UWorld Psych/Soc Terms

(Piaget) sensorimotor stage

<2 yrs -Experiencing the environment via senses & actions -developmental hallmark: object performance; stranger anxiety

(Piaget) formal operational

>12 yrs -Thinking about hypothetical scenarious; grasping abstract thoughts -developmental hallmark: abstract logic; moral reasoning develops

Positive punishment

occurs when undesirable stimulus is applied

Identity development theory

(James Marcia); identity diffusion (low commitment, low exploration), identity foreclosure (high commitment, low exploration), identity moratorium (low commitment, high exploration), and identity achievement (high commitment, high exploration)

conflict theory

(Karl Marx, Max Weber) A macro-level (large-scale) sociological perspective, is concerned with the class conflict that arises when resources (e.g. wealth, power) are unevenly distributed across social groups (e.g. rich vs. poor)

Psychoanalytic theory

(Sigmund Freud); proposes that personality is composed of the id (pleasure principle), the ego (reality principle), and the superego (morality/perfection principle). The rational ego functions to mediate between external reality and the unconscious self, negotiating the desires of the primitive, impulsive id and the moralistic superego

Demographic transition model

-high birth/death rates, small population (Stage 1) -declining death rate, increasing population (Stage 2) -declining birth rate, slower population growth (Stage 3) -low birth/death rates, stable population (Stage 4) -very low birth rate, declining population (Stage 5)

Intragenerational downward mobility

1 generation; decrease in social status; doctor loses license to practice medicine

Intragenerational upward mobility

1 generation; increase in social status; i.e. after 10 years, nurse goes back to school to earn MD

Intragenerational horizontal mobility

1 generation; no change in social status; i.e. doctor moves her practice from Atlanta to Chicago

Intergenerational downward mobility

2+ generations; decrease in social status; i.e. son of doctors becomes a high school drop-out

Intergenerational upward mobility

2+ generations; increase in social status; i.e. son of high school drop-outs becomes a doctor

Intergenerational horizontal mobility

2+ generations; no change in social status; i.e. son of doctors becomes a doctor

Discrimination

the unequal treatment of individuals or groups on the basis of group membership

(Erikson ) 3. Play age (3-6 years)

Conflict: Initiative vs. guilt Successful resolution: Ability to take initiative with peers

(Erikson ) 8. Old age (>65)

Conflict: Integrity vs. despair Successful resolution: Sense of accomplishment & fulfillment

(Erikson ) 6. Early adulthood (20-40)

Conflict: Intimacy vs. isolation Successful resolution: Ability to commit to & love others

(Erikson ) 1. Infancy (0-1 years)

Conflict: trust vs. mistrust Successful resolution: ability to have faith in others

Sick role theory

A functionalist approach describing how disruption to typical social acitivity (e.g. work) caused by illness is minimized through the sick role, which legitimizies illness as socially acceptable deviance. A sick person has the obligation to attempt to get well as soon as possible, and to seek and comply with the advice of medical professionals.

dopamine

A neurotransmitter with widespread targets throughout the brain, specifically in the basal ganglia (motor function), mesolimbic pathway (pleasure, reward), and prefrontal cortex (motivation, emotional regulation)

Internal locus of control

A person has the ability to influence outcomes of events

Ethnography

A qualitative method for the scientific study of human social phenomena. Using observation and interviews, ethnographies study people in their natural environments (within their own communities) and provide descriptive information about the cultures, behaviors, norms, and values in a given geographic location

Aggregate

A collection of individuals who share a common location but do not identify as a group (e.g. all the people at a given store at 11:00 AM)

Optimum population

A demographic theory regarding the ideal population size, which is the number of people yielding the highest per capita income given the country's level of wealth, knowledge, and technical resources

Content analysis

A qualitative technique used to examine the text and images involved in human communication. It is used to assess one-on-one verbal communication, such as interview transcripts, or more widespread forms of communication, such as online content.

Blind spot

A small region between the central and peripheral visual fields where there are no photoreceptors because the optic nerve exits the retina at this location.

Linguistic determinism

A stronger version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that language controls/limits cognition and perception

Illness experience perspective

A symbolic interactionist approach to understanding how people incorporate and make sense of illness as part of their self-identity and daily routines.

Sensitization

A type of learning in which repeated exposure to a stimulus results in an increase in the strength of a response (e.g. instead of becoming accustomed to a flickering overhead light, one becomes extremely irritated)

General adaptation syndrome

According to the general adaptation syndrome, the body's response to stress involves an alarm stage (initial flight-or-flight response), resistance stage (increased resistance to stress), and exhaustion stage (eventual decreased resistance to stress) that may lead to the development of mental and physical health issues. Although most stressors elicit similar physiologic stress response course over time, not all individuals experience negative mental outcomes

Theory of universal emotions

According to the theory of universal emotions, certain emotions are expressed and detected by everyone, regardless of culture

Life course approach to aging

Aging viewed holistically in terms of social, biological, cultural & psychological contexts

Self-serving bias

An attributional bias that occurs when individuals credit their successes to internal factors but blame their failures on external factors

Social network analysis

An epidemiological technique mapping connections between individuals to study the spread of communicable disease in a population. Chronic diseases are more complex and do not lend themselves to social network analysis.

antipsychotic drugs

Antipsychotic drugs are dopamine antagonists that work in part by blocking the action of dopamine, an excess of which in certain areas of the brain has been linked to psychotic symptoms (e.g. hallucinations), such as those seen in schizophrenia. These medications can have side effects that resemble the motor symptoms of Parkinson disease (e.g. tremors, muscle rigidity)

Intersectionality

Argues that people hold several statuses (group memberships) simultaneously, which must be considered together in understanding an individual's overall perspective and experience.

