UWorld MCAT Study Guide

cytoskeletal filaments

found in cytoplasm of cells -NOT part of plasma membrane

trait theorists

individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors -Consistent & enduring personality dispositions

Walls of right ventricle vs left ventricle

the right ventricle as thinner walls than the left ventricle because it needs to pump blood at a lower pressure to reach only the lungs -in contrast, the thicker walls of the left ventricle allow it to pump blood at a higher pressure to reach all other tissues in the body

Radiowaves

10^6 to 10^-1

Parasomnias

Disorders involving abnormal function of the nervous system during sleep -Most likely to occur: Childhood Common examples: Somnambulism, night terrors

Single-strand DNA-binding proteins (SSBPs)

binds to each strand to prevent spontaneous reannealing of unwound single-stranded DNA

primary kinship

first degree family members

amino acids with nonionizable side chains

have 2 pkas (titration) -do NOT exchange protons with H2O -R group does NOT have a pka

propagation velocity

independent of photon energy; it depends only on the medium through which it travels

total energy

kinetic energy + potential energy = 1/2mv^2 + mgh

sigmoidal curves indicate...?

multiple, cooperative active sites

what increases the stability of nucleic acid structures

nucleic acids with more total base pairs and more G-C pairs are more stable

peritoneal cavity

potential space between the parietal and visceral layers of peritoneum -found within the abdomen and contains organs such as the liver, stomach, and intestines

NK cells

release toxins to destroy virus-infected body cells

tertiary kinship

secondary relatives of an individual's primary relatives (ex: mother's uncle)

proteins with similar folds tend to have...?

similar amino acid sequences --> secondary and tertiary structures are determined by primary amino acid structure

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green -color information from cones is combined in such a way that we perceive three opposing pairs of colors: black/white, blue/yellow, and red/green. No two members of a pair are seen simultaneously, which is why we do not see colors such as "reddish green" or "bluish yellow."

transamination reaction

when amino acids lose an amino group to form an alpha-keto acid -transfer NH3 group to alpha-ketoglutarate, which is converted to glutamate

determining absolute configuration for chair conformation

if the highest priority group is axial or equatorial down, then reverse the configuration (R to S, or S to R)

Determining thermodynamic and kinetic product based on temperature

at lower temperatures the kinetic product will be the major product produced. In such a case, the reaction is said to be under kinetic control. However, at higher temperatures the additional energy enables the reaction to overcome the larger energy barrier for the formation of the thermodynamic product, making it the major product formed.

isoprene to cholesterol

isoprene --> monoterpene (2 isoprene) --> squalene (triterpene) --> cholesterol (via demethylation) --> steroid hormones

simple fluid barometer

atmospheric pressure = hydrostatic pressure = ρfgh Ph itself is related to the fluid density (ρf), gravitational acceleration (g), and total fluid column height (h).

endothelium

makes up innermost surface of the cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels) -promotes blood fluidity -acts as selective barrier between blood and surrounding tissues

how is reactivity of a molecule determined in SN1 reactions?

by the carbocation -more stable carbocation = more reactive

tertiary carbon

carbon bonded to three other carbons

functional group priority order

carboxylic acid + derivatives including acyl halide, aldehyde, ketone, alcohol, amine

intersectionality

describes the multiple, interconnected social identities (eg, gender, age, race, class) that intersect to impact individuals' lives, perspectives, and treatment in society. The gender pay gap (or gender wage gap) depicted in Figure 1 illustrates how the inequality in pay between female and male workers is related to both gender and age, which is an example of intersectionality.

Looking-glass self

describes the way our interpretation of how others perceive us impacts our self-concept (beliefs about ourselves)

Normative social influence

describes when an individual conforms to fit in or avoid rejection by others. For example, a college freshman notices that everyone on campus wears yellow wristbands, so he wears one to fit in.

osmolarity

molar solute concentration (M) x van 't Hoff's factor (i) units: Osmol/L

activity of protein

moles/time

secondary kinship

primary relatives of an individual's primary relatives (ex: mother's brother)

implicit memory

procedural memory reflexive/emotional

lens strength

P = 1/f S = 1/o + 1/i image distance = lens-retina distance object distance = lens-object distance -measured in units of diopters (D) = inverse meters (m^-1) -i and o = positive for converging lenses -i and o = negative for diverging lenses

A woman whose father is heterozygous for an ADPKD-causing mutation in PKD1 and whose mother in unaffected has a child with a man with no family history of ADPKD. What is the % chance that their first child will have ADPKD? -->ADPKD is autosomal dominant

P(mother inherited A allele from father) x P(mother passes on A allele to child) = 0.5 x 0.5 = 25% --> need to account for whether the mother inherited the allele

inertia

The tendency of an object to resist a change in motion -an object in motion will stay in motion -an object at rest will stay at rest

what allows passive expiration without ATP?

elasticity of pulmonary tissue

Where are clotting factors synthesized?

liver using vitamin K

Loop of henle length

long loops of henle maximize H2O absorption -maintains high [salt] in medulla, which facilitates H2O resorption from descending limb

prostaglandins

nonhydrolyzable 20-carbon lipids involved in autocrine and paracrine signaling -they are derived from arachidonic acid and often help mediate localized inflammatory responses

Is hydrogen a metal or nonmetal?

nonmetal ---ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals

incident angle

the angle between the incident ray and the normal -angle between refracted ray and normal is greater than 90 degrees

basophils

release chemical mediators such as histamine that enhance an immune response

fictive kinship

social ties that are based on neither consanguinal (blood ties) nor affinal ("by marriage") ties, in contrast to true kinship ties. (ex: adopted children)

Schizophrenia negative symptoms

("pathological deficits") -apathy (lack of motivation) -social withdrawal -flat affect -poverty (lack) of speech -anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure)

Learning theory of language development

(also known as the behaviorist theory) is based on the idea that language is an entirely learned behavior. This theory suggests that humans are born as "blank slates" and develop language skills through operant conditioning, imitation, and practice.

what generates the torque that turns the flagellum?

the filament -while the hook transmits torque generated by the basal body, it does not generate any rotation itself

blood plasma

the liquid portion of the blood that contains minerals, hormones, antibodies, and nutritional materials -Blood proteins, also termed plasma proteins, are proteins present in blood plasma -does not contain lymph; however, lymph is derived from blood

spleen

-blood filtration -destruction of pathogens and damaged RBCs by phagocytic cells -immune response mounted by lymphocytes

pinocytosis

active transport type of endocytosis -nonspecific (receptor binding NOT required) -continuous invagination of membrane to take up fluid -inhibiting pinocytosis does not inhibit endocytosis

specific activity

activity/total amount of protein

how to increase the solubility of a compound with a base?

add an acid

Alipathic Amino Acids

R groups are nonpolar and hydrophobic -includes glycine

what coats proteins with a negative charge in SDS page?

SDS -denatures proteins -not a reducing agent

salt formation pH

The lower the pH, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+]. The lower the pKa, the stronger the acid and the greater its ability to donate protons. -High Ka = low pH = strong acid

viroid

pathogenic, circular, single-stranded RNA molecules lacking protein coats -primarily affect plants -silence gene expression -inhibit protein synthesis by binding RNA sequences -enter cells by hiding inside viruses or damaged tissue

peaks on a transmittance vs. wavenumber graph

peaks point downward

normative organizations

people voluntarily unite based on shared values and/or goals (eg, church congregations, sororities)

antibodies

proteins that noncovalently bind specific chemical groups on proteins known as epitopes -epitopes = typically portions of proteins or peptides, so antibodies typically participate in noncovalent protein-protein interactions

electromagnetic waves (from longest wavelength to shortest)

radio > micro > infrared > visible > UV > x-ray > gamma Ryan Melts Ice. Vickey Undergoes X Games

germline mutations vs somatic mutations

germline mutations = can be passed down to offspring during sexual reproduction somatic mutations = alteration of somatic cell lineage (DNA) after contraception; will not pass to an offspring

Oxidation of saturated fatty acids

no isomerization required -fatty acids with even number of carbons yield 1/2 as many acetyl-CoA units as total number of carbons -fatty acids with odd number of carbons: acetyl-CoA = (total carbons - 3)/2

do prokaryotic cells have a mitochondria?

no. they make ATP using a process called glycolysis that does not require a mitochondria

telomeres

noncoding and highly repetitive -do not encode any gene products because if they did, information for these products would be lost upon replication and could harm the cell

normal hydrostatic pressure vs increased hydrostatic pressure

normal hydrostatic pressure: hydrostatic pressure = osmotic pressure -no fluid accumulated in interstitial space increased hydrostatic pressure: hydrostatic pressure > osmotic pressure -fluid accumulates in interstitial space in lungs -hydrostatic pressure is increased by increased blood flow -osmotic pressure is increased by increased protein concentration

agonist

normal or enhanced cell response

loading controls

normalize protein detection and ensure that protein loading is standardized across the gel -When western blots are used to determine the levels of protein expression in a sample, loading controls ensure that the results aren't due to loading or protein transfer errors -They indicate the equal loading of samples across all wells. Loading controls also indicate the proper transfer of proteins to the membrane during the western blotting process. -proteins used as loading controls tend to be ubiquitously expressed and have consistent concentrations across all cell/tissue types -needed for proper interpretation of western blots -absolutely essential to ensure the reliability of your data

declarative memory

the cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared; declarative memories appear to be primarily consolidated during slow-wave sleep (SWS), whereas procedural memories appear to be primarily consolidated during REM

solubility product constant is influenced by:

things that influence solubility.. 1. Temperature (increases with temp) 2. Polarity (like dissolves like) 3. Pressure (For majority of solid and liquid solutes, pressure does not affect solubility, only gases) 4. Gas solutes: Henry's law states that solubility of gas is directly proportional to the pressure of this gas. This is mathematically presented as: p = kc, where k is a temperature dependent constant for a gas. 5. Molecular size: larger = less soluble -STIRRING INCREASES THE RATE OF DISSOLUTION BUT NOT THE SOLUBILITY

irreversible inhibitors

typically react with nucleophilic side chains, forming covalent bonds to the enzyme -once covalently linked, the inhibitor cannot be displaced by any amount of substrate -preincubation with the inhibitor provides more time fo covalent linkages to occur; therefore, it can increase the level of inhibition because more enzymes will be inactivated

universalism vs piaget (language development)

universalism: cognition controls language Piaget: cognition influences language

urethra

urine exits bladder

ligases

use energy from ATP hydrolysis to combine two molecules into one

litmus paper

used as an acid-base indicator and changes color depending on the pH of the solution it is in. Brønsted-Lowry acids (pH < 7) can donate a proton (H+ ion) and will turn litmus paper red. Brønsted-Lowry bases (pH > 7) can accept a proton and will turn litmus paper blue.

