearby genes.
G protein
A GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor, known as a G protein-coupled receptor, to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell. If a GDP is attached to it, it is inactive. Once a GTP is attached, it is active and it spans the membrane to activate an enzyme. Once the signal is no longer needed, it can hydrolyse the GTP.
nanotechnology
A branch of science and engineering devoted to the design and production of extremely small electronic devices and circuits built from individual atoms and molecules.
Taxol
A chemotherapeutic drug that interferes with the mitotic spindles of cancer cells by preventing depolymerization of the microtubules, preventing cells from proceeding past metaphase.
proximal control elements
A control element that is located close to the promoter. (almost part of it)
atherosclerosis
A diet rich in saturated fats is one of several factors that may contribute to this cardiovascular disease. Deposits called plaques develop within the walls of blood vessels, causing bulges that impede blood flow and reduce the resilience of the vessels. High cholesterol can also increase the risk for the disease.
lagging strand
A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork.
karyotope
A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.
flavivirus
A family of Type 4 virus. Has an envelope. Includes yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, hepatitis C virus
coronavirus
A family of Type 4 virus. Has an envelope. Sever acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
rhabdovirus
A family of Type 5 viruses. Has an envelope. Includes rabies virus.
fibronectin
A glycoprotein that helps cells attach to the extracellular matrix. Attaches the ECM to integrins embedded in the plasma membrane.
chlorophyll
A green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plants, algae, and some bacteria
molecule
A group of atoms bonded together
population
A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area
community
A group of interdependent organisms inhabiting the same region and interacting with each other
quantitative characters
A heritable feature that varies continuously over a range rather than in an either-or fashion.
glycogen
A highly branched polymer of glucose containing thousands of subunits; functions as a compact store of glucose molecules in liver and muscle fibers. An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
polymer
A large molecule consisting of many repeating chemical units or molecules linked covalently.
triacylglycerol
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or triglyceride.
organism
A living thing
testosterone
A male sex hormone produced by the testes; women secrete smaller amounts of testosterone from the adrenal cortex and ovary.
tumor
A mass of abnormal cells that develops when cancerous cells divide and grow uncontrollably.
membrane potential
A measurable difference in electrical charge between the cytoplasm (negative ions) and extracellular fluid (positive ions)
surface tension
A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid
temperature
A measure of how hot (or cold) something is; specifically, a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in an object.
dalton
A measure of mass for atoms and subatomic particles; the same as the atomic mass unit, or amu.
phospholipid
A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.
cation
A positively charged ion
negative feedback
A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation.
autophagy
A process in which cells recycle their own organic material through the use of hydrolytic enzymes.
myosin
A protein present in muscle fibers that aids in contraction and makes up the majority of muscle fiber
repressor
A protein that binds to an operator and physically blocks RNA polymerase from binding to a promoter site
elastin
A protein that is similar to collagen and is the chief constituent of elastic fibers. A fibrous, connective-tissue protein that has the ability to recoil to its original shape after being stretched. It is found in great amounts in lung tissue, arterial tissue, skin, and the epiglottis.
coat protein
A protein that surrounds a membrane vesicle and facilitates vesicle formation in receptor-mediated endocytosis
signal-recognition particle (SRP)
A protein-RNA complex that recognizes a signal peptide as it emerges from the ribosome, it binds to it, halting synthesis momentarily.
cyclic electron flow
A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves only photosystem I and that produces ATP but not NADPH or oxygen. Electrons cycle back from Fd to the cytochrome complex. May be photoprotective, as in C4 plants.
Yoshinori Watanabe
A scientist who concluded that shugoshin protects cohesins at the centromere at anaphase I.
cyclic AMP
A second messenger that relays messages from the extracellular peptide hormone to cytoplasmic enzymes and initiates a series of successive reactions in the cell. Carries the signal initiated by epinephrine from the plasma membrane to the cell's interior.
plasma membrane
A selectively-permeable phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells. Acts as a selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen, nutrients and wastes.
phosphorylation cascade
A series of enzyme-catalyzed phosphorylation reactions commonly used in signal transduction pathways to amplify and convey a signal inward from the plasma membrane. A series of different molecules in a pathway are phosphorylated in turn, each molecule adding a phosphate group to the next one in line. Protein kinases and phosphatases are important for this.
trait
A specific characteristic part of a character that varies from one individual to another
compound
A substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds
electrogenic pump
A transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane, causing a net separation in charge, like the sodium-potassium pump.
synaptonemal complex
A zipper-like protein structure that causes replicated homologs to become physically connected during prophase of meiosis I; sets the stage for crossing over.
protein kinase A
Activation of adenylyl cyclase by the a-subunit results in the conversion ATP-> cAMP which activates _____ ____ __ which phosphorylates various signaling proteins -> cell response/expression of specific genes. A serine/threonine kinase.
carrier proteins
All transport proteins that use active transport are ___.
allele
Alternative versions of a gene that produce distinguishable phenotypic effects.
essential amino acids
Amino acids that are needed, but cannot be made by the body; they must be eaten in foods.