Ascribed status

Assigned social position (e.g. race)

Achieved status

Attained social position (e.g. doctor)

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

Attempts to change negative thoughts/beliefs (cognitions) & maladaptive behaviors. Various techniques (e.g. desensitization, self-talk) used to replace destructive thoughts/behaviors with healthy ones

Humanistic therapy (person-centered therapy)

Attempts to empower individual to move toward self-actualization. Unconditional positive regard & empathy used to encourage client to reach full potential

Psychoanalytic therapy ("talk therapy")

Attempts to uncover how unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood shape behaviors. Various techniques (e.g. free association, dream analysis) used to analyze unconscious

Projection

Attributing one's unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to someone or something else (e.g. calling the sidewalk "stupid" after tripping)

Interactionist perspective of language acquisition

Biological (due to normal brain development) AND social (due to interaction, reinforcement, desire/motivation to communicate)

Serial processing

Refers to processing one piece of information at a time, such as memorizing a list item by item

linguistic isolation

Communities who are isolated may develop own language, even in same city. May limit jobs

Reference group

Comparison group to which an individual compares self; individual may or may not belong to this group

Utilitarian organizations

Compensate members for their involvement (e.g. money, certification/diploma).

Role strain

Competing expectations within a single role create tension (e.g. a student struggles to find enough time to complete homework (expecation 1) and attend student government meetings (expectation 2) )

Internal validity

Concerned with causality, the extent to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to changes in the independent variable. Refers to the extent to which a measure or experiment produces a true result.

Central (foveal) vision

Cones are more densely packed at the fovea, the central portion of the retina that receives information from the central visual field, producing the highest visual acuity (image sharpness and clarity)

(Erikson ) 2. Early childhood (1-3 years)

Conflict: Autonomy vs. shame/doubt Successful resolution: Sense of self-control & independence

(Erikson ) 7. Middle age (40-65)

Conflict: Generativity vs. stagnation Successful resolution: Concern for others & society

(Erikson ) 5. Adolescence (12-20)

Conflict: Identity vs. confusion Successful resolution: Sense of self-identity

(Erikson ) 4. School age (6-12)

Conflict: Industry vs. inferiority Successful resolution: Sense of confidence in skills & abilities

Looking-glass self

Charles Cooley; proposed the concept of the looking-glass self, suggesting that beliefs about oneself are derived through social interactions with others throughout one's lifetime

Actor-observer bias

Common errors in thinking that occur when people attempt to explain behavior (their own or someone else's). The actor-observer bias occurs when individuals attribute their own behavior to external factors but attribute the behavior of others to internal factors

Political isolation

Communities segregated are politically weak because their political interests don't overlap with other communities - become political vulnerable, don't have the political influence to keep their own needs addressed

Reliability

Refers to the ability of an experiment or measure to produce similar results every time

Secondary group

Group of individuals who come together to accomplish something; larger in size, more impersonal (e.g. coworkers)

Out-group

Group to which an individual does not identify or belong; out-group members viewed unfavorably

In-group

Group to which an individual identifies & belongs; other in-group members viewed favorably

Cultural capital

Describes the nonfinancial and nonsocial network assets that confer advantage in society (e.g. a degree from a well-respected university)

Cultural transmission

Describes the passing of cultural elements (material, nonmaterial, or both) from one generation to the next (i.e. when parents expose children to music

McDonaldization

Describes the process by which extreme efficiency and rationalization produce negative consequences in society (e.g. reduced quality of products)

Chemoreceptors

Detects: chemicals Stimuli: molecules, solutes ex. taste buds (tongue)

Photoreceptor

Detects: light waves Stimuli: visible light ex. rods, cones (retina)

Mechanoreceptors

Detects: movement Stimuli: sound waves, touch ex. hair cells (ear)

Thermoreceptor

Detects: temperature Stimuli: heat, cold ex. skin

Master status

Dominant social position (e.g. ex-convict)

Push factors

Drive emigration (i.e. unemployment, war)

Elaboration likelihood model

Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion proposes that when an individual is uninterested in a message, superficial factors (e.g. an attractive celebrity spokesperson) might be most persuasive. Therefore, the elaboration likelihood model is concerned with how nonverbal cues can influence the behavior of individuals; defines two routes of persuasion: the central route (focusing on the logical content of the message) is most effective when the audience is motivated by the message, whereas the peripheral route (focusing on superficial characteristics of the message) is more effective when people are not motivated by the same message

Schachter-Singer Theory

Emotion results from physiological arousal followed by cognitive appraisal (i.e. sensory information and interpretation of environmental cues are required)

structural functionalism

Emphasizes how social structures maintain dynamic equilibrium (i.e. homeostasis) in society

Biomedical approach to mental illness

Emphasizes the diagnosis of physiological causes (abnormal brain chemistry) by physicians and the treatment of symptoms using drugs

Dramaturgical perpective

Erving Goffman; explains social behavior using a theater metaphor; the front-stage self involves individuals behaving as "actors" in an "audience," whereas the backstage self includes the behavior in which an individual engages more privately

Feminist theory

Explains differences in power between males/masculinity and females/femininity (gender inequality).

