USHH Chapter 8

30. Define the term "judicial review" in your own words.

"Judicial review" is defined as a review by the US Supreme Court of the constitutional validity of a legislative act. Essentially, judicial review deems an amendment constitutional or unconstitutional.

40. Why did the British engage in naval impressment on such a wide and aggressive scale?

After the Embargo Act failed, the Non-Intercourse Act was signed, and Jefferson's term ended, Madison adopted Macon's Bill No. 2 in 1810, allowing trade to resume with Britain and France. If either Britain or France stopped attacks on American shipping, the U.S. would end trade with the other. The French agreed but Britain stepped up their attacks.

45. What did Tecumseh accomplish politically that few, if any, Indian leaders had ever achieved before?

After the loss of much Indian land at the Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809), Tecumseh gradually eclipsed his brother as the primary leader of the movement. He traveled throughout the Midwest urging tribes to form a political confederacy to prevent any further erosion of their lands. When the War of 1812 broke out, he withdrew to Michigan where he assisted the British in the capture of Detroit and led pro-British Indians in subsequent actions in southern Michigan (Monguagon) and northern Ohio (Fort Meigs).

43. What does the term "Indian revitalization" mean? (You will encounter this term again in US I and next year in US II).

American Indian revitalization movements evolved during the 18th and 19th centuries in North America in response to European cultures overwhelming and clashing with native lifestyles and cultures. Revitalization movements emerged due to many factors: the devastating effects of diseases brought in by the Europeans, the displacement of Indians from their traditional lands, warfare between Indians and Whites, the introduction of powerful new and damaging technologies, and the overall upheaval and disintegration of traditional Indian societies and cultures. These revitalization movements were religious in nature, offering hope for relief from the new oppressions.

22. What did the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions suggest about the rights of states in dealing with the federal government?

At the time, states still wielded power that was comparable to the federal government. They acted with sovereignty, which meant that because of the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions, Republicans could do as they please within those states without punishment. Also, the "crisis of freedom" in the late 1790s strongly enforced the idea that freedom of discussion was indispensable to American liberty and democratic government.

20. What did the Adams administration think it was doing by suppressing Fries's Rebellion and passing and enforcing the Alien and Sedition Acts?

By suppressing Fries' Rebellion and passing and enforcing the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Adams administration was attempting to silence their critics. The Alien Act allowed for the deportation of immigrants deemed dangerous by federal authorities. The Sedition Act allowing the prosecution of any publication critical of the government. The Sedition Act mainly targeted Republican press. Matthew Lyon, an editor for a Republican newspaper, was imprisoned for 4 months and fined.

51. Even though the War of 1812 marked the end of the Federalists as a national party, Foner argues that the Federalists left two important legacies. What were they?

During the Hartford Convention, Federalists didn't call for secession or disunion, but it affirmed the right of a state to "interpose" (to intervene) its authority if the federal government violated the constitution. Southern domination of the national government would long outlive the Federalist party. Further, the country stood on the edge of profound social and economic transformation that strengthened the very sources of commercial development; welcomed by Federalists, feared by Republicans.

11. Briefly describe the core beliefs, policies and goals of the Federalist party.

Federalists were supporters of the Washington administration and favored Alexander Hamilton. They were supported by rich merchants, farmers, lawyers, and established political leaders outside of the south. They had elitist views that were reflective of the 18th-century view of society as a fixed hierarchy and that public life was reserved for the wealthy. Hamilton said, "rich, the able, and the well-born" should be the only people in public office. Hamilton insisted that deference to authority was the only way for liberty to exist.

38. Was there any long-term significance to America's involvement in the Barbary Wars?

From 1785-96, pirates on the northern coast of Africa (Barbary States) captured American ships and held many sailors as slaves, paralyzing American trade with the Mediterranean. The American government paid lots of money in ransom and spent lots of money in pursuit of peace. The Pasha of Tripoli declared war on the U.S. America won the Barbary Wars, but Tripoli soon restarted harassing American ships. The Barbary Wars were America's first encounter with the Islamic world, establishing a long-lasting view that Muslims did not adhere to Western standards.