calorie
Amount of energy needed to raise temperature 1 gram of water 1 degree C
malignant tumor
An abnormal tissue mass that can spread into neighboring tissue and to other parts of the body; a cancerous tumor.
ion
An atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge.
helicase
An enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands.
mitochondrial apoptosis
Apoptotic proteins can cause molecular pores in mitochondrial outer membrane, causing leaks of proteins that promote apoptosis (including cytochrome c)
Elodea
Aquatic plant with translucent (see-through) leaves that grows in fresh water ponds
isotope
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
pyrimidines
Bases with a single-ring structure; a six-membered ring: cytosine, thymine, and uracil
atom
Basic unit of matter
cell type-specific transcription
Both liver cells and lens cells have the genes for making the proteins albumin and crystallin, but only liver cells make albumin (a blood protein) and only lens cells make crystallin (the main component of the lens of the eye) due to different combinations of enhancers
hydrolysis
Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water
induced fit
Brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction.
mating factor
Budding yeasts secrete a signaling molecule which bind to cell-surface receptors of yeast cells nearby, stopping their normal growing cycle and initiate protein kinases and GTP binding. Allowing yeast haploids to bond into diploids.
cyclic electron flow
Bundle sheath cells carry out this type of photosynthesis to make ATP used to convert pyruvate to PEP.
glucose
C6H12O6: A sugar that is the major source of energy for the body's cells. An aldose.
carbonyl
C=O: What functional group are found in sugars that may be structural groups like ketones and aldehydes, example: Acetone. A ketone and aldehyde may be structural isomers with different properties
methyl
CH4; not reactive but acts as a recognizable tag on biological molecules. Addition of this to DNA or molecules found therein, can affect expression of genes. Arrangement of these groups in male and female sex hormones affect their shape and function.
carboxyl
COOH: A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group. Amino acids are acids because they always possess which functional group? Ionized with 1-
energy
Capacity to do work
polysaccharide
Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides
Epstein-Barr virus
Causative agent of mononucleosis (kissing disease; college disease); Transfer of saliva; Infection of the parotid salivary glands, fever, sore throat, fatigue. Has been linked to several types of cancer, notably Burkitt's lymphoma
mitotic (M) phase
Cell division occurs during this short phase, which generally involves two discrete processes: the contents of the nucleus (mainly the duplicated chromosomes) are evenly distributed to two daughter nuclei, and the cytoplasm divides in two. Includes mitosis and cytokinesis.
interphase
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases. Accounts for 90% of the cycle. The cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and ER.
endocytosis
Cellular uptake of biological molecules and particulate matter via formation of new vesicles from the plasma membrane. A cell engulfs a particle by wrapping pseudopodia around it and packaging it within a membrane-enclosed sace that can be large enough to be classified as a vacuole. The particle is digested after the vacuole fuses with a lysosome.
translocation
Change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome.
deletion
Change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the chromosome is removed. If the centromere is removed, the whole chromosome is lost.
Enclosed by a membrane that regulates the passage of materials between the cell and its surroundings, uses DNA as its genetic information, contains ribosomes
Characteristics of a cell
hormone
Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another
plant growth regulators
Chemicals produced in small amounts in cells in one part of a plant that act on other cells involved in growth and development. Travel in vessels but more often reach their targets by moving through cells or by diffusing through the air as a gas.
sulfur oxide and nitrous oxide
Chemicals released from the burning of fossil fuels
hydrocarbon
Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen
structural isomer
Compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.
fructose-6-phosphate
Conversion product of Glucose-6-phosphate upon the action of phosphoglucoisomerase
adenylyl cyclase
Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal, embedded in the membrane
ester linkage
Covalent bond between glycerol and fatty acid. A bond between a hydroxyl group of glycerol and a carboxyl group of the fatty acid.
5' cap
Cover that is added to the 5' end of mRNA before mRNA leaves the nucleus. A modified guanine nucleotide added onto the 5' end after 20-40 nucleotides have been transcribed.
ribosome
Cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are synthesized. Made of rRNA and protein.
3'
DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the free ___ end.
transposon
DNA segments that can move from one location to another within a cell's genome.
upstream
DNA that is located in the opposite direction RNA polymerase moves during transcription.
pandemic
Disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a very high proportion of the population.
131
During the normal development of C. elegans, the suicide of cells occurs exactly this amount of times.
myoblast
Embryonic cell that develops into a cell of muscle fiber
Dimitri Ivanowsky
Filterable infectious agents or "viruses", took juice from infected tobacco plant and passed it through a filter. -applied filtered sap from diseased leaves to healthy one
one gene-one enzyme hypothesis
George Beadle and Edward Tatum exposed bread mold to X-Rays, creating mutants that were unable to survive on minimal media.
wavelength
Horizontal distance between the crests or between the troughs of two adjacent waves
By secreting hardening substances/secondary cell wall
How does the primary wall harden?
160 billion
How many metric tons of carbohydrate are made per yer due to photosynthesis?