External validity

External validity is concerned with generalizability, or the extent to which results can be applies to other situations (e.g. outside the laboratory) or people (e.g. to the population).

Type II error

False negative: falsely conclude there is no difference

Type I error

False positive: falsely conclude there is a true difference

Common fate

Gestalt principle that describes our perception that things moving together (e.g. a flock of birds flying in a V-formation is perceived as a unit)

Continuity

Gestalt principle that describes our tendency to perceive elements as continuing on a smooth path (e.g. "X" is perceived as two crossing lines, rather than two "V" shapes touching)

Proximity

Gestalt principle that describes our tendency to perceive things that are physically closer to one another as a group (e.g. letters that are closer together are grouped as a word)

Similarity

Gestalt principle that refers to our tendency to group together objects that share similar features (e.g. shape, color)

Role exit

Individual disengages from a social role, often replacing it with a new social role (e.g. a college student (old role) graduates & begins full-time employment (new role)

Arousal theory of motivation

Individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum level of arousal; when underaroused, people seek activities to increase stimulation (e.g. if bored at home, one will go out dancing). When overaroused, people seek to decrease stimulation (e.g. if overwhelmed at a party, one will step outside for quiet)

Nativist perspective of language acquisition

Innate & biologically predetermined; occurs during a critical (time-sensitive) period early in life

Manifest functions

Intended, obvious purpose of a social structure (e.g. teaching facts and skills is a manifest function of the education system)

Episodic memory

Involves personally relevant information (e.g. names of former high school classmates)

Impression management

Involves trying to influence how one is perceived by others by employing certain behaviors (e.g. covering one's tattoos for a medical school interview), often with the goal of being perceived favorably

Kohlberg Moral development theory

Lawrence Kohlberg; proposes that humans progress through stages of moral and ethical reasoning throughout their lifetime, starting with basic moral reasoning during childhood and progressing to more abstract reasoning in adulthood. At the pre-conventional level, morality is externally controlled by punishment (stage 1) and reciprocity with others (stage 2). At the conventional level, morality is based on conforming to norms (stage 3) and obeying the law (stage 4). At the post-conventional level, which few people achieve, morality is based on a social contract (stage 5) and a personal code of ethics (stage 6)

Dominant culture

Learned values, beliefs, & behaviors shared by most in society

Learning perspective of language acquisition

Learned via: operant conditioning, language imitation & practice

Folkways

Least deviant; e.g. wearing clothes backward; minor punishments (e.g. staring)

Fertility rate

Measure of the number of people being added to a given population through birth, as opposed to immigration

Normative organizations

Membership based on shared values

Mirror neuron system

Mirror neurons are specialized neurons that fire both while observing and performing a behavior. Mirror neurons are hypothesized to play a central role in observation learning

Mores

More deviant; e.g. wearing no clothes in public; more serious punishment (e.g. arrest)

Taboos

Most deviant; e.g. incest, suicide; most serious punishment (e.g. incarceration)

Conditioned response (CR)

Occur when a neutral stimulus (e.g. chemotherapy equipment) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. cytotoxic medication)

Conformity

Occurs individual group members align their thoughts or actions with the group

Groupthink

Occurs when a desire for group cohesion or consensus results in poor decision-making; fewer options will be discussed and considered; more likely to occur in groups that have strong, well-liked leaders

Group polarization

Occurs when group members' average attitudes/opinions become more extreme after group discussion.

Retroactive interference

Occurs when more recently learned information interferes with the learning of older information

Proactive interference

Occurs when older information interferes with the recall of newer information

Stereotype boost (stereotype lift)

Occurs when positive stereotypes about social groups cause improved performance

Experimenter bias

Occurs when researchers deliberately or inadvertently influence their study, often leading to results that confirm what the researcher was expecting.

Continuity approach to aging

Older adults attempt to maintain the habits & behaviors from their youth

Disengagement approach to aging

Older adults withdraw from social relationships/society as society withdraw from them

External locus of control

Outcomes are determined by luck, fate, or powerful others

Overlapping confidence intervals

Overlapping confidence intervals indicate that the difference between groups may or may not be statistically significant

Parkinson disease

Parkinson disease is associated with the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra ( a structure in the basal ganglia that inhibits excess movement). A dopamine deficit in the basal ganglia causes motor symptoms such as resting tremors (e.g. shaky hands), muscle rigidity, and shuffling gait

Cannon-Bard Theory

Physiological arousal and emotion are independent processes that occur simultaneously (i.e. the experience of emotion is not tied to sensory information from the body)

Door-in-the-face phenomenon

Predicts that an individual declining a big request (taking a hepatitis C blood test) will be more likely to comply with a subsequent request that is much smaller (participating in the research study)

Medicalization

Process of defining human behaviors or characteristics as medical conditions, often results from shifting attitudes, new scientific evidence, or new treatments

Linguistic relativity theory (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis)

Proposes that cognition is influenced and/or shaped by language; in its stronger version, this perspective would suggest that children are unable to think about concepts for which they have not yet learned the words

Rational choice theory

Proposes that humans make rational decisions to maximize gain and minimize loss

Social exchange theory

Proposes that interactions between people are based on each person's calculation of benefits and costs; human interaction as resulting from people's perceptions of what they invest in a relationship and what they get out of it