Ohm's law for flow

ΔP = Q x R pressure drop = volumetric flow rate x resistance

arginine pka

12.48

aspartic acid pka

3.65

histidine pka

6

elastic potential energy

U=1/2kx^2 x = DISPLACEMENT from equilibrium

ideal battery

V = emf

Viruses can only be seen with

an electron microscope

visible spectrum

400nm-700nm

hybridization of the central atom rules

• 1 bond to another atom or lone pair = s (not really hybridized) • 2 bonds to another atom or lone pairs = sp • 3 bonds to another atom or lone pairs = sp2 • 4 bonds to another atom or lone pairs = sp3 • 5 bonds to another atom or lone pairs = sp3d • 6 bonds to another atom or lone pairs = sp3d2

finding amount of gas generated in a reaction

*make sure to multiply by 22.4 L of gas/ 1 mole of gas (only if at STP)

penetrance and expressivity

- penetrance is the percentage of individuals in the population carrying the allele who actually express the phenotype associated with with - expressivity is the degree to which the phenotype associated with the genotype is expressed in individuals who carry the allele

relationship between fluid pressure and velocity

-->bernoulli's equation and venturi effect -as velocity increases, pressure decreases -as cross sectional area decreases while volumetric flow rate remains constant, velocity increases Q = vA

heterogeneous catalyst vs. homogenous catalyst

-for heterogeneous catalysts, increasing surface area increases reaction rate -->disadvantages are often limited activity and selectivity -for homogenous catalysts, increasing solubility increases reaction rate

microRNA (miRNA)

-functions in RNA interference -binds target complementary sequence on mRNA molecule to silence gene expression at translational level -example of noncoding RNA -inhibit expression of target mRNA by blocking its translation or marking it for degradation

small interfering RNA (siRNA)

-functions in RNA interference -binds complementary mRNA signals for its degradation

polarization

-property of TRANSVERSE waves -when two polarized waves combine, a new wave is formed with a different polarization -circular polarization occurs when 2 wave forms with equal amplitude and perpendicular linear polarization propagate 90 degrees out of phase with one another -phase differences of 0 degrees and 360 degrees reflect waveforms that are traveling in phase with one another - polarization is fixed and will not rotate -180 degree phase shift = waves completely out of phase; polarization oriented in fixed orientation at 45 degree angle to axis of polarization of each wave -linear polarization filter blocks electric fields aligned perpendicular to the axis of polarization -light waves with magnetic fields oriented perpendicular to the axis have electric fields parallel to the axis

hyaline cartilage

-reduces friction between bony surfaces to facilitate joint movement -allows linear bone growth in epiphyseal growth plate -reinforces respiratory pathways -supports external nose -most abundant

fibrous cartilage

-restricts compression forces and stretch -prevents direct contact between bones (between vertebrae of spines)

slow oxidative (type 1) muscle fiber

-slow speed of contraction -best used for endurance activity (long distance running) -resistant to fatigue -primary source of ATP = aerobic respiration -plentiful mitochondria, capillaries, and myoglobin -red appearance

How to determine SN1 and SN2 reactions?

1. Alkyl Chain: SN1 - trying to determine if a stable carbocation can take place on either a tertiary or secondary carbon SN2 - trying to determine if the nucleophile has room to attack (methyl, primary, or secondary carbon) without having any steric hindrance from nearby groups 2. Leaving Group: SN1 - very important because it has to leave by itself causing a carbocation to form SN2 - not as important because the nucleophile will kick it out 3. Attacking Group: SN1 - weaker or neutral nucleophile SN2 - strong or negative nucleophile 4. Solvent SN1 - polar protic solvent - can easily dissolve any charges formed SN2 - polar aprotic - don't have the means to stabilized a charged leaving group and carbocation

Apoptosis vs Autolysis

1. Apoptosis = programmed cell death (initiate its own controlled death) 2. Autolysis = response to injury or infection -when digestive enzymes leak out of lysosomes and start destroying the cell

population pyramid shapes

1. Expanding pyramids have broad bases (lots of younger people) and narrow tops (few older people) and are characteristic of developing countries with high birth/death rates and an increasing population size. 2. Stationary pyramids have broad bases and broad tops and are characteristic of developed countries with low birth/death rates and a stable population size. 3. Contracting pyramids have narrower bases than middles and are characteristic of developed countries with very low birth rates and a gradually declining population size.

lysogenic cycle steps

1. Virus attaches to host cell and inserts genetic material into cell. 2. Genetic material is copied into the host cell's own chromosome. 3. Every time the cell divides the viral genes divide too 4. A trigger from the environment could causes the viral genes to begin a different cycle

control of protein levels

1. expression: transcription factors, RNA processing 2. degradation: target secretory proteins to lysosome and cytosolic proteins to proteosome

lysine pka

10.5

microwaves

10^-1 to 10^-3

X-ray wavelength

10^-10

gamma rays wavelength

10^-16 to 10^-10

infrared waves

10^-3 to 10^-6

UV waves

10^-8

how many daltons are in one amino acid?

110 Da

titration curve buffering regions

2 regions = 2 acidic protons in molecule 3 regions = 3 acidic protons in molecule etc

critical period of language development

2ys -adolescence

Characteristic functional group absorptions in IR spectrum

3650-3200 cm−1 (O-H stretch) 3300 cm−1 (sp C-H stretch - alkyne) 3100 cm−1 (sp2 C-H stretch - alkene) 3000 cm−1 (sp3 C-H stretch - alkane) 1810-1650 cm−1 (C=O stretch)

glutamate pka

4.3 (glutamic acid)

shielding and deshielding NMR

<----deshielded (downfield) shielded (upfield) ---->

monoamine hypothesis

A deficiency in the availability of monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine) in the synapses contributes to depression

false consciousness

A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their objective position -results when individuals from lower classes adopt the misleading views of the upper class and accept the status quo (ie, injustice, exploitation).

kinetically stable

A very high energy of activation -slow -no enzyme

how is personality change possible (based on psychoanalytic theory)?

According to psychoanalytic theory, personality change is possible when a person has a strong ego that can successfully mediate between one's impulsive, pleasure-seeking id and the goals of the idealistic superego.

demographic transition model

According to the demographic transition model, a society's transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates typically occurs in the following stages: -Stage 1: [High Stationary, Pre-Industrial] In preindustrial societies, birth and death rates are both high and population growth is slow. -Stage 2: [Early Expanding, Early Industrial] As societies begin to industrialize, death rates drop as food/medicine availability and sanitation increase, and population growth is rapid. -Stage 3: [Late Expanding, Mature Industrial] As societies urbanize, the population continues to grow, but birth rates begin to decline as access to contraception increases. -Stage 4: [Low Stationary, Post-Industrial] In developed societies, birth and death rates are both low and population growth is slow. -Stage 5: [Decline] For highly developed societies with very low birth rates, the population may decline.

tertiary alcohol

An alcohol in which the hydroxyl (-OH) group is attached to a carbon that is in turn attached to three other carbons.

transferase

An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a functional group to another molecule

borane

BH3; reducing agent selective for carboxylic acids

Conductors vs Insulators

Conductors: -allow the movement of electrical charge -related to how readily electrons move to produce current Insulators: -prevent the movement of electrical charge -prevents electric current from exiting the circuit -inhibits current

intermolecular and intramolecular bonding boiling points

Constitutional isomers can experience different intermolecular forces, contributing to the difference in their boiling points. The isomer that experiences increased intermolecular hydrogen bonding has a higher boiling point compared to the isomer that experiences increased intramolecular hydrogen bonding. -intramolecular bonding decreases the number of intermolecular bonds that can form, thereby decreasing the boiling point of the compound.

all cells that compose an organism contain the same...?

DNA

dependency ratio

Dependency ratio = (# child dependents) + (# retired dependents)/(# people in workforce) x 100 -The number of people under age 15 and over age 64 compared to the number of people active in the labor force -the proportion of unproductive (ie, too old or too young to work) to productive (ie, working-age) members in a society

naming esters

Esters are carboxylic acid derivatives and may be formed by the condensation of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol under acidic conditions (Fischer esterification). Esters are named by using the alkyl group from the alcohol as a substituent prefix and the carboxylic acid as the root name, with the -ic acid suffix replaced by -ate.

somatic symptom disorder

Extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms (eg, fatigue, pain)

Macrosociology

Focuses on groups, populations, social structures Important concepts: Institutions, inequality, impact of the social environment on people's interactions Example: How does racial inequality influence how minorities access health care?

Microsociology

Focuses on individual attributes & interactions Important concepts: Communication, symbols, reciprocity, interpersonal exchange Example: How does the interaction between a doctor & a patient reflect racial inequality?

starling equation

GFR = Kf [(Pc - Pif] - (πc - πif)] Pc = glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure Pif = interstitial (bowman's space) hydrostatic pressure πc = glomerular capillary osmotic pressure πif = interstitial (bowman's space) osmotic pressure Kf = constant; tells how much capillary surface area you have GFR = glomerular filtration rate; amount of fluid that gets squeezed out through all of the glomeruli net fluid movement

Galvanic half cells

Galvanic cells are composed of two half-cells, with one half containing the molecule that becomes oxidized at the anode (in this case, NADH) and the other half containing the molecule that becomes reduced at the cathode (in this case, O2). NADH and NAD+ must be in the same half-cell because one is made from the other. Similarly, O2 and H2O2 must be together in the other half-cell. -NADH cannot be oxidized at the anode while NAD+ is reduced at the cathode -- these two must be in the same half cell

rate of heat transfer between two objects

H = A(TH - Tc)/L H = KΔT/L -connected by thermal conductor L = conductor length A = conductor area TH = temperature of hotter object TC = temperature of colder object -rate of heat transfer depends on thermal conductivity of substance -objects at same temperature but different thermal conductivity are perceived to be different temperatures -objects with higher thermal conductivity are perceived to be colder

parallel beta sheets

H-bonded strands run in the same direction, resulting in bent H-bonds. Weaker -have aligned N-termini -require longer connecting regions -cannot be linked by 180 degree beta turns -participate in backbone hydrogen bonds -antiparallel sheets can withstand greater distortions (twisting and beta-bulges) and greater exposure to solvent. This implies that antiparallel sheets are more stable than parallel ones which is consistent both with the hydrogen bond geometry and the fact that small parallel sheets rarely occur -Parallel sheets are less twisted than antiparallel and are always buried

What does H2CO3 dissociate into?

H2O and CO2 -The H+ ions in solution have lower electronegativity than the oxygen atoms and cannot retain the electrons necessary to form the H-H bond present in hydrogen gas (H2). -As seen in the Lewis structure of carbonic acid (H2CO3), the oxygen atoms are separately bonded to the carbon atom and cannot readily associate to form oxygen gas (O2). Instead, an acidic proton (H+) is easily transferred in solution between the two hydroxyl groups to form a good leaving group (a water molecule), which facilitates the breakdown of the molecule

competitive inhibitors

INCREASE KM NO change in Vmax -bind ONLY free enzyme (E)

differential association

Individuals learn specific deviant behaviors & values/norms through interaction with others with those same behaviors & values/norms

enzymes work exclusively with what amino acids?

L amino acids -do not effect D amino acids

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Level 1: Preconventional -Defined by: Direct consequences to the individual (3-7 years) -Stage 1 - Obedience & punishment: Avoiding punishment by authority (eg, I'm not going to steal because I'll get spanked) -Stage 2 - Self-interest: Expecting equal exchange to further own self-interest (eg, I'll help you if you help me) Level 2: Conventional -Defined by: Society's norms & values (7-15 years - school age) -Stage 3 - Conformity & interpersonal accord: Wanting to be "good" to secure the approval of others (eg, I'll do my homework so the teacher likes me) -Stage 4 - Law & order: Obeying laws of society (eg, I'm not going to speed because it's against the law) Level 3: Postconventional -Defined by: Own ethical principle (adulthood) -Stage 5 - Social contract: Maximizing benefit for the largest number of people (eg, it's okay to break a law if it saves a life) -Stage 6 - Universal ethical principle: Following own ethical principle of justice above all else

LiAlH4

LiAlH4 is a strong reducing agent and will reduce carbonyl compounds to alcohols. Aldehydes, esters, and carboxylic acids will be reduced to primary alcohols, and ketones will be reduced to secondary alcohols.

highest priority group in an amino acid

NH3, then the carboxyl group, then the R group (except in cysteine), then H

do helper T cells influence expression of MHC proteins?

NO

can DNA be reduced?

NO. It has no disulfide bonds -thus, there would be no need to analyze DNA under reducing conditions in PCR

extracting substances into the aqueous layer

Organic compounds with acidic or basic functional groups enter the aqueous layer as ionic salts when acids and bases are added to an extraction. Amines are weak bases that require strong acids to be protonated. Phenols are weak acids that are only deprotonated by strong bases.

transformation

PROKARYOTES pick up foreign genetic material from surroundings

parts per million (ppm)

Parts per million (ppm) is a dimensionless quantity used to express concentrations as a fraction out of a basis of 1,000,000. In aqueous solutions, 1 ppm = 1 mg/L, and for concentrations expressed as a percentage, 1% = 10,000 ppm.

Illness anxiety disorder

Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious disease (eg, HIV, cancer)

phosphorylysis

Process by which a bond is cleaved by the addition of phosphate -ex: phosphorylysis of glycogen during glycogenolysis

Social desirability bias

Social desirability bias describes the tendency of research participants to overemphasize positive behaviors (eg, studying) while downplaying or underreporting undesirable behaviors (eg, consuming alcohol).