28. To what degree did Jefferson's management of the federal government differ from Hamilton's vision?

Hamilton envisioned the U.S. to one day be a superpower of a nation. He built his economic plan so that the U.S. could one day be such a nation. Hamilton believed a strong military was necessary for this to happen, but Jefferson thought otherwise. He believed in the importance of western expansion. Jefferson even reduced spending on the U.S. military. In 1803, he purchased the Louisiana Territory from the French, which would lead to the U.S. being a transcontinental nation. By managing Hamilton's militaristic ideas and giving him control of the U.S.'s economic situation, Jefferson helped to shape the nation.

25. Jefferson liked to refer to his election as "The Revolution of 1800." To what degree do you think it's an accurate description of the change brought about by the Jefferson administration?

I believe that this description of the changes brought by the Jefferson administration is accurate. His election revealed a flaw in the electoral system and the addition of the 12th Amendment, requiring electors to cast separate votes for President and Vice President. During his presidency, Jefferson reduced the national debt by thirty percent. He also purchased the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon Bonaparte in 1803, the beginning of Manifest Destiny. This was the idea that the U.S. should spread throughout the American continent. He also reduced the number of government employees, slashed the army and navy, and pardoned those imprisoned under the Sedition Act.

21. What was the Republican response to the Alien and Sedition Acts?

In 1798, In response to the Naturalization Act, The Alien Act, and The Sedition Act, Thomas Jefferson branded these acts as the "reign of witches". This was because of how many editors were charged under the Sedition Act. Editors of Republican press were convicted of spreading false, scandalous, and malicious information about the government. Madison and Jefferson mobilized opposition to these acts. They drafted resolutions from the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures and claimed the Sedition Act was unconstitutional because it violated the 1st Amendment.

36. What was the purpose of the Lewis & Clark expedition? What were the results? To what degree were the purpose and results different?

In 1804, Lewis and Clark were sent by Jefferson to explore the new land from the Louisiana Purchase. The purpose was to establish trading relations with western Indians and locate a water route to the Pacific Ocean. They eventually reached the Pacific Ocean via overland travel, but failed to find a commercial route to Asia. They found Indians already accustomed to dealing with European traders and already connected to global markets. The findings of Lewis and Clark strengthened the idea of Manifest Destiny.

48. Is it accurate to say that most of the American military success in the War of 1812 came in naval engagements? Why or why not?

In 1812, the American warship Constitution defeated the British warship Guerriere and in 1813, Commodore Oliver Perry defeated the British naval force on Lake Erie. These were two major naval successes for the American military.

49. What were General Andrew Jackson's "accomplishments" in the War of 1812? Remember his name. Much, much more to come.

In 1814, Andrew Jackson defeated hostile Cracks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in Alabama. He killed 800 of them. In 1815, Jackson continued fighting off the British in New Orleans. He recruited free black men, whom he called the "sons of freedom". Jackson promised the free black men the same pay as white recruits.

17. What was Washington's advice to the nation in his "Farewell Address?" How does this advice look from the vantage point of 2018-2019?

In Washington's "Farewell Address", he defended his administration against criticism, warned against party spirit, and he advised his countrymen to steer clear of international power power politics by avoiding permanent alliances with any part of foreign worlds. From the vantage point of 2018-2019, his words have been completely ignored and the U.S. has gone against all of his advice.

37. How was the status of both women and African-Americans in the Louisiana territory changed by the American purchase?

In the Louisiana Territory, the status of both women and African-Americans was damaged by the American purchase. When Louisiana was under control of the French and Spanish, free blacks had nearly all of the rights of the white citizens. Further, slaves had legal protection that the U.S. did not give to its slaves. The treaty that transferred Louisiana to the U.S. promised that all free inhabitants would enjoy the rights of citizens, but this changed after a slave code in the south was adopted, "forbidding blacks from ever considering themselves the equal of whites". Slaves in Louisiana lost the legal protection that they had had under the control of the Spanish and French.

7. Why did Hamilton's former Federalist Papers colleague, James Madison, oppose his economic plan so strongly? One of the two had obviously changed their thinking on economic issues. Which one was it and how had they changed?

James Madison shifted from the ideas of Hamilton and became more aligned with Republican ideas. Instead of taking an elitist stance like Hamilton ("rich, the able, and the well-born"- Ham quote). Madison began to support farmers and expanding west. Along with Jefferson, he believed that agriculture was the best direction for the U.S. economically.