Expectancy theory of motivation

Proposes that motivation results from expectancy (believing one is capable of achieving an outcome), instrumentality (believing one has control over the outcome), and valence (believing the outcome is desirable)

Semantic memory

Recall of facts (e.g. names of state capitals)

Deindividuation

Reduction in self-awareness when one is a member of a large group. Factors contributing to deindividuation include emotionally arousing activities, large group size, diffusion of responsibility, and anonymity; can result in negative crowd behavior (rioting, looting) that is usually uncharacteristic for those individuals

Hidden curriculum

Refers to all of the messages transmitted to students in an academic setting that are not based on content (e.g. norms, attitudes, beliefs)

Parallel processing

Refers to processing multiple sources of information that occur simultaneously, such as perceiving auditory and visual events together when watching someone talk

Social reproduction

Refers to the transmission of society's values, norms, and practices, including social inequality, from one generation to the next (e.g. the child of wealthy parents tends to be wealthy as an adult)

Exchange-rational choice

Refers to two micro-level (small-scale) sociological perspectives. Social exchange theory and rational choice theory

Immigration

Relocation of individuals into an area

Emigration

Relocation out of an area

Activity approach to aging

Remaining physically & socially active improves quality of life for older adults

Peripheral vision

Rods, present primarily in the periphery of the retina, are much more sensitive to light than cones. Rods do not transmit information about color but are well suited to detect motion and low-intensity (dim) light, producing high visual sensitivity

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder characterized by positive symptoms (e.g. hallucinations, delusions, incoherent speech), and negative symptoms (e.g. apathy, emotional flattening, social withdrawal)

Neuroleptics

Schizophrenia is often treated with either neuroleptic (conventional, typical, or first-generation) or atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics. Neuroleptics however may exacerbate negative symptoms through sedation or cognitive dulling, and they can carry the risk of movement (e.g. tremors) and other side effects

Sensory adaptation

Sensory adaptation occurs when an individual's sensory receptors adapt to the presence of a stimulus

Serial position effect

Serial position effect is the selective recall of items presented at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a series or list

Signal detection theory

Signal detection theory quantifies how decisions are made amid noise (distractions). The theory includes four possible outcomes: correct detection (signal present and correctly detected), false negative (signal present but not detected), false positive (signal absent but incorrectly detected), or correct rejection (signal absent and correctly determined to be absent)

Social loafing

Social loafing occurs when an individual expends less effort when working as part of a group than when working alone (e.g. people tend to clap less loudly as part of a group than when no one else is clapping)

Social networks

Social networks are informal, nonhierarchical webs of nodes (e.g. individuals) connected by ties, which can be weak (e.g. acquaintances) or strong (e.g. family). Social networks confer social capital through connections that can be converted into economic gain (e.g. new job), which can improve one's social statues, resulting in social mobility

Division of labor

Specialization of employment into interdependent jobs. The division of labor has positive consequences (e.g. increased specialization, efficiency, reduced costs) and negative consequences (e.g. labor exploitation, increased boredom, reduced quality)

Monoamine hypothesis

States that a depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) in the CNS causes depression symptoms

Appraisal theory

States that one's evaluation of a stimulus determines one's emotional response. In a primary appraisal, an individual determines whether a stimulus is a threat, positive, or irrelevant. If it is deemed a threat, the individual evaluates whether their resources are sufficient to cope with the stressor in the secondary appraisal.

null hypothesis (Ho)

States that there is no significant difference or relationship between the variables measured.

Differential association theory

Suggests that deviance is learned through interaction (i.e. someone goes to prison for drug possession and learns from incarcerated sellers how to efficiently sell drugs)

Labeling theory

Suggests that deviance lies not in the act but in the social response of applying a label to individuals. Labeling individuals as deviant has consequences, such as stigmatization, that lead to further deviance

social constructionism

Suggests that reality is created through shared meanings and definitions arising from social interactions

law of common fate

The Gestalt principle that we tend to group similar objects together that share a common motion or destination

James-Lange Theory

The James-Lange theory suggests that specific emotions result from stimuli eliciting specific physiological reactions, which are transmitted to the brain via the spinal cord white matter (afferent axonal tracts, which carry sensory information from the body to the brain)

Malthusian theory of population growth

The Malthusian theory of population growth suggests that human populations increase exponentially but the resources needed to sustain those populations (e.g. food) increase much more slowly, resulting in preventative checks that voluntarily decrease the birth rate and positive checks that involuntarily increase the death rate in society

alternative hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis is based on prior evidence and assumes that a significant relationship or difference exists between variables (and often predicts the nature of that relationship or difference)

Cognitive component of attitude

The cognitive component relates to a person's beliefs and opinions about something

corpus callosum

The corpus callosum allows communication between the right and left hemispheres of the brain, which are specialized for certain functions (cortical lateralization). Each hemisphere contralaterally controls the opposite side of the body

Proprioception

The cumulative sensory input to the central nervous system from all mechanoreceptors that sense body position and limb movement.