Factitious disorder

Symptoms or illness are intentionally fabricated without obvious external gain (eg, disability benefits)

expectancy theory of motivation

The expectancy theory of motivation proposes that individuals are motivated to act based on the expected outcomes of their behavior. According to this theory, motivation involves expectancy, instrumentality, and valence: -Expectancy is the belief that one will be able to achieve the desired outcome. Asking participants to rate how successful they think they will be at losing weight is a measure of expectancy. -Instrumentality is the belief that one has control over the desired outcome. Asking participants to rate how much control they believe they have over their success is a measure of instrumentality. -Valence involves the value placed on the desired outcome. If the researchers also asked participants to rate how much they wanted to lose weight, this would be a measure of valence.

Effect of chronic stress on brain structures

The hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex demonstrate structural changes in response to chronic stress. Atrophy of the hippocampus inhibits learning and changes emotional responses. Changes in the dendrites of the amygdala are associated with increased anger, fear, and anxiety. Hypervigilance and poor coping skills are linked to changes in the dendritic branching of the prefrontal cortex.

In which region of the brain would a lesion most likely disrupt the sleep/wake cycle?

The hypothalamus -Light levels impact neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, which regulates melatonin release that establishes the body's 24-hour cycle (circadian clock). -The hypothalamus has several nuclei (collections of neuronal cell bodies) that have specialized functions; one of these nuclei is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rhythms. -Photoreceptors in the retina project information about light levels to the SCN. When light levels are high, the SCN downregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland. When light levels are low, the SCN upregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland. -Light levels regulate SCN activity, which regulates melatonin release and establishes an internal circadian clock. This clock mechanism helps maintain sleep patterns and other 24-hour circadian cycles, such as those involving blood pressure and core body temperature changes.

Graphing independent and dependent variables

The independent variable always goes on the x-axis, or the horizontal axis. The dependent variable goes on the y-axis, or vertical axis

antidepressant medications

These drugs usually function via one of four general mechanisms: 1. Increasing production of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron 2. Promoting release of neurotransmitters from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft (MAOIs) 3. Blocking reabsorption (reuptake) of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron (SSRIs) 4. Decreasing breakdown of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron

lymph vessel

Transports lymph through the lymphatic system

stop codons

UAA, UAG, UGA

nonideal battery

V = emf - Ir I = current r = internal resistance *INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND EMF ARE INDEPENDENT OF EACH OTHER*

vestibular sense

Vestibular system maintains balance & orientation, detects gravity/acceleration (otolith organs) & head rotation (semicircular canals) -Motion sickness arises from conflict between vestibular system & visual input -Vestibular input: vestibular organ in the inner ear provides info about motion, equilibrium, and spatial orientation -organ is composed of 3 perpendicular semicircular canals and the otolith organs (utricle and saccule); the semicircular canals detect angular acceleration, whereas the otoliths detect linear acceleration

effective nuclear charge formula

Zeff = Z - S, Z = # protons, S = # shielding (core non-valence electrons) Ex: Nitrogen: Z = 7 = 7 protons = 7 electrons -->nitrogen has 5 valence electrons -->7 - 5 = 2 core electrons -->Zeff = 7 - 2 = 5+

coordination complexes

a central metal atom is surrounded by nonmetal atoms or groups of atoms called ligands joined by chemical bonds. Whatever the charge of the metal ion is, multiply it by two and that's how many ligands you need -Within coordination complexes, a ligand acts as a Lewis base, and the metal center acts as a Lewis acid. Ligand structures that can form more than one coordinate bond by donating more than one pair of electrons have more than one site that can function as a Lewis base. -coordination number = # of coordinate covalent bonds

social class

a group of people in a society who are considered nearly equal in status or community esteem, who regularly socialize among themselves both formally and informally, and who share behavioral norms

what indicates purity on a TLC plate?

a single spot

western blot

a test that detects HIV antibodies and confirms the results of earlier EIA tests

how do steroid hormones induce a signaling cascade?

act as first messengers as they perform the initial signaling that influences the nuclear transcription and cytoplasmic translation of physiologically required proteins

direct hormones

act directly on nonendocrine tissues to cause physiological endpoints

tropic hormones

act on other endocrine glands to regulate secretion of other hormones

Catecholamines

activate: glycogenolysis inhibit: glycogen synthesis

receptor-mediated endocytosis

active transport -external ligand binds specific receptor proteins on cell surface; induces PM to bud inward toward cytosol before pinching off as a vesicle

phagocytosis

active transport type of endocytosis -cells engulf external particles by extending portions of membrane to reach around particle rather than inward budding

hydrogen atom acidity

alpha hydrogen > aromatic hydrogen > amine hydrogen

Young-Helmholtz Theory

also known as the trichromatic theory, states that all the colors we see are the result of the combined activity of three types of photoreceptors: Those that respond to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths of light.

boiling point of molecules rank

amides > carboxylic acids > alcohols > esters ~ aldehydes and ketones ~ anhydrides ~ acyl chlorides > alkanes -amides will form more hydrogen bonds than carboxylic acids (amides have 2 donor and 2 acceptor atoms; whereas, carboxylic acids have 1 donor and 2 hydrogen bond acceptor atoms) -hydrogen bond donor atoms: hydrogen attached to strongly electronegative (N, O, F) atoms -hydrogen bond acceptor atoms: strongly electronegative (N, O, F) atoms H--O--H --- O--H Donor vs. Acceptor -esters, anhydrides, acyl chlorides cannot form intermolecular hydrogen bonds (hydrogen bonds with each other), which makes their boiling points lower -intermolecular bonding: bonding between molecules -intramolecular bonding: bonding between functional groups on the same molecule REACTIVITY: acyl halides > anhydrides > esters ~ carboxylic acids > amides (amides can only react with water in the presence of a strong acid or base catalyst and external heating)

polyprotic acid

an acid that can donate more than one proton per molecule Ex: H2CO3 -There are multiple pKa values and equivalence points -The flat part of the curve corresponds to the buffering zone. At the center of this zone, the pH is equal to pKa, and the concentrations of the acid and the conjugate base are equal. -Beyond the buffering zone, the pH rises sharply. In the center of this region is the equivalence point, at which an equal molar quantity of base has been added and the acid is entirely converted to its conjugate base.

critical angle

angle between the incident ray and the normal and creates a 90 degree angle between the refracted ray and the normal -refracted ray is parallel to the surface

antiparallel beta sheets

arrangement, the successive β strands alternate directions so that the N-terminus of one strand is adjacent to the C-terminus of the next -can be linked by 180 degree beta turns -participate in backbone hydrogen bonds (STRAIGHT H BONDS) -parallel sheets have DIAGONAL H-BONDS

small nuclear RNA (snRNA)

associate w/ proteins to form snRNPs, the building block of spliceosomes

consanguineal kinship

based on genetic relationship

why are proteins that adopt non-native conformations generally insoluble?

bc they expose more hydrophobic residues to the aqueous environment -these residues cannot interact with water and therefore tend to aggregate to minimize exposure due to the hydrophobic effect

mixed inhibitors

bind BOTH free enzyme and enzyme-substrate complexes (ES) -inhibitors with a greater affinity for free enzymes are more similar to competitive inhibitors and cause an increase in KM; decrease in Vmax -inhibitors with a greater affinity for enzyme-substrate complexes (ES) are more similar to uncompetitive inhibitors and cause an decrease in KM; decrease in Vmax -inhibitors with an equal affinity for free enzyme and ES complex are called NONCOMPETITIVE INHIBITORS, which decrease Vmax, but have no effect on KM

reversible inhibitors

bind to their target enzymes noncovalently -these interactions are generally much faster than the formation of covalent bonds, so additional time is not needed for reversible bindn g to occur -tend to have the same effect whether or not they are preincubated with an enzyme

retinal disparity and convergence

binocular cues for depth/distance. Retinal disparity occurs because each eye transmits a slightly different image to the brain, which infers distance from the disparity -Convergence is the extent to which the eyes turn inward (converge) to focus on an object; closer objects require more convergence, which helps the brain infer distance. The two-dimensional simulation made the use of binocular cues irrelevant, and neither convergence nor retinal disparity is involved with motion perception.

During distillation, superheating of the reaction mixture should be avoided. Which of the following would prevent superheating?

boiling chips

phosphorylases

break bonds by adding Pi across them

lyase

break bonds by forming a double bond elsewhere -either form two molecules by breaking a bond within one molecule or they combine two molecules into one -to form bonds between reactant molecules, lyases add groups to a double bond -in the reverse reaction, they break a single bond in a reactant and generate a new bond in the products -any member of a class of enzymes that catalyze the addition or removal of the elements of water (hydrogen, oxygen), ammonia (nitrogen, hydrogen), or carbon dioxide (carbon, oxygen) at double bonds. For example, decarboxylases remove carbon dioxide from amino acids and dehydrases remove water.

reducing a carboxylic acid can result in...

can be reduced to primary alcohols -An aldehyde is produced as an intermediate during this reaction, but it cannot be isolated because it is more reactive than the original carboxylic acid. (1) LiAlH4 (or BH3, THF) (2) H3O+ ---> alcohol

glycosidic bonds

can form between the anomeric carbon of a carbohydrate and any other biological molecule -requires at least one sugar with a free anomeric carbon, also known as the reducing end -sucrose does not have a free anomeric carbon (both of its anomeric carbons are involved in the glycosidic bond)

post-translational modification: phosphorylation

catalyzed by protein kinases -hydroxyl group on an amino acid side chain takes a phosphate group from ATP -occurs exclusively on hydroxyl groups of serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues

antagonist

cell response blocked

chemical synapse vs electrical synapse

chemical synapse: -noncontinuous cytoplasms -unidirectional -diffuse across synaptic celft -slower electrical synapse: -cytoplasmic continuity -signals flow bidirectionally across synapse -current passes instantaneously from one neuron to another -neuron to neuron via gap junction -faster

nativist perspective of language development

children pre-wired to master intricate rules of language - Language acquisition device -Innate & biologically predetermined -Occurs during a critical (time-sensitive)period early in life

peritoneum

composed of two tissue membrane that line the abdomen: the parietal layer, which lines the abdominal wall, and the visceral layer, which covers the abdominal organs

grey matter

composed on unmyelinated neuronal cell bodies and dendrites -located in center of spinal cord

limbic system

comprises the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus and is responsible for emotion, learning, and memory. The hypothalamus influences the physiological component of emotion by regulating the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system

conductivity and resistivity relationship

conductivity = 1 / resistivity (inversely proportional) -->ex: lowering conductivity by 75% means 1/4 of conductivity, which means 4 times the resistivity

conductivity of metals vs conductivity of electrolytic solutions

conductivity of metals: attributed to the loosely associated valence electrons within a metal conductivity of electrolytic solutions: directly proportional to the molar concentration of charged ions

white matter

consists of myelinated and unmyelinated axons that allow for long distance communication between neurons -located in periphery of spinal cord -composed of: 1. afferent (ascending) axonal tracts that carry sensory info from the body to the brain in the dorsal and lateral columns 2. efferent (descending) axonal tracts that carry motor commands from the brain to the bod in the ventral and lateral columns

Working memory

consists of the central executive (attention, task switching) and three lower subsystems: the visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial information), the phonological loop (linguistic information), and the episodic buffer (timeline, long-term memory integration). The central executive controls the lower subsystems -central executive = responsible for attention and switching among various tasks, such as holding a conversation and driving

concentration cells

contain the same species in each electrode

Fully developed sperm have little to no...?

cytoplasm

As the [OH-] increases, the pOH...?

decreases

ionization energy trend

decreases from top to bottom in a group; increases from left to right in a period

eosinophils

defend against parasitic infections and modulate immune responses during allergic reactions

macrophages

degrade pathogens and dead body cells via phagocytosis

change in pressure (heart)

deltaP = arterial pressure - venous pressure -vasodilation decreases deltaP

ideal fluids

differ from real fluids in the following ways: 1. have no viscosity 2. are incompressible, with uniform density 3. lack turbulence; experience steady or laminar flow - meaning all fluid flowing through any fixed point has the same velocity 4. experience irrotational flow - will not rotate about its axis as it flows

myeloid progenitor cells

differentiate into erythrocytes, megakaryocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, or mast cells

magnitude and direction of attractive of repulsive forces exerted between electric charges are:

directly proportional to charge of each particle inversely proportional to square of distance separating the charges

as a protein folds, the water surrounding it becomes more...?