Maclin McCarty and Colin MacLeod
In 1944, Oswald Avery and these colleagues announced that the transforming agent was DNA in bacteria.
pyruvate
In C4 plants, what is used to regenerate PEP?
body plan
In animals, a set of morphological and developmental traits that are integrated into a functional whole—the living animal.
hypertonic
In comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a greater solute concentration. If a cell is placed under hypertonic conditions, it will shrivel due to loss of water.
flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
In electron transport chain, this prosthetic group of the flavoprotein is part of Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase). NADH gives electrons directly to this.
cytoplasm
In eukaryotes, the entire region between the nucleus and outer membrane of the cell. In prokaryotes, the interior.
5.2
In order to be considered acid rain, the pH must be lower than
nematode operons
In these operons, the RNA transcript is processed into separate mRNAs
methyl groups
Inactivation of an X chromosome involves modification of the DNA, including attachment of _____.
locus
Location of a gene on a chromosome
nucleic acid
Macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus. Are polymers of nucleotides. Examples are DNA and RNA
tetravalence
Makes carbon versatile (109.5) tetrahedral geometry
minimal medium
Medium that contains nothing but glucose and agar (bacteria do not metabolize agar) and biotin
catabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds. Electron transfers play a major role in these pathways.
niacin
NAD+ is a derivative of this.
N/C
Note that a polypeptide is always synthesized in one direction, from the initial methionine at the amino end, called the __-terminus, toward the __-terminus.
helical virus
Nucleic acid is helical, capsid is helical around it
ii
O
close
On a hot, dry day, plants ___ their stomata.
P generation
Parental generation, the first two individuals that mate in a genetic cross
70-95%
Percentage of water in cells
storage polysaccharide
Plant: Starch (amylose and amylopectin); Animals: Glycogen stored in human liver and muscle
DNA polymerase I
Prokaryotic only. Degrades RNA primer from 5' end and fills in the gap w/ DNA. One of two important polymerases in E. coli
1 micrometer/min
Rate that centromeres move during anaphase.
P700
Reaction center chlorophyll in the photosystem I. Best at absorbing light at 700 nm (far-red light)
passive transport
Requires NO energy, Movement of molecules from high to low concentration, Moves with the concentration gradient.
Stanley Miller
Scientist. Performed an experiment that produced amino acids under possible primitive earth conditions. ammonia, methane, hydrogen gas, and water vapor.
oncogenes
Sections of our DNA that can be mutated and lead to the production of a cancerous cell are called:
control elements
Segments of noncoding DNA that help regulate transcription of a gene by binding proteins called transcription factors.
positional information
Signals to which genes regulating development respond, indicating a cell's location relative to other cells in an embryonic structure.
glycine (Gly or G)
Simplest amino acid (nonpolar)
endocrine signaling
Specialized cells release hormone molecules into vessels of the circulatory system, by which they travel to target cells in other parts of the body.
antibodies
Specialized proteins that aid in destroying infectious agents
large/polar/hydrophilic
Species that are least permeable to membranes.
small polar/nonpolar/hydrophobic
Species that are most permeable to membranes.
organic chemistry
Study of all chemicals containing carbon
DNA demethylation
Taking away methyl group, turning on gene, to make RNA and proteins. Increases Gene Expression
template strand
The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an mRNA transcript.
evaporation
The change of a substance from a liquid to a gas
tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
The first virus to be crystallized in 1935. Has a helical capsid with the overall shape of a rigid wall
thylakoid space
The inner space of the thylakoid, which, in stage 1 of photosynthesis, a proton gradient is generated and ATP is synthesized, where protons become concentrated in the chloroplast.
mRNA
The large and small ribosomal subunits only attach when they join a ___ molecule.
large ribosomal subunit
The larger of the two structural parts of a ribosome that function together to translate MRNA to build a chain of amino acids that will make up a protein.
euchromatin
The less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription.
host range
The limited range of host cells that each type of virus can infect and parasitize.
sodium-potassium pump
The main electrogenic pump of animal cells
proton pump
The main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria
SRY (sex-determining region of Y)
The mammalian gene found on Y chromosome that specifies male development
extracellular matrix (ECM)
The meshwork surrounding animal cells; consists of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.
haploid-diploid system
The method of sex determination in bees and ants, where unfertilised eggs form males.
RNA processing
The modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus that is unique to eukaryotes. Both ends of the primary transcript are altered.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
The most beneficial microorganism for fermentation in the making of bread, wine, cider or beer. They use mating factors named a and alpha to communicate
cytoplasmic streaming
The motion of cytoplasm in a cell that results in a coordinated movement of the cell's contents. The directed flow of cytosol and organelles that facilitates distribution of materials within some large plant and fungal cells. Occurs along actin filaments and is powered by myosin.
cystic fibrosis
The normal allele for this gene codes for a membrane protein that functions in the transport of chloride ions between certain cells and the EC liquid. These chloride transport channels are defective or absent in the plasma membranes of children who inherit two recessive alleles for this disease. The result is an abnormally high concentration of EC chloride, which causes the mucus that coats certain cells to become thicker and sticker than normal. Recurrent bacterial infections due to the high concentration of chloride disabling healthy antibodies are fought to extend life.