Dependency ratio

The dependency ratio is the proportion of unproductive (i.e. too old or too young to work) to productive (i.e. working-age) members in a society. [(# of child dependents) + (# retired dependents)/ (#people in workfroce)] x 100

Effects of anxiety

The hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex demonstrate structural changes in response to chronic stress. Atrophy of the hippocampus inhibits learning and changes emotional responses. Changes in the dendrites of the amygdala are associated with increased anger, fear, and anxiety. Hypervigilance and poor coping skills are linked to changes in the dendritic branching of the prefrontal cortex.

absolute threshold

The intensity value at which an individual is able to detect the stimulus 50% of the time

left hemisphere of brain

The left hemisphere is specialized for language functions, including speech production (Broca area) and language comprehension (Wernicke area)

Life course approach to illness

The life course approach to illness is holistic and multidisciplinary, examining the cumulative effect of psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors across a lifetime on health outcomes

Nucleus accumbens

The nucleus accumbens is a structure that is part of the reward pathway in the brain. The reward pathway also includes the ventral tegmental area (which produces dopamine) and portions of the prefrontal cortex

pupil

The pupil modulates the amount of light able to enter the eyeball

Sampling bias

The result of nonrandom study sampling techniques (e.g. convenience sampling) that produce nonrepresentative samples from which conclusions about the larger population cannot be drawn

Right hemisphere

The right hemisphere is specialized for visuospatial, emotional, and artistic/musical processing

just noticeable difference (difference threshold)

The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time is called the difference threshold, or just noticeable difference

Fundamental attribution error (attributional bias)

The tendency to blame others' behavior on internal (e.g. "they are lazy") instead of external factors.

Spatial inequality

The unequal geographical distribution of wealth resulting in the concentration of health-compromising factors (e.g. pollution, crime) in lower-income neighborhoods

trichromatic theory of color vision

This theory states that you have cones that are receptive to 3 colors: red, green, and blue. These three colors are mixed together and you perceive color

Researchers noticed that participants were more likely to erroneously report hearing a tone when viewing a picture of an object that produces a tone-like sound, such as a telephone or a bell. What type of processing best explains why this mistake might occur?

Top-down processing

Latent functions

Unintended result of a social structure (e.g. contributing to social inequality is a latent function of the education system)

Otolithic Organs

Utricle and saccule. Detect linear acceleration and head positioning

Subculture

Values & norms do not oppose the dominant culture, although group is characteristically distinct

Counterculture

Values & norms oppose the dominant culture

Hindsight bias

a cognitive bias in which an event is perceived as being likely or predictable after it has occurred, even if it was not likely to happen

Functional fixedness

a cognitive bias restricting the way one thinks of an object's uses to only typical or traditional uses

Posterior pituitary

a collection of hypothalamic axonal projections, releases the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin

Oxytocin

a hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland, is involved in pair bonding, reproductive behavior, labor, and lactation

Motion parallax

a monocular cue whereby objects in the foreground are perceived as moving faster than objects in the background

Interposition

a monocular depth cue that refers to one object partially blocking another (the fully visible object is perceived as being closer)

McGurk Effect

a perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. The illusion occurs when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception of a third sound.

State-dependent memory

a phenomenon whereby memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual's internal state at the time of retrieval is the same as when the memory was encoded; ie. memories encoded while an individual is intoxicated are less easily recalled when sober than when intoxicated at a later time

Wernicke area

a portion of the temporal lobe that is responsible for language comprehension

implicit association test (IAT)

a psychometric technique designed to measure unconscious attitudes, including prejudice; test requires participants to match words or images to one of two opposite categories as quickly as possible

Social constructionism

a sociological theory suggesting that "reality" is created through interactions, resulting in agreed-on, shared meanings (social constructs); social constructs (e.g. gender) are defined and maintained through the process of social interaction

Confirmation bias

a type of cognitive bias (common error in thinking) in which individuals tend to embrace evidence supporting their beliefs, dismiss or ignore evidence refuting their beliefs, and interpret ambiguous evidence as support

Belief perseverance

a type of cognitive bias in which a person steadfastly holds a belief even when confronting strong evidence

Procedural memory

a type of implicit memory; memory for motor skills

Habituation

a type of learning in which repeated exposure to a stimulus results in a decrease in the strength of a response (e.g. after a few minutes one becomes accustomed to a flickering overheard light and no longer notices it)

Fluid intelligence

ability to use logic and creativity to solve novel problems and identify patterns in new situations; is thought to peak in early adulthood and decline with age, whereas crystallized intelligence is thought to increase with age

top-down processing

aka. conceptually driven processing, is guided by information, beliefs, or ideas already stored in our brain

bottom-up processing

aka. stimulus driven processing, which is guided by incoming data, often sensory information

Class consciousness

an awareness of one's social status in society (which is necessary for social classes to unit in revolution); Marx's term for awareness of a common identity based on one's position in the means of production

World systems theory

an economic theory of globalization that views the world as a global economy where some countries benefit at the expense of others

Cross-sectional study

an observational study that measures a variable in a population at one time point

Prefrontal cortex

anterior portion of the frontal lobe; regulates executive functions, including working memory, reasoning, planning, impulse inhibition, attention, making decisions, and solving problems; continues to develop during teens and does not reach full maturity until mid-twenties. Plays a role in what is thought to be a uniquely human capability: the modulation of emotions

Semi-periphery nations

are between core and periphery nations, with economies that are relatively more diversified than those of periphery nations

Vygotsky Language & Cognition

asserted that cognition and language develop independently but are both influenced by social interaction: cognition is the product of socialization, and language arises out of a necessity for social communication