26. What was James Madison's solution to dealing with the "embarrassing" issue of slavery in the U.S. Congress?

Madison found the issue of slavery to be " "embarrassing" and because it was such a divisive issue, he felt it must be kept out of national politics. However, in 1793, Congress implemented the constitution's Fugitive Slave Clause by enacting a law to allow federal and state judges facilitate the return of escaped slaves.

19. Why do you think President John Adams negotiated a peace settlement with France in 1800 rather than follow the advice of Alexander Hamilton (and other Federalists) and go to war?

Many Federalists led by Hamilton were opposed to the French Revolution and viewed it as anarchy. John Adams was still a Federalist, but he feuded with Hamilton, which caused tension within the party. To spite the other Federalists, Adams signed a peace treaty with France.

31. How did Marbury v. Madison establish the precedent of judicial review?

Marbury v. Madison, legal case in which, on February 24, 1803, the U.S. Supreme Court first declared an act of Congress unconstitutional, thus establishing the doctrine of judicial review. The court's opinion, written by Chief Justice John Marshall, is considered one of the foundations of U.S. constitutional law.

32. How did Chief Justice John Marshall extend the power of judicial review to apply to state, as well as federal, laws?

Marshall headed the Supreme Court. He established the Court's power to review the laws of Congress and states. Seven years after Marbury V. Madison, which established judicial review, Fletcher V. Park extended judicial review to state laws.

14. What vision of citizenship did the Democratic-Republican societies contribute to the development of American politics? Why were the Federalists so strongly opposed to them?

Nearly 50 Democratic-Republican societies were created because of like-minded supporters of the French Revolution and critics of the Washington Administration. They vision of citizenship was that "all men are naturally free, and possess equal rights. That all legitimate government originates in the voluntary social compact of the people." Democratic-Republicans believed in free speech and getting involved in public affairs. Federalists saw this as an example of how liberty was getting out of hand.

34. How did the Louisiana Purchase both challenge and validate Jefferson's constitutional and political views?

Originally, Jefferson had a conviction that the federal government was limited to powers specifically mentioned in the constitution. When he purchased the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson abandoned this conviction because the Constitution said nothing about buying territory from a foreign power.

3. How did Hamilton create "a new national debt?" Why would Hamilton have argued that a national debt was a good thing?

P.295 Hamilton created "a new national debt" with a 5 step program. The goals of it were to establish the nations financial stability, give governmental support to the country's most important financial interests and to eventually make the United States a major power. Hamilton argued that a national debt was a good thing because freeing the nation economically was the only way for the country to realize its true greatness.

5. Is there a connection between Hamilton's creation of a new national debt and his proposal for the Bank of the United States?

P.295 Hamilton wanted the Bank of the United States to serve as the nation's financial agent by aligning all of the country's debts. This included assuming the states debt as well.

1. Based on what you have learned in previous chapters, what does Foner mean when he states that George Washington was "a model of self-sacrificing virtue?"

P.295 Washington was selfless and fought for the greater good. He did this by surrounding himself with influential leaders with important ideas (Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams) and putting in his cabinet.

2. Why did the first political divisions in the new government arise over Alexander Hamilton's financial plan?

P.296 James Madison and Thomas Jefferson believed in a different path. Instead of trade with Britain, the U.S.'s main partner, Madison and Jefferson supported westward expansion. Their goal was a republic of grain and tobacco farmers. Hamilton favored promoting manufacturing, urban growth, and economic policy for bankers.

6. Briefly describe Thomas Jefferson and James Madison's understanding of free trade.

P.296 Thomas Jefferson and James Madison were against trade as a source of profit for the U.S. Instead, they believed western expansion was the best direction for the U.S. economically.

8. More than two hundred years later, which side do you think got the better of the deal that placed the national capital at Washington, D.C. and why?

P.297 Hamilton received the better side of the deal that placed the nation's capital along the Potomac River. In exchange for the a permanent Washington D.C. capital, Jefferson gave Hamilton the votes he needed for his program to pass. This allowed Hamilton to implement his 5-step program with the exception of subsidies to manufacturers.

9. Explain how and why the bitter rivalry between France and Britain dramatically influenced American politics in the period 1790-1815 when the governmental leaders in the United States had consistently expressed a desire to avoid involvement in Europe Affairs?