3
The number of ATP consumed to convert G3P to RuBP.
9
The number of molecules of ATP consumed by the Calvin cycle for the synthesis of the G3P molecule.
atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
once
The number of times a phospholipid flip-flops in a membrane per month.
quaternary structure
The particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.
60%
The percentage of medicines used today that exert their effects by influencing G-protein pathways.
demethylate
The phosphorylation of an amino acid next to a methylated amino acid can ____ it.
determination
The point during development at which a cell becomes committed to a particular fate due to cytoplasmic effects or to induction by neighboring cells.
3.5 billion years ago
The point when primeval prokarayotes inhabited Earth.
voltage
The potential difference measured in volts. The amount of work to be done to move a charge from one point to another along an electric circuit.
induction
The process by which neighboring cells can influence the determination of a cell. Signals impinging on an embryonic cell from other embryonic cells in the vicinity, including contact with cell-surface molecules on neighboring cells and the binding of growth factors secreted by neighboring cells.
cleavage
The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically.
photophosphorylation
The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis.
Discovery Science
The process of scientific inquiry that focuses on using observations to describe nature (specific to general)
pyruvic acid
The product of glycolysis; 2 of these molecules are produced from a single glucose molecule. In the absence of oxygen, it undergoes fermentation and is reduced to either lactic acid or ethanol; in the presence of oxygen, it is oxidized to produce acetyl-CoA, which can enter the Krebs cycle.
3-Phosphoglycerate
The product of the short-lived intermediate splitting in two in the Calvin cycle. It receives an additional phosphate group from ATP becoming 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate.
oxidative phosphorylation
The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration
evaporative cooling
The property of a liquid whereby the surface becomes cooler during evaporation, owing to a loss of highly kinetic molecules to the gaseous state.
contrast
The property of microscopes to accentuate differences in parts of the sample, such as staining or labeling.
capsid
The protein shell that encloses a viral genome. It may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape.
secretory proteins
The proteins created by the ribosomes on the rough ER. These proteins are for the membrane, an organelle, or outside the cell. As a polypeptide chain grows from a bound ribosome, it is threaded into the ER lumen through a pore in the ER membrane, where it folds into its native shape. The rough ER keeps these separate from the proteins in the cytosol.
falsifiable
The quality of a hypthesis that makes it able to be disproven by experimental results
testable
The quality of a hypthesis that makes it able to be observed and measured
substrate
The reactant on which an enzyme works.
50%
The recombination frequency of genes on different chromosomes (unlinked).
FADH2
The reduced form (carries electrons) of FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide). this is the other main electron carrier in cellular respiration (NADH is the most common).
renaturation
The regaining of the correct secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure after denaturation of a protein. Happens if the protein is put back in appropriate environment.
mRNA binding site
The region of an mRNA molecule that binds the ribosome to initiate translation. Small subunit on the ribosome.
genetic recombination
The regrouping of genes in an offspring that results in a genetic makeup that is different from that of the parents.
cell cycle
The regular sequence of growth and division that cells undergo. The life of a cell from the time it is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division into two cells.
directly proportional
The relationship between surface area-volume ratio and efficiency of the cell.
pyruvate to acetyl CoA 2
The remaining two-carbon fragment is oxidized to form acetate. An enzyme transfers the electrons to NAD+, forming NADH
anchorage dependence
The requirement that to divide, a cell must be attached to a substratum.
trisomy X
The result in three X karyotypes and no Y karyotypes in women. This can effect 1:1000 live births they are healthy and fertile but usually cannot be distinguished from normal female.
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
The scientist who crafted a microscope to view living cells.
Robert Hooke
The scientist who first saw cell walls in 1665 as he looked at dead cells from the bark of an oak tree.
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs. Prepares for cell division. A nuclear envelope bounds the nucleus, contains one or more nucleoli, has two centrosomes, chromosomes have duplicated.
equational division
The second meiotic division is an ____________ because it does not reduce chromosome numbers
peptide bond formation
The second step in elongation. An rRNA molecule of the large subunit catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the new amino acid in the A site and the carboxyl end of the growing polypeptide in the P site, removing the peptide from the tRNA in the P site and attaching it to the new amino acid on the tRNA in the A site.
gene amplification
The selective synthesis of DNA, which results in multiple copies of a single gene, thereby enhancing expression. Can increase the number of copies of the proto-oncogene, making it an oncogene.
cytosol
The semifluid, jellylike soluble portion of the cytoplasm, which includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not the organelles covered with membranes.