Dispositional attributions

assume that behavior is caused by personal traits such as temperament or intelligence

Pull factors

attract people to immigrate (e.g. job opportunities)

Just world phenomenon

attributional bias that occurs when one believes that the world is fair and good things happen to people who are hard working and good and that bad things happen to people who are bad or lazy

Halo effect

attributional error that occurs when a physically attractive individual is also assumed to have other positive qualities (e.g. intelligence, kindness)

Consanguineal kinship

based on genetic relationship (e.g. biological parents)

Affinal kinship

based on marriage (e.g. spouses)

Role-playing effects

behaving according to a role causes attitudes to align with behaviors

Regression

behaving as if much younger to avoid unacceptable thoughts/behaviors (e.g. moving back in with parents to avoid adulthood stress)

Ethnocentrism

belief that other cultures are inferior to the dominant culture

lens

bends the lights so it goes to back of eyeball-focuses light specifically on the fovea of the retina

Hippocampus

controls memory consolidation; ablation of the hippocampus produces anterograde amnesia, the inability to form new memories

Somatic symptom disorder (SSD)

characterized by extreme distress and concern regarding one or more actual bodily/physical symptoms (e.g. fatigue, pain)

Rem sleep

characterized by rapid closed-eye movements, body paralysis, and brain activity resembling a waking state; dreaming is most common during REM sleep but can occur in other stages as well. REM sleep deprivation for one night results in REM rebound (more REM sleep than usual the next night)

SSRIs

class of antidepressants that selectively block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron, thereby prolonging the presence of serotonin in the synaptic cleft

monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

class of antidepressants; inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase, decreasing the breakdown of serotonin, dopamine, and epinephrine

Primary group

composed of members who have frequent contact and are emotionally connected (e.g. close friends, family members)

Secondary group

composed of members who interact for a common goal (e.g. colleagues)

Peer pressure

defined as the influence peers exert on other peers to conform to group norms

Globalization

defined in sociology as the process by which tangibles (e.g. products) and intangibles (e.g. values, ideas) spread across the world, primarily as a result of advances in technology and communication

Learned helplessness

describes feelings of powerlessness and loss of control, often occurring after a series of failures or trauma; learned helplessness is ties to low self-efficacy (personal beliefs about one's abilities) and an external locus of control (personal beliefs about whether one can influence the outcome of a situation)

Evolutionary game theory (EGT)

describes how complex social behaviors (e.g. mating, aggression, altruism) persist in populations. By applying mathematical model, EGT predicts how organisms will interact and how their behaviors confer evolutionary advantage and are passed on to offspring

Hawthorne effect

describes research subjects acting different from how they would normally behave as a result of knowing that they are being observed

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

describes the neural changes responsible for learning, memory, and associations; occurs when a neuron's firing rate increases after repeated stimulation or simultaneous stimulation by multiple inputs (association); results from an increase in neurotransmitter release and postsynaptic receptors

Optimism bias

describes the tendency for people to underestimate the probability that bad things (e.g. cancer, car accident) will happen to them

Social desirability bias

describes the tendency of research subjects to respond to experimental questions in a way that makes them look better in the eyes of the experimenter, such as overestimating positive behaviors (e.g. exercising) and underestimating negative behaviors (e.g. drinking alcohol)

cocktail party effect

describes when attention quickly shifts from an attended stimulus to an unattended stimulus when something significant occurs. At a crowded party you tune out all competing noise to focus on the person you are talking to (attended stimulus), but if you hear your name in another conversation, your attention quickly shifts to that unattended stimulus. This is a selective attention process

(Kohlberg) Pre-conventional

direct consequences to the individual -Stage 1. Obedience & punishment Avoiding punishment by authority (e.g. I'm not going to steal because I'' get spanked) -Stage 2. Self-interest Expecting equal exchange to further own self-interest (e.g. I'll help you if you help me)

Illness experience

discusses how chronically ill individuals make sense of and manage their illness in daily life and what effect illness has on their sense of self-identity; chronically ill individuals employ strategies that involve illness work (e.g. taking medications), everyday work (e.g. maintaining a household), and biographical work (e.g. explaining the illness to others) to cope with and make sense of their illness

Evolutionary theory

emotions evolved just like physical traits for the purpose of adapting to the environment

phonological loop

employed when manipulating spoken and written information (e.g. reading a book)

visuospatial sketchpad

employed when manipulating visual and/or spatial information (i.e. reading a map)

Cognitive appraisal

evaluation of the situation (appraisal) precedes emotional and physiological reactions and determines what emotion will be experienced

Stereotype threat

evokes feelings of anxiety, which are mediated by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system

Biological perspective

explains behavior in terms of development, structure, and function of the brain and central nervous system

Formal curriculum

explicit, official content taught through the educational system (e.g. algebra, physics, chemistry)

Primary kinship

first-degree family members (e.g. mother)

Tetrad

four members; up to six social ties; tends to be the least stable; will usually split into 2 groups of 2

The increase of medicalization in society will result in medical professionals having:

greater power and authority

short-term memory

has a short duration and a storage capacity of about seven items (plus or minus two); maintenance rehearsal (mentally repeating something over and over) can prolong the duration of short-term memory

sensory memory

has the shortest duration and smallest capacity; it is a very temporary store for perceived sensations. A majority of sensory information is not transmitted to short-term memory and is lost immediately

REM sleep

high-frequency, low-amplitude waves that appear similar to beta waves; procedural memories are consolidated here

Availability heuristic

how easily something comes to memory (e.g. assuming shark attacks are common after seeing one reported on the news)

Representative heuristic

how well something matches a mental prototype (e.g. assuming a woman dressed in scrubs is a nurse rather than a surgeon)

Antidepressants

increase the function of one or more neurotransmitters within the synaptic cleft; this is often done by increasing the production of neurotransmitters, promoting their release, blocking their reuptake, or decreasing the breakdown within the presynaptic neuron.