disordered, deltaS = positive If you have a bunch of hydrophobic amino acids on the surface, water molecules have to form ordered arrangement around each of those hydrophobic amino acids. Many ordered arrangements = more order = less disorder = less entropy. Burying hydrophobic amino acid into the core means that water is more free (disordered). Hence it increases entropy.

neuroleptic

effective in reducing positive symptoms. However, neuroleptics may exacerbate (worsen) negative symptoms through sedation or cognitive dulling, and they carry the risk of movement (eg, tremors) and other side effects.

what can result in decreased electron affinity

electron-electron repulsion -Small atoms such as oxygen and fluorine have several electrons crowded around a small nucleus, resulting in greater electron-electron repulsion. Adding another electron would increase repulsion forces even further, so it is more difficult to add an electron to oxygen than to a larger atom with lower repulsion forces.

neuroticism

emotional instability, is one of the "big five" personality traits. Neuroticism is characterized by a tendency to experience or express negative emotions (anxiety, anger, fear, sadness). Individuals who score high on this personality factor tend to find common challenges (eg, getting a flat tire) hopelessly difficult and are more easily agitated by stressors.

helper T cell function for macrophage

enhances activity of macrophages

positive controls

ensure that a change in the dependent variable occurs when expected -ensure that the dependent variable to be studied is present or that the treatment meant to manipulate the dependent variable functions properly

ELISA

enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay -used to detect and quantify the presence of a specific compound (antigen, hormone, or antibody) 1. samples are added to a 96-well microplate and the antigens (eg, proteins) become adsorbed (immobilized) to the surface of the well 2. a specific primary antibody linked to a reporter enzyme is then added to bind the antigen 3. the samples are washed to remove unbound antibodies, and the substrate of the reporter enzyme (secondary antibody) is added 4. the enzyme reacts with its substrate to generate ("report") a colored product, and if a color change is detected, its intensity is proportional to the amount of bound protein 5. protein expression levels are ultimately quantified by comparing the color change in the well plate to the color change observed from a series of known concentration standards 6. identifying a color change proportional to protein concentration would be a normal and accurate finding that indicated the presence and quantity of the protein

conjugation

exchange of genetic material between PROKARYOTES typically in plasmid DNA form

hyperopia

farsightedness -refractive error; causes light rays from nearby objects to be focused behind the retina; converging lenses correct this condition by bending light rays inward before they reach the eye -optical power of eye = insufficient relative to eye length (eyeball is too short or cornea has too little curvature -corrected with converging lens - image forms on focal plane -uncorrected = image forms behind focal plane of retina

NADPH and fatty acid synthesis

fatty acid synthesis requires NADPH fatty acid synthesis converts NADPH to NADP+

delta G of NTP hydrolysis

favorable -thermodynamically unstable -ATP is an unstable molecule which hydrolyzes to ADP and inorganic phosphate when it is in equilibrium with water -exergonic process with a large −∆G

hydrostatic pressure difference between two points in a fluid is proportional to..?

fluid's density, gravitational acceleration, and vertical displacement between the two points ΔP = pgΔh

how does the charge of amino acids that line the inside of the channel's pore play a role in determining which ion can pass through?

for a particular ion to go through a channel, the inside of the channel's pore must be lined by amino acid residues with charges opposite to the ion's charge (to attract the ion) -like charges will repel the ion

thioester bonds

form between a sulfur atom and a carbonyl carbon

minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)

gives the lowest concentration necessary to inhibit the growth of a bacterium. A compound with the lowest MIC value in a set of tested compounds indicates that the compound has the greatest antimicrobial activity of the set.

lymphoid progenitor cells

go on the become T cells, B cells, or NK cells

isoelectronic

having the same number of electrons ex: Na+, F-, Mg^2+, O^2- --> in an isoelectronic series, ionic radii decrease with increasing atomic number

prefrontal cortex

helps regulate emotional responses, such as dampening anger

Telomeres and centromeres are both composed of?

heterochromatin

symptoms of PTSD

hyperarousal (eg, exaggerated startle response, insomnia); intrusive symptoms (eg, nightmares, flashbacks); avoiding reminders of the trauma; and negative thoughts and moods

reactions that follow michaelis menton kinetics have what type of graphs?

hyperbolic

hyperventilation and blood pH

hyperventilation INCREASES blood pH and DECREASES CO2 and HCO3- levels CO2 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ (aq) ⇌ HCO3- (aq) + H+ (aq) CO2 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ H2CO3 is catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase -During ventilation, CO2 is expelled from the lungs. An increase in ventilation (hyperventilation) decreases levels of CO2 in the blood. Removal of CO2 then shifts the reaction to the left to maintain equilibrium. This shift results in a decrease in carbonic acid levels, which translates to a decrease in HCO3− and H+ (increase in pH) in pulmonary circulation.

dendritic cells

identify foreign pathogens -antigen presenting -activate other immune cells

B cells

identify foreign pathogens -antigen presenting -produce antibodies

percentage of vmax

if [S] = nKM, then the reaction runs at n/(n+1)Vmax -when [S] = KM, reaction operates at 1/2 vmax

electron affinity trend

increases up and to the right

impression management

involves trying to influence how one is perceived by others by employing certain behaviors (eg, covering one's tattoos for a medical school interview). Individuals usually attempt to generate a positive impression, but not always (eg, a prisoner may flaunt tattoos in an attempt to inspire fear in other inmates)

salt bridges

ionic bonds between ionized R groups of basic and acidic amino acids

salt bridges

ionic bonds between ionized R groups of basic and acidic amino acids -contribute to tertiary and quaternary structure of amino acids -neutral salts will dissociate in solution and can disrupt salt bridges by forming ionic bonds with amino acids

self serving bias

is a common type of attributional bias in which an individual attributes success to internal factors but blames failure on external factors.

affinal kinship

is based upon marriage and not upon blood

Strecker synthesis

is used to generate α-amino acids from an aldehyde using ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and potassium cyanide (KCN). Because the imine intermediate formed during the reaction is planar (no stereocenters), nucleophilic addition can occur from either above or below the plane. -Therefore, the Strecker synthesis is not a stereospecific reaction and produces a mixture of L- and D-amino acids.

How is the action potential propagated in skeletal muscle?

it is enabled by the transverse tubule

proline differs from other amino acids in that...?

it possesses a secondary amine in its backbone

the stability of a protein is determined/measured by:

its ability to remain folded as ambient temperature increases

what is the chemical behavior of an atom determined by?

its electron configuration NOT by the number of neutrons in its nucleus -thus, isotopes have very similar chemical properties, but different physical properties

rate constant equation

k = A^e-Ea/RT A = Arrhenius constant R = 8.314 J*K/mol Ea = activation energy rate constant varies exponentially with increasing/decreasing values of the above equation

neutrophils

kill and phagocytize bacterial cells

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). -is the linking of two events or stimuli. For example, in operant conditioning, a behavior is associated with a consequence (ie, reinforcement or punishment). A scenario in which a student links new information to old information does not illustrate associative learning.

vicarious learning

learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action

left hemisphere vs right hemisphere brain functions

left hemisphere: -analytical thought -language -reasoning -math -science -controls touch & movement on right side right hemisphere: -spatial processing -emotion -art -music -visualization -controls touch & movement on left side

which organ synthesizes a compound that facilitates the mechanical digestion of lipids

liver -synthesizes bile (emulsification)

Heterochromatin

low levels of histone acetylation high levels of DNA methylation DNA tightly coiled around histones Not readily transcribed by RNA polmerase

mRNA transcript, coding strand, noncoding strand

mRNA transcript is always identical to coding DNA strand except RNA has uracil instead of thymine -noncoding strand is complementary to mRNA transcript (and coding strand)

functionalism

macro perspective -society = an organism -each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis) -theorists: durkheim, parsons

conflict theory

macro perspective -society = struggle for limited resources -inequality based on social class -theorists: Marx, Weber

game theory

mathematically evaluates the relative success of particular strategies (behavioral phenotypes) over time. When the evolutionary benefit of a social behavior outweighs the cost of that behavior (eg, a warning call puts an individual at risk but increases the likelihood that genes will be passed on), game theory predicts that the behavioral phenotype will persist.

T cells

mediate a number of immune responses including those against viruses, bacteria, parasites

when does oogenesis stop?

menopause

social constructionism

micro or macro perspective -social actors define what is real -knowledge about world based on interactions

rational choice/social exchange theory

micro perspective -individual behaviors and interaction attempt to maximize personal gain and minimize personal cost

Symbolic Interactionism

micro perspective -meaning and value attached to symbols -individual interactions based on these symbols -oncerned with the interpersonal interactions through which people develop subjective meanings shaping social reality -theorists: Cooley, Mead

minimum relative velocity vs maximum relative velocity

minimum relative velocity = occurs when two things are moving in the same direction -->relative velocity is their difference maximum relative velocity = occurs when two objects are moving in opposite directions -->relative velocity is their addition

prion

misfolded protein, acts as infectious agent by inducing other proteins to become misfolded -cannot transform bacteria -do NOT contain genetic material

epimers

molecules with multiple stereocenters that only differ at one of them

MAOIs

monoamine oxidase inhibitors -inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme attached to the mitochondria in axon terminals that catalyzes the oxidation (breakdown) of monoamines such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. This enzyme functions in the presynaptic neuron to recycle monoamines that have been removed from the synaptic cleft. Inhibition of monoamine oxidase therefore increases the concentrations of monoamines in the axon terminal and eventually within the synaptic cleft.

myelinated neurons vs unmyelinated neurons

myelinated neurons: -saltatory conduction; action potential leads from node to node rather than flowing down entirely of neuron -voltage-gated ion channels = concentrated in nodes of ranvier unmyelinated neurons: -ions quickly dissipated back into extracellular space, causing rapid weakening and decay of propagating electrical signal -voltage-gated ion channels = evenly distributed across entire axon

vicarious emotions

occur when an observer intuits the feelings that another might be experiencing. Vicarious emotions are thought to have evolved to help individuals relate to and understand one another through shared emotional expression -Mirror neurons are a type of neuron that fires when an individual both observes and performs a behavior; they may play a central role in observational learning and the experience of vicarious emotions

self-fulfilling prophecy

occurs when a belief about oneself (eg, "I'm a terrible test taker") causes behavior that makes the belief come true (eg, belief causes test anxiety, resulting in actual poor performance).

autocommunication

occurs when a message sender is also the receiver. For example, dolphins echolocate by perceiving how the click sounds they have emitted echo back to them. Predator warning calls, communication that alerts other group members (not the individual making the call), is not relevant to autocommunication

cardiac sphincter

opening from the esophagus to the stomach (aka the lower esophageal sphincter)

junctions

points along complicated circuit at which 3 or more circuit elements meet -charge cannot accumulate or disappear at junctions -must pass on to other circuit elements

alternate splicing

produces multiple protein products from the same gene - NOT multiple similar genes

gene duplication

produces multiple similar genes

apoptosis

programmed cell death -induced when cytochrome C is allowed to leave the mitochondria and enter the cytosol, where is activates caspase -caspase activates several degradative pathways such as proteolysis

prokaryotic DNA vs eukaryotic DNA

prokaryotic DNA: -single circular chromosome -double-stranded -single origin of replication -haploid -no telomeres -located in cytoplasm eukaryotic DNA: -multiple linear chromosome s -double-stranded -multiple origins of replication -diploid or greater -telomeres -located in nucleus -->ONLY eukaryotes have a mechanism for intron splicing by spliceosome

transcription and translation in prokaryotic cells vs eukaryotic cells

prokaryotic cells have no nucleus; therefore, transcription and translation occur simultaneously in the cytoplasm (translation begins before mRNA is fully transcribed) -by contrast, in eukaryotic cells, transcription and post-transcriptional modifications occur in the nucleus, but translation occurs in the cytoplasm

helper T cell function for cytotoxic T cells

promotes cytotoxic T cell activation and proliferation

drive reduction theory

proposes that motivation is a result of a disruption of homeostasis, which generates a biological need. The biological need generates a drive to fulfill that need, which prompts action. For example, when blood glucose levels drop, an organism feels hungry and engages in food-seeking behaviors.