Order, Regulation, Energy Processing, Evolutionary Adaptation, Growth and Development, Response to the Environment, Reproduction
The seven signs of life
X chromosome
The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA
The sheath of the tail contracts, injecting the phage DNA into the cell and leaving an empty capsid outside. The cell's DNA is hydrolyzed.
small ribosomal subunit
The smaller of the two structural parts of a ribosome that function together to translate mRNA and build a chain of amino acids that will make up a protein.
molecular mass
The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
0.002 nm
The theoretical resolution of an electron microscope
1950s
The time in which the electron microscope advanced cell biology.
eukaryotes
The transcription process of Archaea matches more closely with ___
phosphorylation
The transfer of a phosphate group, usually from ATP, to a molecule. Nearly all cellular work depends on ATP energizing other molecules by this method.
bacteria
The translation process of Archaea matches more closely with ___.
bioinformatics
The use of computers, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate biological information from large data sets.
trachea
The windpipe; tube leading from the larynx to the lungs; a passage through which air moves in the respiratory system. Lined with cilia to sweep debris upwards.
1953
The year Watson and Crick discovered the shape of DNA.
1665
The year in which cells were first seen by Robert Hooke.
Bacteria and Archaea
These domains consist of prokaryotes.
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
This is a metabolic intermediate in the glycolytic pathway. It is created by the exergonic oxidation of the aldehyde in glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. The result of this oxidation is the conversion of the aldehyde group into a carboxylic acid group which drives the formation of an acyl phosphate bond. This is incidentally the only step in the glycolytic pathway in which NAD+ is converted into NADH. The formation reaction of this requires the presence of an enzyme called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
glycoprotein
This protrudes as spikes on an adenovirus and influenza virus
Roger Kornberg
This scientist used X-ray crystallography to elucidate the structure of RNA polymerase at Stanford.
dependent assortment
Transmission of one allele would depend on transmission of other
transthyretin
Transports thyroxine and vitamin A in the blood and serves as a marker of nutritional status; sensitive protein test used to monitor daily supplements. Composed of 127 amino acids. Pleated sheets make up the core of this protein.
energy payoff phase 1 (step 6)
Triose phosphate dehydrogenase catalyzes two sequential reactions while it holds glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate in its active site. First, the sugar is oxidized by the transfer of electron and H+ to NAD+ , forming NADH in a very exergonic reaction. Triose phosphate dehydrogenase uses the released energy to attach a phosphate group to the oxidized substrate, making a product of very high potential energy. The source of the phosphates is the pool of inorganic phosphate ions that are always present in the cytosol.
microfilaments
Twisted double chains of actin subunits. Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell. Solid rods of the protein actin that make up part of the cytoskeleton. Two intertwined strands of actin, each a polymer of actin subunits. Primary role is to bear tension. Roles: Maintenance of cell shape, changes in cell shape, muscle contraction, cytoplasmic straming, cell motility, and cell division.
parvovirus
Type 2 virus. Does not have an envelope. B19 parvovirus (mild rash)
Spanish flu
Unprecedentedly lethal influenza epidemic of 1918 that killed more than 22 million people worldwide. Worst pandemic
cAMP
What accumulates when glucose is scarce in E. coli?
hydration sphere
When water molecules are attracted to a solute and form a "shell" around it
Peter Mitchell
Who developed the chemiosmotic theory for oxidative phosphorylation?
They contain 2 and 3 membranes respectively/free ribosomes
Why are mitochondria and chloroplasts not part of the endomembrane system?
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
a 5-carbon sugar that grabs and fixes carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle; the CO2 acceptor.
riboflavin
a B vitamin from which FAD derives
double-strand break
a DNA break cleaving the sugar-phosphate backbone of both strands of the DNA double helix
Ras
a G protein that turns on genes that stimulate the cell cycle. In cancer, it sends signals on its own.
Walther Flemming
a German anatomist who developed dyes that allowed him to observe the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis. Coined the terms mitosis and chromatin.
asymmetric carbon
a carbon atom that has four different atoms or groups attached
tortoiseshell cat
a cat with black and orange patches caused by X chromosome inactivation
cell-cell recognition
a cell's ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another
transformation
a change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell. In make a harmless bacteria pathogenic if around dead pathogenic bacteria.
structural formula
a chemical formula that shows the arrangement of atoms in a molecule or a polyatomic ion; each dash between a pair of atoms indicates a pair of shared electrons
cri du chat
a chromosomal deletion in chromosome 5 that results in children who are mentally retarded, have small heads, and have a cry that sounds like a loud cat; they die at a young age
5-Methyl cytidine
a component of DNA that has been modified by addition of the methyl group
Huntington's disease
a dominant hereditary disease marked by degeneration of the brain cells and causing chorea and progressive dementia.
thalidomide
a drug prescribed for thousands of pregnant women in the late 1950s and early 1960s. One enantiomer reduced morning sickness, but the other caused severe birth defects.
reovirus
a family of Type III virus. Includes Rotavirus and Colorado tick fever
Lawrence Henderson
a famous ecologist who wrote The Fitness of the Environment and who highlights the importance of water to life
vaccine
a harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen that stimulates the immune system to mount defenses against the harmful pathogen.
familial cardiomyopathy
a heart condition responsible for sudden death in young athletes due to a point mutation.
alkaptonuria
a hereditary condition in which the urine is black because it contains alkapton, which darkens upon exposure to air.
insulin
a hormone secreted by the pancreas, helps regulate the concentration of sugar in the blood of vertebrates.