Social exclusion

individuals are marginalized to the point of being unable to participate in society economically, socially, and civically

Primary punisher

innately desirable (e.g. electric shock)

Primary reinforcers

innately desirable (e.g. food)

Feature detection

involves feature detector neurons that preferentially fire in response to specific stimuli (e.g. a right angle causes feature detectors in the visual system to respond)

working memory

involves the manipulation and processing of information while short-term memory does not; conceptualized as consisting of a central executive, which regulated attention and task switching, and three subsystems, which are controlled by the central executive

Encoding strategy

involves the transfer of information into long-term memory; information that is attended to and processed more deeply tends to be remembered better

Cerebellum

is central to motor learning, maintaining balance and posture, coordinating complex movements, and controlling precision of fine motor movements; does not initiate voluntary movement, which occurs in the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe; however, the cerebellum is critical for most other aspects of motor planning and execution

Cultural diffusion

is the spread of culture (material, nonmaterial, or both) from one group to another

Anhedonia

lack of pleasure; symptom associated with depression; stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in the brain's reward pathway may help alleviate anhedonia, allowing depressed individuals to feel pleasure again

Narcotic analgesics

lessens sensation of pain; i.e. morphine, codeine, heroin

Temporal lobe

located at either side of the brain; is responsible for hearing, language processing, and memory (wernicke's area and broca's area located here)

Occipital lobe

located at the back of the brain; responsible for processing visual information

Somatosensory cortex

located in parietal lobe; receives sensory input from the body about touch sensation and position of limbs in space

Secondary reinforcers

made desirable through learning (e.g. good grades)

Secondary punisher

made undesirable through learning (e.g. bad grades)

Vestibular system

maintains balance & orientation, detects gravity/acceleration (otolith organs) & head rotation (semicircular canals); motion sickness arises from conflict between vestibular system and visual input

Explicit/declarative memory

memory for facts and events that can be consciously or intentionally recalled

Implicit/nondeclarative memory

memory for things that cannot be consciously recalled, such as skills, tasks, emotions, and reflexes

Schemas

mental frameworks that organize old information and allow quick processing of new information

Heuristics

mental shortcuts that save time but are often less accurate

Social impairment

occurs when the presence of others hinders performance on difficult or unfamiliar tasks

Compared to women's social networks, men's social networks tend to be larger, have more weak ties, and provide more information about work-related topics; therefore, men's social networks most likely confer:

more social capital and more social mobility

Phi phenomenon

motion picture effect; an optical illusion in which a series of still photographs presented in rapid succession appear to be moving

Limbic system

network of brain regions involved in emotion, learning, and memory; includes amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus

Computer tomography (CT)

neuroimaging method; computer combines multiple x-rays taken at different angles; measures detailed structure of internal organs & tissues at a single point in time

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

neuroimaging method; electrodes placed on scalp & connected to an amplifier; measures voltage fluctuations in the brain over time

Positron emission tomography (PET)

neuroimaging method; scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog; changes in glucose metabolism in the brain over time

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

neuroimaging method; scanner detects the differential properties of oxyhemoglobin & deoxyhemoglobin; measures changes in blood oxygenation in the brain over time

Crude birth rate (CBR)

number of live births per year for every 1000 members of a population, regardless of sex or age

Age-specific fertility rate (ASFR)

number of live births per year per 1000 women in a certain age group in a population

Retinal disparity

occurs because each eye transmits a lightly different image to the brain, which infers distance from the disparity

Self-fulfilling prophecy

occurs when a belief about something (that may nor may not be true) influences the behavior of the person who believes it, resulting in an outcome that may validate the belief as true

Extinction

occurs when a conditioned response gradually stops occurring in the absence of the conditioned stimulus

Negative punishment

occurs when a desirable stimulus is removed

Source monitoring error

occurs when a memory is attributed to the wrong source (e.g. information from a television commercial is attributed to one's physician)

Teacher expectancy

occurs when a teacher's beliefs about a student (e.g. "she is smart," "he is lazy") result in the student meeting those expectations (e.g. excelling or performing poorly). This is thought to occur as a result of the teacher's behavior toward the student

Spontaneous recovery

occurs when an extinct response reappears after a period of time

Avoidance learning

occurs when an individual figures out how to prevent experiencing the unpleasant stimulus in the future

Escape learning

occurs when an individual learns how to terminate a current unpleasant stimulus; escape learning becomes avoidance learning when an organism prevents coming into contact with an unpleasant stimulus

Stimulus discrimination

occurs when an organism distinguishes between two similar stimuli

Negative reinforcement

occurs when an undesirable stimulus is withdrawn, which encourages a behavior to happen again

Bystander effect

occurs when individual in need is less likely to receive help when more people are present; can be partly explained by the diffusion of responsibility, whereby onlookers assume action will be taken by someone else