P.297-298 Americans welcomed the French Revolution, as it was inspired by their own revolution. Thomas Jefferson's followers felt that the French Revolution was a victory in self-government, regardless of its excesses. However, Britain was the main trading partner of the U.S., and France was a major ally of the United States after they had helped the states gain independence. The relationships of the two countries with the U.S. put America in a difficult position regarding the rivalry. The U.S. believed that they reserved the right to trade with both nations in a nonmilitaristic way, but this only resulted in both sides kidnapping sailors and stealing U.S. ships. While many Americans were eager to assist the French, Washington had issued the Proclamation of Neutrality in 1793, preventing both sides from intervening with European Affairs.

46. In 1812, what were the immediate reasons why President James Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war against Britain?

President James Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war against Britain. There were reports that the British were encouraging Tecumseh's efforts and assaults on American shipping continue. While Congress allowed the bill to pass, the vote revealed a divided country, in which the south and west were in favor of the war and the north was not in favor.

13. What role did the creation of the federal postal system play in the early political development of the United States?

Republicans utilized the federal postal system to spread their message and promote their candidates. They became good at printing pamphlets, newspapers, and holding meetings to promote their cause. They viewed politics as a part of public life. Meanwhile, Federalists saw politics as an activity for a small group of elite men, leading them to not advertise to the people, only the elite. By advertising to a larger audience via the federal postal system, democratic-republicans won the election of 1800.

23. How did the Republicans differ from the Federalists in the way that they organized and conducted election campaigns? To what degree were the Republicans successful?

Republicans were far more successful at winning elections because of their campaigns. They did so by utilizing the federal postal service, allowing them to reach a wider audience than the Federalists. Republicans believed politics were for the people, unlike Federalists, who had more of an elitist mindset. They believed that politics were only for a small group of wealthy men. By printing pamphlets and sending them throughout the nation, Republicans succeeded in elections and had far better-organized campaigns.

44. Were Handsome Lake, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa all part of the Indian revitalization movement?

Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, and Tenskwatawa, a religious prophet who called for complete separation from whites, the revival of Indian culture, and resistance to federalist policies. Handsome Lake of Seneca preached that Indians must refrain from gambling, drinking, and sexual promiscuity. He believed in Indians regaining their autonomy without directly challenging whites and urged his people to take up farming and attend school. Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa wanted to revitalize Indian culture. Handsome Lake did not care for the revitalization of Indian culture, only for the betterment of Indians, which does not make him a part of Indian culture.

42. Was the "Age of Prophecy" a product of those Indians who supported the federal policy of "civilization" or of the Nativists? Think carefully as you explain your answer.

The "Age of Prophecy" was a movement for the revitalization of Indian life. It was a product of Indians who were Nativists, such as Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, and Tenskwatawa, a religious prophet. They were not in support of the federal policy of "civilization". They called for a complete separation from the whites and their civilization. They wanted a revival of traditional Indian culture and resisted many federal policies.

15. How did the expanding public sphere create opportunities for women restricted by the domestic sphere to participate in public discourse?

The 1790s was a time of renewed discussions about women's rights and the "expansion of the public sphere" offered new opportunities for women. They could now express their opinions through print. Hannah Adams was the first American woman to support herself as an author. Judith Sargent Murray wrote about women's right to education under the pen name "The Gleaner".

39. What were Jefferson's intentions in the Embargo Act? Did he have other options with which to accomplish his goals? To what degree did the Embargo Act succeed in protecting American commercial shipping?

The Embargo Act was signed by Jefferson in 1807. Jefferson intended to hurt Britain and France economically, which was a in response to Britain and France seizing American ships. America was doing its best to remain neutral on the issue of France and Britain fighting, which was becoming difficult. Jefferson hoped that the Embargo Act would lead to the end of European interference with American shipping. The Embargo Act failed. Neither France or Britain were impacted by it, but American trade was devastated.

27. To what degree did accounts of the Haitian Revolution influence Virginia's (and the South's) reaction to Gabriel's Rebellion?

The Haitian Revolution of 1791 affirmed the universality of everyone wanting liberty and inspired hope among slaves in the United States. Haitian refugees even came to the U.S. and spread stories of the massacre of slave owners, instilling white Americans with a fear of slave uprisings in the U.S. In Virginia, Gabriel's Rebellion almost came to fruition: a conspiracy was organized for a slave uprising to occur in pursuit of freedom. It was organized by Gabriel and Solomon who were blacksmiths, and Martin, a slave preacher. Their plan was to march into Richmond, Virginia, and kill some white people and hold the rest hostage until they agreed to abolish slavery. The plot was discovered before they could do it. The leaders were arrested and hung. George Tucker said that this showed that slaves possessed the same "love of freedom" as fully as other men.