ΔG, ΔH, ΔS are independent of..?

reaction rate -thermodynamic values indicate if a reaction is spontaneous or not

mast cells

release chemical mediators such as histamine that modulate allergic reactions

phosphatases

remove phosphate groups from molecules by hydrolysis yielding dephosphorylated substrate and inorganic phosphate

Oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids

requires isomerization -beta-oxidation begins normally (forming acetyl-CoA molecules with carbons before the DB (closest to carbonyl) -DB is isomerized (cis to trans) -beta oxidation occurs normally on carbons after the DB -yield 1/2 as many acetyl-CoA units as total number of carbons

ovaries

secrete sex hormones; mature oocytes

transposons

segments of DNA that can move from one region of DNA to another -do NOT reduce chromosome number

tonic receptors

sensory receptors that continue to produce action potentials throughout the duration of a stimulus. -tonic receptors are limited to the peripheral nervous system and are not found in the brain

fallopian tubes

site of fertilization; transfer to uterus for implantation via cilia

connection between affinity and KD and KM

small KD = high affinity small KM = high affinity

social capital

social network assets (friends, family, coworkers)

anomers

special kind of epimer that differ at the anomeric carbon

operationalize a variable

specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable -means that a variable that is not directly measurable (eg, fatigue, depression) is defined in such a way that it can be measured for the purposes of testing/assessment.

splice donor site and splice acceptor site

splice donor site: 5' end of intron next to exon splice acceptor site: 3' end of intron adjacent to exon

law of mass action

states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the molar amount of each reaction component raised to the power of its reaction order. For elementary reactions, the reaction order of each species is equal to its stoichiometric coefficient -usually expressed with respect to the equilibrium constant of a reaction. However, when applied to the dynamic equilibrium of an elementary reaction, the law of mass action also states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the molar amount (concentration or partial pressure) of each reactant raised to the power of its reaction order

nonhydrolyzable lipids

steroids, prostaglandins, fat-soluble vitamins

what affects the freezing point of a solution?

strength of intermolecular forces

cardiac output

stroke volume x heart rate -stroke volume = volume/beat; depends on amount of blood loaded into left ventricle prior to contraction -heart rate = beat/minute; increases SA node activity increases HR cardiac output = volumetric flow rate

SN2 reaction

substitution reactions that occur when a nucleophile attacks the electrophile and causes the leaving group to leave in the same step. These reactions occur on the less-substituted carbon, and the halide leaving group ability increases as the size of the halide ion increases. -result in the inversion of configuration of the electrophile if the electrophile is a chiral center. An electrophile in the S configuration will adopt the R configuration after the reaction, and vice versa.

invariance gestalt

suggests that objects can be recognized despite alterations in orientation, lighting, scale, and slight alterations in the objects' component features. This allows for the recognition of an object in different spatial orientations or when it is depicted with dotted rather than solid lines.

Malthusian theory of population growth

suggests that the human population increases exponentially while resources increase at a slower rate. -According to this theory, the population growth rate can be slowed by preventative checks and positive checks. -Preventative checks are those that decrease the birth rate (and are typically voluntary, such as waiting to marry and having fewer children). -Positive checks increase the death rate, slowing population growth by shortening the average life span. Positive checks can be small-scale (eg, increased death rate due to a flu virus) or large-scale (eg, an epidemic that wipes out half the population). -Large-scale positive checks, called Malthusian catastrophes (eg, widespread famine, disease epidemics, large-scale wars), dramatically reduce the population to a level that the available resources can easily sustain, by slowing or stopping population growth entirely.

strain theory

suggests that when individuals are unable to attain socially acceptable goals (eg, having a nice car) through legitimate means (eg, a job), the resulting strain may lead to deviant behavior (eg, stealing).

blood pressure

systolic/diastolic -diastolic phase: the heart relaxes and fills with blood returning to the heart via veins -because blood is not pumped from the heart during diastole, the volume of blood flowing through the arteries is lower, decreasing pressure on the arterial walls -therefore, arterial blood pressure is lowest during diastole ad is measured as diastolic pressure -systolic phase: the heart contracts and blood is forced from the heart into the arteries -this increased volume of blood flowing through the arteries on contraction of the heart exerts increased pressure (i.e. hydrostatic pressure) on the arterial walls -thus, arterial pressure is highest during systole and is measured as systolic blood pressure

ubiquitination

targets a protein for degradation by a proteasome -causes proteosome to recognize and degrade the marked protein via proteolysis

polyubiquitination

targets proteins for degradation in proteasome

genetic linkage

tendency for genes located close together on the same chromosome to be inherited together -occurs because of fewer crossing over events between these loci during meiosis, resulting in a greater number of haploid gametes with nonrecombinant genotypes

availability heuristic

tendency to make decisions or base judgments on how easily something is recalled from memory. In other words, things that are readily available in memory are thought to be more common. The physician's quote describing heightened exposure to the symptoms of BD leading to a propensity to overdiagnose is an example of the availability heuristic influencing a decision-making process.

stereopsis

the ability to use binocular disparity as a cue to depth -Binocular depth cues result in depth perception (stereopsis) based on information from both eyes -retinal disparity

where does the oxygen in an ester come from?

the alcohol (ROH) -this alcohol reacts with the carboxylic acid to produce an ester (the OR group comes from the alcohol)

cori cycle

the cycle of lactate to glucose between the muscle and liver -during anaerobic exercise, pyruvate is reduced to lactate to regenerate NAD+ -lactate that builds up in muscles is sent to the liver, where it is converted back to glucose and returned to muscles (Cori cycle) -the process of carrying lactate from the muscle to the liver and moving regenerated glucose from the liver back to the muscles

a molecule or atom can only absorb energy exactly equal to...

the difference between two energy levels (not at energy AT a certain level)

memory decay characteristic pattern

the initial rate of decay is highest right after the material is first learned, then plateaus over time unless the material is reviewed

cultural capital

the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility (education, hard work, attractiveness)

Given that entropy is negative (disorder decreases) in the reaction, which of the following statements is true regarding the formation of aqueous nitrotyrosine?

the overall reaction becomes less thermodynamically favorable at higher temperatures G = ΔH - TΔS -->if ΔS is negative, then increasing T would make G more positive, which means less favorable

medicalization

the process of defining human behaviors or characteristics as medical conditions, often results from shifting attitudes, new scientific evidence, or new treatments. For example, menopause, a natural condition, is now viewed by some as a deficiency in hormones that can be treated with pharmaceuticals. Medicalization leads individuals to look to medical professionals as the experts in diagnosing, preventing, or treating such conditions.

specific gravity

the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water -multiply by 100% to find percent of object below the surface of water

buoyant force

the upward force exerted by a fluid on a submerged object = weight of the fluid the object displaces = weight of object buoyant force = mg = N

if hill's coefficient = 1, then?

there is NO cooperativity

peptide hydrolysis thermodynamics

thermodynamically favorable process kinetically slow - does not occur quickly unless an enzyme is present to increase the rate

how do peptide hormones induce a signaling cascade?

they act as first messengers and must bind extracellular receptors to induce a signaling cascade via activation of intracellular second messengers

southern blot

to detect a particular sequence of DNA in samples

northern blot

to detect a particular sequence of RNA in samples

purpose of pH gradient in PAGE

to separate PROTEINS based on their isoelectric point -NOT DNA

percent yield (activity)

total activity of purified protein/total activity of unpurified protein

kinases

transfer gamma-phosphate from NTPs (usually ATP or GTP) to other molecules to yield an NDP and phosphorylated substrate

counterbalancing

used to control for the potential effects that the order of intervention administration may have on the results. For example, if participants were given two different interventions, A and B, a counterbalancing measure would involve separating participants into two groups, one receiving intervention A first, and the other receiving intervention B first.

converging (convex) lens

used to correct hyperopia (farsightedness) -converges parallel rays of light toward its focal point -a real image is formed from the convergence of the refracted light rays on the side of the lens opposite the object -real images are always inverted (upside-down with respect to the object)

diverging (concave) lens

used to correct myopia (nearsightedness) -spreads parallel rays of light away from its focal point -a virtual image is formed from the apparent convergence of refracted light rays traced back to the same side of the lens as the object -the image is virtual because the light rays do not actually converge at the image -virtual images are always upright

Tollen's test

used to identify the presence of aldehydes and hydroxy ketones, and uses the oxidizing agent [Ag(NH3)2]+ to oxidize aldehydes to carboxylic acids. Ketoses can undergo tautomerization via an enediol intermediate to their aldose form, resulting in a positive Tollens test and the formation of a silver mirror.

hydrolyzable lipids

waxes, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, sphingolipids

no doppler shift occurs when..?

velocity = 0 (peak of a time vs displacement graph)

vmax relation to kcat

vmax = kcat[E]

dilution factor

volume of sample/total volume -if doing two dilutions, the total dilution factor is the product of the two dilution factors

unequal crossing over

when homologous chromosomes fail to align properly -exchange of unequal segments of DNA between non-sister chromatids, yielding one or more genes and another that lacks those genes (deletion)

total internal reflection

when the angle between the incident ray and the normal = the angle between the refracted ray and the normal -at incident angles greater than the critical angle, light is reflected back into the water

when is validity supported?

when two different inventories that measure the same construct (eg, psychotic symptoms) are correlated, the validity (ie, accuracy) of both measures is supported.

vaginal canal

where sperm are deposited during intercourse (where sperm enters uterus)

atomic mass units

6.022 × 10^23 amu = 1 mol amu = 1 g 1 amu does NOT equal 1g

social cognitive theory

-people learn through observing others -most concerned with how individuals learn through observing the behaviors of others. Therefore, a proponent of this theory would be concerned with how an individual's behavior and attitudes are shaped by interacting with others, rather than through personal experience with a similar disease, professional experience with the disease, or lack of knowledge about the disease.

helper T cell function for B lymphocytes

-promotes B lymphocyte activation and proliferation -induces differentiation of B lymphocytes in antibody-secreting plasma cells and memory cells

key aspects of sound

-propagates through vibrations of molecules as LONGITUDINAL waves -cannot exist in a vacuum -attenuation of sound = greatest in soft materials and increases with distance -travels most slowly in gases and most quickly in solids -energy is propagated in the form of pressure (vibrations) waves; NOT heat or electric

RT PCR

-reverse transcriptase PCR -reverse transcriptase converts mRNA into double-stranded cDNA, which is then amplified in cycles to yield thousands of copies -the cDNA is initially denatured into single strands using heart, and forward primers and reverse primers anneal to the denatured cDNA strands so that Taq polymerase can elongate the DNA sequence -researchers can assess the half-lifes of mRNA isoforms by converting mRNA to cDNA via RT-PCR at varying time points, allowing for comparison of isoform concentrations -the isoform with the greater cDNA concentration at the final time point has the longer half-life

Gas Chromatography

-separates molecules primarily on the basis of boiling point. -injection chamber is heated to a temperature above the boiling point of all compounds being analyzed (usually 200°C-300°C), causing all components to vaporize. The walls of the GC column are coated with a thin layer of liquid that acts as the stationary phase. -An inert gas flows through the column, carrying other gases with it. Compounds with a lower boiling point tend to stay in the gas phase and move through the column quickly, whereas compounds with higher boiling points have a greater tendency to interact with the liquid phase and a longer retention time. -Given enough time, even subtle differences in affinity for the stationary phase can be amplified, allowing separation of compounds with similar properties. Increasing the length of the stationary phase through which the compounds must travel can provide the necessary time. -Each of the peaks in the chromatogram represents the signal created when a compound elutes from the GC column into the detector. -Compounds with lower boiling points elute faster (peaks come first) -separates compounds based on boiling point NOT polarity

Eº after adding two half reactions

0 V

processing visual and spatial information

The occipital lobe is primarily responsible for processing visual information. The parietal lobe (not the occipital lobe) processes spatial information (proprioception) and is responsible for cognitive mapping, our ability to represent mentally the spatial relationships concerning things in our environment.