cystinuria
a human disease characterized by the absence of a carrier protein that transports cysteine and some other amino acids across the membranes of kidney cells.
coordinate control
a key advantage of grouping genes with related functions into one transcription unit is that a single on-off "switch" can control the whole cluster at once; these genes are said to be under ___ ___
ligand
a molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule
cocktail
a multidrug treatment that includes a combination of two nucleoside mimics and a protease inhibitor
cinnabar (cn)
a mutant color in fly eye pigments.
embryonic lethal
a mutation with a phenotype leading to death of an embryo or larva
hemagglutinin (H)
a protein that helps the flu virus attach to host cells
motor proteins
a protein that interacts with cytoskeletal elements and other cell components, producing movement of the whole cell or parts of the cell. They can walk the vesicles along microtubules. They allow whole cells to move along fibers outside of them. They also move cilia and flagella and can help create vesicles. They may also regulate biochemical activities in response to mechanical stimulation.
transport membrane proteins
a protein that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute. Other transport proteins shuttle a substance from one side to the other by changing shape. Some of these proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane.
alkapton
a protein that turns urine black
proton pump
a pump that actively transports hydrogen ions out of the cell, which transfers positive charge from the cytoplasm to the EC solution.
aster
a radial array of short microtubules, extending from each centrosome.
hydra
a relatively simple animal that reproduces asexually by budding.
exoskeleton
a rigid external covering for the body in some invertebrate animals, especially arthropods, providing both support and protection.
polyadenylation signal sequence
a sequence located towards the end of the 3'UTR that signals for cleavage of the 3' end of the mRNA molecule and addition of the poly A tail. AAUAAA
polyp
a small, benign growth in the colon lining
aqueous solution
a solution in which water is the solvent
Caenorhabditis elegans
a species of nematode that has been studied for apoptosis due to its small cell number. Apoptosis was seen to have occurred at precise points during embryonic development.
acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)
a sulfur-containing compound: a two-carbon molecule; The entry compound for the Krebs cycle in cellular respiration; formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme. Derived from a B vitamin
Celsius scale
a temperature scale that defines the freezing point of water as 0 degrees and the boiling point of water as 100 degrees
adenomatous polyposis coli (APC)
a tumour-suppressor gene associated with an inherited susceptibility to develop colon polyps. Is responsible for cell migration and adhesion.
Ashkenazic Jew
a type of Jew in which the incidence of Tay-Sachs is 100 times greater than in other Jews
nonsense mutations
a type of base-pair substitution which changes as codon for an amino acid into a stop codon, causing translation to end prematurely.
missense mutations
a type of base-pair substitution which changes one amino acid to another one and which has little effect on the protein: the new amino acid may have properties similar to those of the amino acid it replaces, or it may be in a region of the protein where the exact sequence of amino acids is not essential to its function.
silent mutations
a type of base-pair substitution which has no effect on the encoded protein due to the redundancy of the genetic code.
20%
a typical human cell expresses about ___ of its genes at any given time
measles virus
a virus infecting only humans
recessive
any male receiving the _____ allele for a trait will express the phenotype.
fluorescence
any process in which an atom or molecule, excited by a photon of a given energy, de-excites by emission of a lower-energy photon
arista
appendage on the head of an insect.
recessive
attached earlobes
class I mutant
can grow on orinthine, citruline, or arginine
glucose transporter
carry glucose from high to low concentration (extracellular to cytoplasm)-facilitated diffusion by undergoing a subtle change in shape that translocates the solute-binding site across the membrane.
citric acid cycle 2
citrate is converted to its isomer, isocitrate, by removal of one water molecule and addition of another.
amyloplasts
colorless plastids that store starch (amylose), particularly in roots and tubers
Kingdom Plantae
contains multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms including gymnosperms and angiosperms.
photoelectric tube
converts light energy to electricity in a spec-20.
azidothymidine (AZT)
curbs HIV reproduction by interfering with the synthesis of DNA by reverse transcriptase.
Frederick Sanger
determined the amino acid sequence of proteins by using protein-digesting enzymes to break the polypeptides at specific places. Determined the structure of insulin.
lysosome
digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolyzed. In an ANIMAL CELL. Contain chemicals that break down certain materials. Breaks down dead cells. A membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that digests macromolecules.
Domain Eukarya
domain of all organisms whose cells have nuclei, including protists, plants, fungi, and animals
nuclear envelope
double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with ER
glucose = NADH + ETC = oxygen
downhill route of cellular respiration.
P680+
drives photolysis of water by the water-splitting enzyme in the thylakoid lumen, strongest oxidizing agent known, since its electron hole must be filled.
3 billion
each aquaporin allows entry of up to how many water molecules per second.
Dicer
enzyme that cleaves and processes double stranded RNA to produce siRNAs or miRNAs that are 21-25 nucleotides in length
phosphoglycerokinase
enzyme that converts two 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate to two 3-phosphoglycerate and yields 2 ATP
cellulose synthase
enzyme that synthesizes cellulose and microfibrils and deposits them to the extracellular space
permease
enzyme that transports lactose into the cell
second law of thermodynamics
every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe
MN blood group
example of codominance in humans
skin pigmentation
example of polygenic inheritance in humans
1/3
expression of up to ____ of all our genes are regulated by miRNAs.