33. To what degree did the Haitian Revolution facilitate the Louisiana Purchase?

The Louisiana Purchase was Jefferson's greatest achievement. This happened as a result of the Haitian Rebellion. Saint Dominique (Haiti) had been under the control of France when the rebellion occurred, which was a major financial loss for Napoleon Bonaparte. Jefferson wanted only to purchase New Orleans, but Napoleon needed money to for military campaigns in Europe. With his dreams of an American empire ruined, Napoleon offered to sell the entire Louisiana territory. Jefferson purchased it for $15 million.

12. Which economic and social groups formed the Republican party? What ideas united them?

The Republican party was led by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. Republicans had more faith in democratic self-government than Federalists and were sympathetic to France. They criticized social and economic inequality and were more accepting of broad democratic participation. Republicans were supported by wealthy southern planters and ordinary farmers.

29. What did Jefferson's decision to pardon those imprisoned under the Sedition Act indicate about his plans for his presidential administration?

The Sedition Act was implemented by John Adams during his administration. Jefferson's decision showed that free speech would be allowed during his presidency.

50. Compare and contrast the lasting effects of the War of 1812 on both the United States and Canada.

The War of 1812 became known as the Second War of Independence. The war confirmed the ability of a Republican government to conduct war without surrendering its institutions. Andrew Jackson became a war hero and an example of the abilities of a Republican government. Furthermore, Indians lost their remaining power in the west. Neither they nor the British would pose a threat to American control of land east of the Mississippi River. The war also strengthened Canada's sense of nationalism.

24. What was the great irony behind Jefferson's election to the presidency by the U.S. House of Representatives?

The election of 1800 was a tie between Jefferson and Burr. They both won 73 electoral votes. To break the tie, Alexander Hamilton, head of the Federalist party and Jefferson's adversary, urged his followers in the House of Representatives to vote for Jefferson. The idea of Jefferson winning the election because of the support of his adversary has great irony. To prevent this situation from happening again, the 12th Amendment was adopted, requiring electors to cast separate votes for President and Vice President.

4. Based on what you know about America's colonial past, why was Hamilton's Report on Manufactures such a radical idea?

The purpose of Hamilton's Report on Manufactures was to impose a tariff on imported foreign goods, thus encouraging American manufacturing of products similar to foreign goods. This was seen as such a radical idea given America's past of fighting to liberate themselves from taxation. In a sense, Hamilton was turning the people's ideals against them.

18. What does it mean that 1796 was the first "contested" presidential election?

To contest is defined as "engage in competition to attain (a position of power)." This means that the presidential election of 1796 was a competition between two candidates, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. George Washington was unanimously chosen to be president.

41. Why do you think that the "War Hawks" came almost exclusively from the southern and western states?

War Hawks were a new generation of political leaders who were calling for war with Britain. They were lead by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. They wanted to defend national honor against British insults. They also wanted Canada to be annexed.

16. What were the most important accomplishments of Washington's presidency?

Washington implemented Hamilton's plan to pay off the national debt and become financially sound, established "treaties" with many Native American tribes, quashed the Whiskey Rebellion, approved Jay's Treaty of 1794-95, and established numerous legal precedents.

10. What were the Washington administration's intentions in issuing the Proclamation of Neutrality of 1793 and negotiating Jay's Treaty of 1794-95?

When the Washington Administration issued the Proclamation of Neutrality of 1793, their intention was to avoid getting involved with European Affairs, but America believed they still reserved the right to trade with Britain and France in a nonmilitaristic way. However, this did not stop the British from stealing hundreds of American ships trading in the French West Indies and kidnapping American sailors. To resolve this, the U.S. sent John Jay to London for a negotiation. Jay's Treaty of 1794-95 was the most controversial event of Washington's presidency. It said that no British concessions on impressment or the rights of American shipping. Favored treatment of British imported goods and cancelling the French-American alliance increased division in America.

47. How and why was the United States divided over the War of 1812?

While Congress allowed the bill to pass, the vote revealed a divided country, in which the south and west were in favor of the war and the north was not in favor. Both Federalists and Republicans north of New Jersey were not in favor of declaring war. North of New Jersey was where most of the mercantile and financial resources were concentrated. They voted against the war.