Whorfian hypothesis

The proposal that the language one speaks determines or heavily influences the thoughts one can think or the saliency of different categories of thought. -linguistic relativity: language influences cognition -linguistic determinism: language controls cognition

subculture

a group of individuals who are characteristically distinctive from the dominant culture in some way, but whose values and norms still align with the dominant culture. The dominant culture includes the established set of norms, values, rituals, and beliefs that define a society -The use of medical jargon, the standardized language used to communicate within a group, suggests that medical personnel can best be described as a subculture.

refractive index

a measure of the light-bending ability of a medium -a measure of how greatly a substance slows the velocity of light -increases with increase in frequency of light

buffers

a mixture of a weak acid or base and its corresponding conjugate salt, resulting in a system that contains both acidic and basic species that can be protonated or deprotonated over a specific pH range. -Within this range, known as the buffering range, the buffer can neutralize added hydronium or hydroxide ions and therefore resist changes in pH. -The buffering range is generally 1 pH unit away from the buffer's pKa (the pH at which the species in the buffer are half protonated and half deprotonated moving in either direction along the pH scale. -Outside this range, the constituent buffer species are either fully protonated or deprotonated and the buffer loses the ability to resist pH changes. The pKa of a buffer is related to its acid dissociation constant (Ka) by the equation pKa = −log(Ka).

Schizophrenia positive symptoms

("pathological excesses") -hallucinations -delusions -disorganized/incoherent speech -disorganized/agitated behavior

doppler effect key points

-APPARENT changes in velocity of waveforms that lead to changes in observed frequency of those waveforms -ACTUAL velocity does NOT changes when these doppler shifts occur -motion of observer or waveform source relative to each other leads to a shift only in the APPARENT PERCEIVED velocity of sound wave as successive waveform crests and troughs are perceived closer together or farther apart

excitation due to UV light

-Absorption of UV light causes an electron transition, or excitation, from the ground state to a higher energy level. In the ground state, π electrons from double bonds are in the π bonding molecular orbital, and nonbonding electrons are in the n nonbonding molecular orbital. Upon interactions with UV light of sufficient energy, these electrons are excited to the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO), called the π* antibonding orbital -The lone electron pairs on nitrogen in pyrimidine are nonbonding (n) electrons. Therefore, when absorbing UV light, these electrons are excited to the antibonding (π*) orbital and undergo a n → π* transition.

Kinesthetic sense

-Proprioceptors in muscles, joints, tendons & skin detect movement & position of body/limbs -Kinesthetic input provides awareness of location of parts of the body in space & how they are moving

isoelectric point problems

-a protein with a net positive charge at physiological pH has a high pI because a high pH is needed to deprotonate enough of the positively charged side chains -a protein with a net negative charge at physiological pH has a low pI because a low pH is needed to protonate enough of the negatively charged side chains

histone acetylation

-acetyl groups are added to histone tails -promotes gene transcription by loosening heterochromatin into euchromatin, making the DNA region readily accessible to the transcription machinery

purpose of denaturing substance in PAGE

-added to separate double stranded DNA into single strands by breaking hydrogen bonds between the strands -added to separate proteins in PAGE gels

sick role theory

-associated with the functionalist Talcott Parsons In sociology, sick role theory conceptualizes illness as a socially acceptable form of deviance. When ill, an individual enters into the "sick role," a socially defined status with rights and obligations: 1. Rights: The sick person has the right to be exempt from playing other social roles while sick (eg, employee) and is excused from fulfilling normal responsibilities (eg, going to work). The sick person also has the right to not be held responsible for the illness. 2. Obligations: The sick person has the responsibility to make every reasonable effort to get well as soon as possible. The sick person also has the responsibility to seek medical help and to cooperate with medical professionals (eg, follow their treatment plan).

uncompetitive inhibitors

-bind ONLY enzyme-substrate complexes (ES) -DECREASE in KM -proportional DECREASE in Vmax -->initial ratio of KM/Vmax needs to equal the final ration (change) of KM/Vmax

posterior lobe of pituitary gland

-composed of axonal projections -secretes direct hormones: vasopressin (ADH) and oxytocin -hormones are synthesized in hypothalamic neurons and transported down axon to the terminal in posterior pituitary -secretion is mediated by action potentials that cause exocytosis of neurosecretory vesicles (depolarization of nerve terminal)

anterior lobe of pituitary gland

-composed of glandular tissue -secretes tropic hormones: FSH, TSH, LH, ACTH -secretes direct hormones: GH, beta-endorphin, prolactin -synthesis and secretion of hormones is controlled by neurohormones released from hypothalamic neurons -neurohormones = secreted into hypophyseal portal system (network of small blood vessels that enables small quantities of hormones secreted from hypothalamus to directly reach pituitary without being diluted in circulation)

kidney function

-control of extracellular fluid volume and regulation of blood pressure via renin-angiotensin system -regulation of osmolarity (excretion or retention of water) -regulation of ion concentration (Na+, Ca^2+, K+) by balancing dietary ion intake with urinary excretion -regulation of pH via bicarbonate buffer system (excretion/retention of HCO3- and H+) -excretion of waste (creatinine, ammonia, urea, foreign substances) -production of renin (enzyme involved in blood pressure regulation) and hormones (erythropoietin for erythrocyte production & calcitrol for increased Ca^2+ levels)

SDS

-detergent -denatures proteins -disrupts noncovalent interactions, causing proteins to unfold -hinders protein's ability to perform function -does NOT reduce proteins / break disulfide bonds -SDS-PAGE separates proteins only on the basis of molecular weight

retroviruses

-enveloped, positive sense single stranded RNA viruses -carry reverse transcriptase which is the enzyme that makes DNA from single stranded RNA -the DNA created from RNA integrates into host cell's genome where it is replicated and transcribed as if it were the host cell's own DNA -cell is infected indefinitely -ex: HIV

feminist theory

-examines gender inequality in society -macro-level: considers how social structures maintain gender inequality -micro-level: considers how one-on-one interactions also maintain gender inequality by objectifying or devaluing females/femininity

fast glycolytic fibers (type 2X)

-fast speed of contraction -best used for explosive movements (weightlifting, jumping) -easy to fatigue -primary source of ATP = anaerobic glycolysis -few mitochondria, capillaries, and myoglobin -white appearance

fast oxidative glycolytic fibers (type 2A)

-fast speed of contraction -best used for sustained low-intensity movements (walking) -intermediate susceptibility to fatigue -primary source of ATP = anaerobic respiration, anaerobic glycolysis -plentiful mitochondria, capillaries, and myoglobin -intermediate appearance type I use: posture; postural muscles of back type IIA use: walking; leg muscles type IIX (fast-twitch): jumping; least used; extraocular eye muscles

reinforcement schedule responses

-fixed ratio: rapid response rate, short pause after reinforcement -fixed interval: slower response rate after reinforcement, faster response rate right before -variable ratio: rapid, steady response rate; most resistant to extinction -variable interval: slow, steady response rate; resistant to extinction

instantaneous velocity

-greater instantaneous velocity = steeper and positive slope -a less steep, but positive slope has a greater instantaneous velocity than a more steep and negative slope -graph: time vs displacement

a catalyst does NOT influence...?

-heat of the reaction, enthalpy -amount of products produced -ONLY influences rate

elastic cartilage

-highly flexible, withstands distortion without damage and reverts to its original shape (external ear)

reflection and refraction

-if light passes from a high to low refractive index, such as from water to air, light will bend AWAY from the normal -if light passes from a low to high refractive index, such as from air to water, light will bend TOWARD the normal -as the incident angle (angle between incident ray and the normal) increases and becomes shallower to the surface, the light ray is refracted closer to the surface -at a "critical angle" light is refracted at a 90 degree angle to the normal and continues parallel to the surface -at incident angles greater than the critical angle, light is reflected back into the water; this phenomenon is known as total internal reflection (above this angle, all of the light will be reflected away from the surface)

increase by ___ percent means...

-increase by 50% means increase by a factor of 1.5 -increase by 100% means double -increase by 800% means final amount is 9 times original (100% + 800% = 900% = 9 times as large) CONVERSELY: -"raise" by 250% of the original value means increase by a factor of 2.5 NOT 3.5

how do you increase the loss of body heat to the environment?

-increasing superficial blood flow (enhancing thermal conduction) -increasing respiration (enhancing conduction and convection)

structural functionalism

-is a macro-level (large-scale) sociological perspective that compares modern society to a biological organism. This theory proposes that as the various organ systems cooperate to maintain an organism's homeostasis, social institutions work together in the interest of societal balance, known as dynamic equilibrium -From the structural functionalist perspective, social institutions have manifest functions, which are expected, and latent functions, which are unintended. For example, the higher education system is meant to teach students the skills necessary to become functioning citizens in society (eg, manifest function), but many students also end up meeting potential romantic partners in college (eg, latent function) -not concerned with micro-level (small-scale) interactions between individuals, so this theory would be the least concerned with how nonverbal communication influences the social behavior of individuals.

fluidity in membrane

-length: shorter = less interactions = more fluidity -presence of double bonds: more DBs = more fluidity

lymph node

-lymph filtration -pathogen destruction by phagocytic cells -immune response mounted by lymphocytes

change in gibbs energy reaction coordinate

-make sure the change in gibbs matches what the passage has -ex: (in photo) ΔG2 needs to be lower than ΔG1 if the second step has a -ΔG

neural crest cells vs neural tube of CNS

-neural crest cells migrate and give rise to peripheral nervous system structures -CNS is derived from neural tube

calcitonin

-synthesized by thyroid gland -decrease [Ca] in blood -promote Ca excretion in kidneys

antibody structure

-two identical light chains -two identical heavy chains -variable region that interacts with specific antigen -constant region that interacts with cells (phagocytes) and proteins of the body to facilitate antigen destruction

investigating antibiotic resistance

-use agar diffusion test -disks impregnated with different antibiotics are placed on a bacterial culture -susceptible bacteria normally form a growth-free halo called a zone of inhibition around the disks to the high antibiotic concentrations -resistant strains can grow near that antibiotic and do not form a zone of inhibition

western blot

-used to detect the presence of a specific protein and to compare its relative abundance in one set of conditions to that obtained under other conditions 1. protein electrophoresis 2. protein transfer to protein-binding domain 3. addition of blocking protein from milk or BSA (prevents antibodies from nonspecifically binding to nitrocellulose in next step) 4. addition of primary antibodies (bind to protein of interest) 5. addition of secondary antibodies (helps improve detection) 6. fluorescence, chemiluminescence, or autoradiography

the time it takes for complementary strands to reanneal depends on:

1. DNA length: longer DNA molecules have more hydrogen bonds and will take more time to both melt and reanneal 2. physiological range (7.3 and 7.4) allows maximal hydrogen bonding -at low pH, hydrogen bond acceptor atoms in bases become protonated and these protonated acceptors cannot form hydrogen bonds, causing double helix separation -high pH causes deprotonation of hydrogen bond donors in bases; the loss of protons results in the loss of hydrogen bonds and a destabilized double helix 3. salt concentration (ionic strength): the electrostatic repulsion between negatively charged phosphate groups on the sugar-phosphate backbone destabilizes the double helix -however, this repulsion is neutralized and shielded by binding of positively charged species in solution -high salt concentration increases double helix stability, but low salt concentration decreases stability

Activation of B lymphocytes by helper T-Cells

1. Pathogen binds to B lymphocyte receptor, is endocytized, and presented on MHC-II 2. Helper T-Cell binds foreign antigen and releases cytokines that activate the B-lymphocyte 3. Activated B-lymphocyte divides into many clones that differentiate into plasma cells or memory cells --B-lymphocytes do NOT release toxins

muscle contraction steps

1. Resting: no Ca^2+; myosin sites blocked; mysosin bound to ADP and Pi 2. Ca^2+ released due to depolarization stimulus -Ca^2+ bind troponin, resulting in a conformation change; pulls tropomyosin, exposing binding sites 3. Myosin head binds to actin filament, forming cross bridge and releasing ADP and Pi 4. Sarcomere shortens as a result of dissociation of ADP and Pi 5. New ATP molecule binds to myosin head; cross bridge dissembles 6. ATP hydrolysis shifts myosin to upright and high energy conformation

spleen function

1. filters aged/damaged RBCs 2. reservoir for blood 3. immune response (B cell activation site, house macrophages)