XX
female sex chromosomes
1/10000
fraction of people with HD
lactose
glucose + galactose. The sugar present in milk.
glucose-1-phosphate
glycogen breakdown releases this sugar which the cell converts to glucose-6-phosphate
morphogen gradient hypothesis
gradients of substances called morphogens establish an embryo's axes and other features of its form
translocation complex
has a membrane pore and a signal-cleaving enzyme that the SRP binds to.
Karl Correns
in 1909, he observed that the coloration of discolored plant offspring was determined only by the maternal parent.
lysosomes, centrosomes (with centrioles), flagella
in animal cells but not in plant cells
10^-14
in any aqueous solution at 25 C, the product of the hydrogen and hydroxide ions is
chloroplasts, central vacuole, cell wall, plasmodesmata
in plant cells but not animal cells
chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)
in this disease, a portion of chromosome 22 gets swapped with a piece of chromosome 9 (translocation). Is a cancer affecting white blood cells
1/1000
incidence of trisomy X
salt
ionic compound
petroleum
liquid fossil fuel; oil
chromatin
material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible as individual chromosomes in a dividing cell
egg
maternal effect genes are placed in the __ while it is still in the ovary, affecting the egg development
XYY
men who are somewhat taller than average.
dimer
molecule made up of two subunits
nucleoside triphosphate
molecule that turns into a nucleotide when it is added to a DNA or RNA molecule
transposition
movement of a gene on a chromosome, can stimulate proteins in excess in cancer
endoplasmic reticulum
network of membranous sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes; has rough (ribosome-studded) and smooth regions.
regulatory RNAs
noncoding RNAs that participate in regulating gene expression; three major types: miRNAs, siRNAs,
glycolysis
occurs in the cytosol, begins the degradation process by breaking glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. Can occur in the presence or absence of O2. No CO2 is produced in this phase. If O2 is present, the chemical energy stored in pyruvate and NADH can be extracted by the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
peptidyl-tRNA binding (P) site
one of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. It holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.
general transcription factors
one of a set of eukaryotic proteins that are typically required for the synthesis of mRNA
P680/primary acceptor/Pq/cytochrome complex/Pc/P700/primary acceptor/Fd/NADP+ reductase/NADPH
order of the light reactions
pyruvate kinase
phosphoenolpyruvate is made into pyruvate by this enzyme
pH
power of hydrogen: -log[H+]
cyanobacteria
produced the first oxygen atoms on Earth as a by product of photosynthesis
ovalbumin
protein of egg white, used as an amino acid source for the developing embryo
alcohol fermentation
pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps. The first releases CO2 from pyruvate, which is converted to acetaldehyde. Then, acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol
lactic acid fermentation
pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2.
reciprocal translocation
reciprocal exchange of segments between two nonhomologous chromosomes (more common)
class III mutant
require arginine to grow
codon recognition
requires GTP, which helps with accuracy. The first step in elongation is called _____, and occurs when the anticodon of an incoming tRNA molecule, carrying its amino acid, pairs up with the mRNA codon in the A site of the ribosome.
S. J. Singer and G. Nicolson
scientists who proposed that membrane proteins are dispersed, individually inserted into the phospholipid bilayer with their hydrophilic regions protruding.
operator
short DNA region, adjacent to the promoter of a prokaryotic operon, that binds repressor proteins responsible for controlling the rate of transcription of the operon. Controls the access of RNA to the genes. Repressor-binding site.
cilium
short hairlike projection similar to a flagellum; produces movement in many cells. Works like oars, moving in a perpendicular direction with alternating power and recovery strokes.
RNA molecules
siRNAs are formed from much longer double-stranded _______, each of which gives rise to many siRNAs.
follicle cell
somatic cells that surround the oocyte and nurse cells during egg development. One-cell layer thick
Drosophila melanogaster
species of fruit fly that has been the subject of many genetic studies
internal rod
spinning of the rotor causes this to spin as well, which extends like a stalk into the knob in the ATP synthase
freeze-fracture
splits a membrane along the middle of the phospholipid bilayer. When this preparation is viewed with an electron microscope, protein particles are interspersed in a smooth matrix, supporting the fluid mosaic model.
glucose/hexokinase to glucose-6-phosphate/phosphoglucoisomerase to fructose-6-phosphate/phosphofructokinase to fructose-1,6 biphosphate/aldolase to dihydroxyacetone phosphate/isomerase to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate/triose phosphate dehydrogenase to 1,3-biphosphoglycerate/phosphoglycerokinase to 3-phosphoglycerate/phosphoglyceromutase to 2-phosphoglycerate/enolase to phosphoenolpyruvate/pyruvate kinase to pyruvate
steps of glycolysis
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
taxonomic order
true-breeding
term used to describe organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self-pollinate
300-nm fiber
the 30-nm fiber forms looped domains that attach to proteins
E. Gorter and F. Grendel
the Dutch scientists who reasoned that cell membranes must be phospholipid bilayers.
1 hour
the M phase would occupy less than ____
RNA polymerase II
the RNA polymerase used for mRNA synthesis
tonicity
the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water. It depends in part on its concentration of solutes that cannot cross the membrane, relative to that inside the cell.
secretion
the act of exporting from the cell
carboxylate ion
the anion produced when a carboxylic acid donates a proton to water
100
the approximate number of amino acids in a histone
sister chromatid cohesion
the close association of sister chromatids all along their lengths
carbon
the element that defines matter as organic
plus end
the end of a microtubule in which the accumulation and release of tubulin dimers is at the higher rate than the other, which allows growing and shrinking.
3' end
the end that is the attachment site for an amino acid on the tRNA molecule.
acetylcholinesterase
the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft; an enzyme important in the nervous system
protease
the enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller parts
1959
the first 3D structures for hemoglobin and another protein were worked out in this year.
aspartyl transcarbamoylase
the first enzyme in the pathway for pyrimidine biosynthesis in bacteria; uses cooperativity
energy investment phase
the first phase of glycolysis when the cell actually spends ATP.
Giardia
the human intestinal parasite that lacks mitochondria
2^n
the number of possible gametes, where n is the number of gene loci that are heterozygous
6,300
the number of prokaryote species
25
the number of proteins the Y chromosome codes for
1.8 million
the number of species biologists have identified and named.
10-100 million
the number of species found each year
8
the pH in the stroma
genetic counseling
the process of testing and informing potential parents about their genetic makeup and the likelihood that they will have offspring with genetic defects or hereditary diseases
bioluminescence
the production of light by means of a chemical reaction in an organism
Ced-3/Ced-4
the proteins created by ced-3 and -4 respectively.
reductionism
the reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study
intermembrane space
the region between the inner membrane and the outer membrane of a mitochondrion or a chloroplast
post-translational modifications
the removal of some amino acid segments; folding the protein = tertiary structure; stabilizing protein with disulfide bridges; adding carbohydrates. Occurs at the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi and usually includes addition of polysaccharides, lipids, or phosphates.
deamination
the removal of the amino group from an amino acid, creates the ammonia or urea. This must occur before amino acids can feed into glycolysis or the citric acid cycle.
biology
the scientific study of life
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. Very small compared to the X chromosome.
acetone
the simplest ketone
mycoplasmas
the smallest known cells, being bacteria. Have diameters between 0.1-1 micrometer. Lack cell walls.
20 nm
the smallest viruses are only ____ in diameter
random mutations
the source of all new alleles
3, 4, 8
the steps of the citric acid cycle that releases NADH
H1N1
the strain that caused the 1918 flu
cytology
the study of cell structure
bioenergetics
the study of how energy flows through living organisms
thermodynamics
the study of the energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter
deoxyribose
the sugar found in DNA.
8 nm
the thickness of the plasma membrane
response
the transduced signal finally triggers a specific cellular response.
self-pollination
the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant
1-5 micrometers
the typical diameter for bacteria
10-100 micrometers
the typical diameter for eukaryotic cells
mechanism
the view that physical and chemical laws govern all natural phenomena, including the processes of life.
16
there are __ different types of hemagglutinin
5-10%
there is strong evidence of an inherited predisposition in ___ of patients with breast cancer
21
this chromosome is trisomied in people with Down syndrome
amoeboid movement
this movement is controlled by microfilaments.
repressible operon
transcription is usually on, but can be inhibited (repressed) when a specific small molecule binds allosterically to a regulatory protein (example tryptophan)
plastocyanin (Pc)
transfers electrons from the Cytochrome complex to the P700 pair of PSI.
catalytic knob
turning of the rod activates catalytic sites on this part of the ATP synthase, which is held stationary by the stator, and produces ATP from ADP and Pi.
NADPH and ATP
two main products of light reaction
cyclic AMP/Ca 2+
two most widely used second messengers
Christian Doppler and Franz Unger
two professors that had a strong influence on Mendel
IAIA
type A
IAi
type A
IAIB
type AB
IBIB
type B
IBi
type B
amylose
unbranched and simplest form of starch, connected by alpha 1-4 linkages
translation initiation complex
union of mRNA, tRNA, small ribosomal subunit; followed by large subunit
anaerobic respiration
using substances other than oxygen as reactants to harvest chemical energy without using oxygen at all. Does have an ETC or respiratory chain.
acetic acid
vinegar
obligate intracellular parasite
virus that can only reproduce by invading a host cell
HTLV-1
virus that causes a type of adult leukemia
West Nile/equine encephalitis virus
viruses that infect mosquitoes, birds, horses, and humans
vein
water absorbed by roots are delivered to the leaves via this structure.
meiosis I
when does independent assortment occur?
autodigestion
when many lysosomes rupture and eat the cell
phosphoglucoisomerase
which enzyme turns glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-6-phosphate