Applying Hess's Law

1. The signs of the reactants must be changed -if you are given the enthalpy of FORMATION for reactants, you must flip the sign if the reactants are being CONSUMED; i.e. enthalpy of formation means energy released when the molecule is produced 2. The standard enthalpies of formation for each component must be multiplied by their stoichiometric coefficients. ΔHoverallreaction = ΔHproducts − ΔHreactants ΔHreaction = Σbond energies of reactant - Σbond energies of products ΔHreaction = Σbonds broken - Σbonds formed

properties of parallel resistors:

1. The voltage drop across each resistor is the same. If they are in parallel with the battery, the voltage drop across each resistor will be equal to that of the voltage generated by the battery. 2. The equivalent resistance decreases if a resistor is added in parallel. Conversely, the equivalent resistance increases if a resistor in parallel is removed. 3. The current through each resistor is independent from that through the other resistors. 4. The total current is equal to the sum of the currents through each component.

lytic cycle steps

1. Virus attaches to host cell and inserts genetic material into cell 2. Viral genetic material takes over host cell 3. Host cell makes viral parts and assembles them to make viruses. 4. Host cell burst and releases viruses and the cycle continues with other cells.

transport of lipids through lymphatic system and into bloodstream

1. lipid droplets are released from the epithelial cells into the interstitial fluid 2. lymph capillaries collect lipid droplets from the interstitial fluid 3. lymph containing the lipid droplets then flows from the capillaries into increasingly larger lymph vessels 4. lymph is then transported into a large tubule structure called a lymph duct, which drains into a large vein near the heart -as a result, the lipid droplets within the lymph enter the bloodstream and circular throughout the body interstitial fluid --> lymph capillaries ---> lymph vessels --> lymph duct --> vein I Can't Vacation During Valentine's (Day)

generation of cDNA

1. mRNA 2. reverse transcriptase (make strand of cDNA 5' tp 3') 3. degrade mRNA 4. add DNA polymerase (PCR) and dNTPs to form double-stranded cDNA

resting membrane potential is maintained by:

1. passive transport & selective permeability (leak channels) 2. active transport (sodium potassium pump AKA Na+K+ ATPase)

reflex arcs

1. receptor 2. sensory neuron 3. integration center 4. motor neuron 5. effector

function of liver cells

1. regulation of blood glucose via glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, glyconeogenesis 2. storage of glycogen, minerals (iron), vitamins 3. synthesis of macromolecules such as plasma proteins (clotting factors and albumin), fats, ketone bodies, cholesterol 4. production and secretion of bile 5. breakdown/detoxification of numerous drugs and wastes

PCR reagents

1. source DNA template (containing deoxyribonucleotides) that includes the target region to be amplified and its adjacent flanking sequences 2. primer pairs designed from the oligonucleotide sequence of regions flanking the target sequence 3. thermostable DNA polymerase to replicate the DNA template using a pool of supplied dNTPs 4. buffer solution with positively charged ions to provide an optimal environment for DNA polymerase to function (cations bind the negatively charged phosphates on the DNA backbone and those on dNTPs, neutralizing the negative charge of DNA and stabilizing primer-template binding)

Spermatogenesis

1. spermatogonia (undergo mitosis) 2. spermatocyte (begin meiosis I) 3. spermatid (end of meiosis II) 4. spermatozoa (mature, loss of cytoplasm)

parathyroid hormone acts to increase serum Ca and decrease serum phosphate by:

1. stimulating calcitriol (active form of vitamin D) synthesis, which then induces absorption of dietary calcium from small intestine 2. promote bone resorption (osteoclast activity) 3. increase Ca resorption and phosphate excretion in kidneys

fraction remaining after n half lives

1/(2^n) n = number of half lives

best way to train an animal to perform a new behavior

A continuous reinforcement schedule, which provides a reward after every desired behavior, is most effective for training an animal to perform a new behavior. Shaping (ie, rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior) is often needed initially. Depriving the animal of the reward (eg, food) prior to training heightens its motivation, making training easier.

bacteriophages

A virus that infects bacteria with tail sheath -do NOT enter host to replicate genetic material

Immune cells assisted by helper T cell

B lymphocyte, cytotoxic T cell, macrophage, other immune cells

simple vs vacuum distillation boiling point

Because vacuum distillations are performed under reduced pressure, the boiling point of a compound under vacuum will decrease relative to its boiling point at atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the simple distillation boiling point of a molecule is greater than the boiling point of that molecule under vacuum (ie, simple distillation bp > vacuum distillation bp).

geometry of coordinate covalent bonds

Coordinate covalent bonds tend to maximize geometric space around a central atom. Transition metals generally form complexes with two, four, or six coordinate bonds. Therefore, the geometry of the coordinate covalent bonds will typically be linear (two bonds), tetrahedral or square planar (four bonds), or octahedral (six bonds).

atomic radius and sigma bond length

Covalent sigma bonds are made by sharing electrons through the end-to-end overlap of atomic orbitals. The length of a sigma bond can be estimated as the sum of the atomic radii of the bonded atoms. Atomic radii tend to decrease across a row and increase down a column on the periodic table. -Because a σ bond involves end-to-end overlap of two orbitals, the length of a σ bond can be estimated as the sum of the atomic radii of the bonded atoms. Bonding between atoms with larger atomic radii positions the atomic nuclei farther apart and results in a longer σ bond (and vice versa).

D and L sugars, α and β sugars classification

D and L sugars: The sugar is classified as L or D based on the configuration of the chiral center with the highest number (chiral center farthest from anomeric carbon). An R configuration at this center designates a D-sugar, and an S configuration designates an L-sugar α or β Sugars: based on the configuration of the anomeric carbon. -A cyclic sugar is in the α-configuration if the anomeric carbon substituent is on the opposite side of the ring plane as the substituent of the highest numbered chiral center; it is in the β-configuration if the anomeric substituent is on the same side of the plane (pointing up in a ring)

Dyssomnias

Disorders involving difficulty falling/staying asleep, poor sleep quality, inappropriate sleep timing -Most likely to occur: Adulthood Common examples: Insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy

Dissociative disorders

Dissociative identity disorder: Presence of two or more distinct personalities; amnesia Dissociative amnesia: Inability to recall important autobiographical information

Defining features of bureaucracies (bureaucratic organizations)

Division of labor: Specialized employees increase efficiency Hierarchical organization: Centralized authority & clear chain of command Standardization: Formal procedures & rules increase uniformity & continuity Impersonal: Same impersonal criteria applied to all increase equality

Relationship between electric force, electric field strength, electric potential, and electric potential energy

FE = electric force = Kq1q2/r^2 E = electric field strength = KQ/r^2 V = electric potential = KQ/r U = PE = electric potential energy = Kqq/r

pressures in glomerulus of nephron

HYDROSTATIC pressure of RENAL ARTERY promotes glomerular retention, which INCREASES urine output HYDROSTATIC pressure of BOWMAN'S CAPSULE pushes fluid into glomerular capillaries, which DECREASES urine output OSMOTIC pressure of FILTRATE draws fluid back into nephron, which INCREASES urine output ` OSMOTIC pressure of PERITUBULAR CAPILLARY draws fluid into bloodstream, which DECREASES urine output

non-associative learning

Habituation: Decreased response to a stimulus over time (eg, no longer noticing that a sweater feels scratchy after wearing it for a few minutes) Dishabituation: A renewed response to a previously habituated stimulus (eg, after taking off the sweater & then putting it back on, it feels scratchy again) Sensitization: Increased response to a stimulus over time (eg, sweater's scratchiness becomes more irritating until it is unbearable) Desensitization: Decreased response to a previously sensitized stimulus over time (eg, irritation from previously unbearable scratchiness diminishes over time); show an increased response followed by a decreased response -desensitization is the downregulation/decrease in response of receptors, which causes less sensation (you become desensitized to very low levels of light because rods become inactivated in extremely bright environments). This ultimately results in a decrease in awareness of the stimulus because less input is being generated. Habituation refers to the mental processes that make you no longer consciously notice a stimulus (background noise is still there, and your ears pick them up, but your brain ignores them after a while).

hypoventilation and blood pH

Hypoventilation (decreased gas exchange) leads to an increase in CO2 levels in the blood. This shifts equilibrium to the right, resulting in increased levels of H2CO3, HCO3− and H+ (a decrease in pH). Clinically, this is referred to as respiratory acidosis.

intensity

I = P/A = Power/Area = P/r^2 = (Energy/time)/A -higher rate or higher energy increase intensity I = ΔKE/t

power vs authority

In sociology, power refers to the ability to control and influence others. Authority refers to whether others believe that the power is legitimate. There are three types of authority: 1. Traditional authority comes from longstanding patterns in society (eg, a queen is seen as having legitimate power in a monarchy). 2. Charismatic authority stems from the personal appeal and/or extraordinary claims of an individual (eg, Gandhi was seen as having legitimate power due to his ability to inspire people). 3. Rational-legal authority arises from the professional position a person holds (eg, a physician is seen as having legitimate power due to extensive training).

reduction of ubiquinone in ETC

In the electron transport chain, ubiquinone receives two electrons from NADH, which reduces the carbonyl carbons to hydroxyl groups and forms an aromatic ring, yielding ubiquinol.

mirrors and lenses

MIRRORS: C________f________mirror C to mirror = radius of curvature CONCAVE (converging) Mirror: -object in FRONT of "c" and BEHIND "f" produces a real, inverted, smaller image (image located between object and focal point) -object AT "c" produces a real, inverted, same size image (image located between object and focal point) -object in FRONT of "f" produces a virtual, upright, larger image CONVEX (diverging) Mirror: -only produce virtual, upright, smaller images -as object approaches the mirror, the image approaches the mirror (from the opposite side) and grows until its height = that of the object LENSES: CONVERGING Lens: -as long as the object is outside of the focal point, the image is smaller, real and inverted -if the object is INSIDE (in front of) the focal point, the image is virtual, larger, and upright, located BEHIND the object DIVERGING Lens: -image is always virtual, upright, smaller and located between the object and lens

Theory of Social Self

Mead suggested that the experience of "self" emerges through social interaction with others who play important and formative roles in one's life (eg, family). The two aspects of the self are the "I" and "me," which develop in stages: Preparatory (or imitation): Babies/toddlers imitate others (eg, a parent's hand gesture) and begin using symbols and language (eg, repeating a phrase used by a parent) without meaning comprehension. At this stage, children have no sense of "self" as separate from the world around them. Play: Through play (eg, pretending to be a doctor), preschool-age children begin role-taking (ie, understanding the perspectives of others). When children understand themselves as individuals separate from others, the "I" component of the self has developed. Children then begin to imagine how others perceive them, which is the beginning of the development of the "me." Game: School-age children become aware of their position/role in relation to others. They begin to see themselves from the perspective of the more abstract generalized other, further developing the "me" to incorporate the values and rules of the society in which they live.

Conversion disorder

Neurological symptoms" (eg, paralysis, blindness) that are not explainable by a medical condition

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

Sensorimotor stage (age 0 to ~2): Experiencing the environment via senses & actions. Developmental Hallmarks: >Object permanence- >Stranger anxiety Preoperational thought stage (age ~2 to ~7): Representing real things with words & images Developmental Hallmarks: >Pretend play >Egocentrism >Language development Concrete operations stage (age ~7 to ~11): Thinking logically about concrete events; Grasping concrete analogies; Performing arithmetic Developmental Hallmarks: >Conservation >Mathematical transformation Formal operations stage (~12+): Thinking about hypothetical scenarios; Grasping abstract thoughts Developmental Hallmark: >Abstract logic >Moral reasoning develops

insight method of problem solving

Solution occurs in an "A-ha!" moment, typically after a mental break from the problem -Valuable, occurs infrequently

specific rotation of different stereoisomers

Specific rotation is the degree to which a chiral molecule rotates plane-polarized light. The value of specific rotation contains direction (+ is clockwise, − is counterclockwise) and magnitude. Diastereomers differ in the magnitude of their specific rotations (and may differ in direction), whereas enantiomers have specific rotations of the same magnitude but opposite direction.

α-bromoacid formation

The Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky (HVZ) reaction forms an α-bromoacid by substitution of bromine on the α-carbon (carbon atom adjacent to a carbonyl carbon) of a carboxylic acid. 1. addition of phosphorus tribromide (PBr3), forming an acyl bromide that can tautomerize from the keto to the enol form. 2. enol form of the acyl bromide acts as a nucleophile and attacks one of the bromine atoms in Br2, adding bromine to the α-carbon and forming an α-bromo acyl bromide. 3. When water is added, it acts as a nucleophile and attacks the carbonyl carbon, and the bromine on the carbonyl carbon acts as the leaving group. This forms the final product, an α-bromoacid, which can then be used to synthesize α-amino acids.

hooke's law

The law stating that the stress of a solid is directly proportional to the strain applied to it (elastic spring force): F = -kx elastic potential energy: 1/2kx^2 -key difference: The elastic properties of a spring depends on both shape and the material of the spring. Therefore, the elastic constant is different for every object. Elastic potential energy increases with the constant of the spring and with the distance stretched.

mass to charge ratio

The mass of an ion divided by its charge symbol m/z -An m/z of 207 could be obtained if the molecule is doubly charged (+2) and its mass were 412 (mass + charge)/charge

relationship between Keq and G

The relationship between the Gibbs free energy ΔG° of a reaction and Keq is given by the relationship: ∆G°= −RT lnKeq where R is the gas constant and T is the absolute temperature. Solving this equation for Keq gives Keq = e^(−∆G°/RT) This relationship shows that when ΔG° is negative, the exponent term will become positive and make Keq > 1, indicating that the equilibrium favors product formation.

resolving agent

The separation of enantiomers, such as those in the racemic mixture of albuterol, requires the addition of a resolving agent (a chiral molecule). -When a resolving agent is added to a racemic mixture, it reacts with each enantiomer, forming a covalent bond or an ionic salt. -Because the resolving agent is chiral, it incorporates a new chiral center into each enantiomer, creating a pair of diastereomers. -Diastereomers can be separated from each other because, unlike enantiomers, they have different physical properties. -Once the diastereomers are separated, the resolving agent is removed, yielding the original molecules as single enantiomers.

strong acid

There are very few strong acids: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO3, HClO4 -->all other acids are weak

strong bases

There are very few strong bases: LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2 -All strong bases are OH- compounds Group 1 (Li-Cs) + OH Group 2 (Mg-Ba) + OH

London dispersion forces

These interactions occur between two molecules whose proximity to each other induces a mutual attraction via the creation of a weak, temporary dipole moment. -Within a nonpolar molecule, the average electron distribution does not concentrate around any particular nucleus sufficiently enough to produce a permanent dipole moment. However, when two nonpolar molecules come near each other, the electron cloud of one molecule can momentarily shift and form a localized, slightly positive region that then induces a slightly negative region in a neighboring molecule. -Consequently, instantaneous dipoles with weak mutual attraction are formed momentarily. -more pronounced in larger molecules with more polarized clouds -increase with more hydrocarbon units

biomarkers that generally follow a 24-hour cycle of activity

To compare differences in the circadian clocks of long sleepers and short sleepers, researchers must measure biomarkers that generally follow a 24-hour cycle of activity: Core body temperature, which fluctuates between 38°C (in the daytime) and 36°C (just before waking) Plasma melatonin level, which peaks during sleep but remains relatively low during waking hours Cortisol, which under normal conditions peaks immediately after waking and is lowest just before sleep

applying the common ion effect

To further decrease the solubility of the CuSO4 that would still persist in solution, the common ion effect could be applied by adding Na2SO4 to the solution (Number II). CuSO4 and Na2SO4 have the SO42− ion in common; therefore, adding Na2SO4 will increase the SO42− concentration, which will shift the solubility equilibrium toward CuSO4 and cause the CuSO4 to selectively precipitate out of the mixture. -->adding a common ion shifts the equilibrium toward the reactants, which can precipitate a dissolved compound

how to precipitate DNA in aqueous solution?

To precipitate the DNA from aqueous solution, its charge must be neutralized through extraction with ethanol and a salt such as sodium acetate. Gentle mixing with ethanol disrupts the hydration shell around DNA molecules. Sodium cations then neutralize DNA's charge via ionic bonding with phosphate groups, making DNA less hydrophilic, decreasing its affinity for the aqueous solvent, and allowing it to precipitate more efficiently.

When a substrate concentration is much greater than KM, the rate of catalysis is almost equal to:

Vmax

michaelis menton assumptions

Vo = Vmax[S]/KM + [S] 1. free ligand approximation: [S] here represents the free substrate concentration, but typically is assumed to be close to the total substrate concentration present in the system [S] is constant during reaction (only true during initial phase of reaction) -to ensure ES formation does not significantly impact [S], total concentration of enzyme in solution [E] must be significantly smaller than any [S] tested -valid as long the total enzyme concentration is well below the KM of the system 2. steady state assumption: [ES] remains constant over time -once [S] becomes significantly depleted, ES levels decrease and reaction slows; the rate of formation of ES is equal to the rate of its breakdown 3. reversible assumption: reaction proceeds only in forward direction and product does not get converted back to substrate -once enough product accumulates, reverse reaction occurs at non-negligible levels and further slows net rate of product formation overall rate of the reaction is determined by the rate of the catalytic step: Vo = k2[ES] - k(-2)[ES]; Vo = k2[ES] k1/k-1 = binding step (E + S ⇌ ES) k2/k-2 = catalysis step (ES ⇌ E + P) E + S ⇌ ES ⇌ E + P (1) The binding step (E + S ⇌ ES) is fast, allowing the reaction to quickly reach equilibrium ratios of [E], [S], and [ES]. The catalytic step (ES ⇌ E + P) is slower, and thus rate-limiting. (2) At early time points, where initial velocity (Vo) is measured, [P] ≈ 0 (3) ES immediately comes to steady state, so [ES] is constant (throughout the measured portion of the reaction). (4) [S] >> [ET], so the fraction of S that binds to E (to form ES) is negligible, and [S] is constant at early time points. (5) The enzyme exists in only two forms: free (E), and substrate-bound (ES). Thus, the total enzyme concentration (ET) is the sum of the free and substrate-bound concentrations: [ET] = [E] + [ES]

Applied external potential needed for a charging battery

When charging a battery, an external potential must be applied to force the oxidation-reduction reaction in the nonspontaneous direction. The reverse reaction requires more than the potential produced by the battery because of internal resistance.

motion parallax

a monocular cue whereby objects in the foreground are perceived as moving faster than objects in the background. Motion parallax is a perceptual process that would not require three-dimensional depth but would still allow subjects to perceive both depth and motion.

decarboxylation

a reaction that removes a carboxyl group from a carboxylic acid with a β-carbonyl, releasing the carboxyl group as CO2 gas. A β-carbonyl is necessary for decarboxylation because a cyclic transition state incorporating both carbonyls is formed. Esters with a β-carbonyl can also undergo decarboxylation if they are hydrolyzed to a carboxylic acid first.

taste aversion

a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs after just one instance of becoming ill following the consumption of something. Taste aversions can develop despite many hours passing between consumption and illness and are long-lasting.

nucleus accumbens

a structure that is part of the reward pathway in the brain. The reward pathway also includes the ventral tegmental area (which produces dopamine) and portions of the prefrontal cortex. DBS of these structures could help alleviate symptoms of depression, as activation of the reward pathway is associated with feelings of pleasure and the reinforcement of rewarding behaviors -may help alleviate anhedonia

looking-glass self

a symbolic interactionist concept that suggests that our interpretation of how we are perceived by others impacts our self-concept (beliefs about ourselves). In addition, our interpretation of what others think about us is more important than what they actually think.

mass spectrometry

a technique that separates particles according to their mass -x-axis: mass to charge ratio -y-axis: relative signal intensity -signal intensity, or the height of a data peak relative to other peaks, corresponds to the relative quantity of ions at each mass-to-charge ratio m/z. -Ions that have multiple charges have a smaller m/z ratio because the denominator (charge) has increased. In spectrometry data, this translates into greater signal intensities for these ions -Lowering the pH of the solvent increases the concentration of protons and results in a greater number of multiply charged molecules (z > 1). An increase in multiply charged molecules would therefore result in greater signal intensity for smaller m/z values -A plot of ion mass abundance vs. m/z ratio is generated; fragments of the sample can be identified by the m/z difference between two peaks in the mass spectrum. -multiple peaks with the same m/z ratio of an unsaturated molecule could correspond to the cis/trans isomers of the molecule

Informational social influence

describes when people conform to what others are doing because they don't know what to do and believe others do. If several group members have medical expertise regarding cancer, another participant of that group may conform because the individual believes the others are experts with the best information about cancer risk.

DNA sequencing

determines the nucleotide sequence of DNA molecules and PCR products

is phosphodiester bond formation endergonic or exergonic?

endergonic It itself is endergonic, but as ATP is used to created phosphodiester bonds, the hydrolysis of ATP (Negative G) allows the process to occur.

Euchromatin

high levels of histone acetylation low levels of DNA methylation loosely associated with histones and more easily transcribed

Infrared spectroscopy

is a technique used to determine the functional groups present in a sample; the data collected are plotted as percent transmittance vs. wavenumber. The signals in the spectrum correspond to bond-stretching vibrations and rotations at a certain frequency, and the signal intensity is dependent on the amount of energy absorbed.

representativeness heuristic

is the tendency to compare things (eg, people, events) to existing mental prototypes when making judgments. Mental representations (eg, nurses tend to be women) may cause one to draw a conclusion that is inaccurate, such as assuming that a woman in scrubs is a nurse instead of a doctor

actor observer bias

occurs when an individual is more likely to blame his or her own bad behavior on external circumstances. For example, an individual may cut someone off in traffic, but would excuse their behavior due to running late. The passage does not discuss how individuals attribute their behavior -an attributional bias that describes the tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors but the actions of others to internal factors. The physicians' tendency to make external attributions for their own lack of exercise (eg, "I'm too busy") while attributing their patients' lack of exercise to internal factors (eg, "they are lazy") best supports the actor-observer bias -The fundamental attribution error, an attributional bias, is the tendency to blame others' behavior on internal (eg, "they are lazy") instead of external factors. The fundamental attribution error fails to account for the finding regarding physicians' attributions for their own behaviors.

escape learning

occurs when an organism learns how to terminate an ongoing unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to flee from or stop a continuous electric shock). Escape learning becomes avoidance learning when an organism prevents coming into contact with an unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to avoid the electric shock before it occurs) -forms of negative reinforcement -escape learning: teen fakes illness while doing dishes, gets to stop; current situation undesirable, stimulus removed -avoidance learning: teen stays late at school to avoid doing evening chores; future situation undesirable, stimulus prevented

myopia

occurs when light rays from distant objects are focused in front of the retina -this condition is corrected with diverging lenses, which spread light before they reach the eye to move the location of the focused image farther back in the eye onto the retina -diverging lenses create upright virtual images

Labeling theory

suggests that when someone is labeled as deviant, the act of being labeled produces further deviance. The initial act is called primary deviance and, if labeled, results in social stigma such as disapproval by others. Internalization of the deviant label leads to further acts of deviance, called secondary deviance.

Lorentz force

sum of electrostatic and magnetic forces F = qvBsinθ = qvB -force exerted on an ion in a magnetic field -force = perpendicular to both the ion's velocity and direction of the magnetic field

smooth ER function

synthesis of lipids and steroid hormones cholesterol is transported from SER to cytosol via ACTH, which then synthesizes cortisol -synthesis of cortisol depends on production of cholesterol*

social identity

the part of the self-concept including one's view of self as a member of a particular social category -how ideas about oneself are shaped by group membership -

A molecule can be depicted in multiple projections and orientations. For each depiction to be equivalent, all atoms within the molecule must be in...

the same position relative to all other atoms. -needs to be in same spot and orientation (clokwise/counterclockwise)

total activity (TA)

total protein (mg) x specific activity (u/mg)

urine collection vs urination

urine collection: -deltrusor muscle = relaxed -internal urethral sphincter & external urethral sphincter = contracted urination: -deltrusor muscle = contracted --> push urine from bladder to urethra -internal urethral sphincter = relaxed --> open urethra, allow urine to pass -->deltrusor muscle and internal urethral sphincter are under involuntary control -->external urethral sphincter is under voluntary control