Obedience

occurs when individuals behave according to the requests or demands of an authority figure

Reaction formation

occurs when individuals outwardly express the opposite of how they actually feel when those thoughts and feelings are distressing

Overconfidence bias

occurs when one's confidence in knowledge or abilities exceeds accuracy (e.g. an individual who is sure of acing a test but actually receives an average grade)

Informational social influence

occurs when people assume others have more information and know what to do

Stimulus generalization

occurs when the conditioned response is elicited by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus. i.e. a dog that has been conditioned to salivate in response to a bell may also salivate to a phone alert

Social facilitation effect

occurs when the presence of others enhances performance on easy, well-rehearsed tasks;

parvo pathway

one of two visual processing pathways; processes color and form

magno pathway

one of two visual processing pathways; processes motion and depth

spatial mismatch

opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but farther away, and harder to access. Gap between where people live and where opportunities are.

(Kohlberg) Post-conventional

own ethical principles -Stage 5. Social contract Maximizing benefit for the largest number of people (e.g. It's okay to break a law if it saves a life) -Stage 6. Universal ethical principles Following own ethical principle of justice above all else (e.g. I take action against violating basic human rights)

choroid

pigmented black in humans, is a network of blood vessels that helps nourish the retina

Periphery nations

poor and have weak governments and economies; rely on the export of their resources to wealthier countries, making them dependent on (and exploited by) core nations

Social cognitive theory

posits that people learn by observing others; vicarious learning takes place through watching other people behave in a certain way and then get rewarded or punished for it. Depending on the outcome, the observer may or may not choose to behave in the same way as the model

Prejudice

preconceived ideas and beliefs about people or groups based on their group membership

Thomas theorem

predicts that an individual's response or reaction to a situation is the result of her interpretation of the situation

Cognitive dissonance theory

predicts that contradictory or incompatible beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors cause a state of mental discomfort (cognitive dissonance) that results in motivation to reduce the conflict by aligning thoughts and/or behaviors

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

predicts that people who are more likely to comply with a big request after they have already complied with a small request; this can be explained by a change in attitude: people tend to have more favorable attitudes toward those they have just helped, increasing the likelihood they will agree to the larger request

Secondary kinship

primary kin of first-degree family members (e.g. mother's brother)

interference effect

process describing when old information prevents recollection of new information (proactive interference) or new information prevents the recollection of old information (retroactive interference)

Parietal lobe

processes spatial information (proprioception) and is responsible for cognitive mapping, our ability to represent mentally the spatial relationships concerning things in our environment

Ventral tegmental area

produces dopamine

Mead theory of identity development

proposed that identity formation is the result of social interactions, particularly with significant others, early in life; -during the preparatory stage, babies/toddlers imitate others without comprehension of "self" -during the play stage, children begin understanding the perspectives of specific others (role-taking); when children understand themselves as individuals separate from others, the "I" component of the self has developed. Children then begin to imagine how others perceive them, which is the beginning of the development of the "me" -during the game stage, children understanding the perspective of others in society (generalized other) and social interaction rules

Maslow hierarchy of needs

proposes that basic needs (physiological and safety) must be met before psychological needs (love and belonging, esteem) can be attained. All lower needs must be addressed before one can reach the pinnacle of the hierarchy: self-actualization (physiological needs --> safety needs --> belongingness and love needs --> esteem needs --> self-actualization)

Frustration-aggression theory

proposes that individuals exhibit aggression as a result of frustration (i.e. having a goal or effort blocked or defeated)

Pragnanz

reality is reduced to the simplest form possible (eg Olympic rings)

Positive reinforcement

refers to a desirable stimulus being applied, encouraging a behavior to happen again

False consciousness

refers to an inaccurate assessment of one's own status; Karl Marx; situation in which people in the lower classes come to accept a belief system that harms them; the primary means by which powerful classes in society prevent protest and revolution

Locus of control (LOC)

refers to an individual's beliefs about who or what controls the outcome of a situation

Institutional discrimination

refers to differential treatment of specific social groups (e.g. racial/ethnic minorities) at the organizational or system level, resulting in negative consequences for those affected

Self-concept

refers to the beliefs about oneself, including beliefs about race/ethnicity, gender, ability, talent, and so on

Negative priming

refers to the impaired processing (i.e. slower response or reduced accuracy) that occurs when a stimulus is initially ignored and then later attended to (e.g. first being asked to pick a red pen and ignore other colored pens in a cup, and then when asked to pick a blue pen, response time is slower)

Acquisition

refers to the learning that takes place as an association is formed between the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. food) and the neutral stimulus (e.g. bell)

Culture lag

refers to the social problems created by the time delay between rapid changes in material culture (technology, fashion) and slower changes in nonmaterial culture (ideas, beliefs, laws)

Regression to the mean

refers to the tendency of extreme data points in a distribution to regress toward the mean value of the distribution upon repeated measurements

Circadian rhythms

regulated endogenously by a circadian pacemaker (master clock), are cycles in physiological activity (e.g. hormone release) that occur over 24-hour intervals. Biomarkers include: -Core body temperature, which fluctuates between 38 degrees Celsius (in the daytime) and 36 degrees Celsius (just before waking) -Plasma melatonin level, which peaks during sleep but remains relatively low during waking hours -Cortisol, which under normal conditions peaks immediately after waking and is lowest just before sleep

central executive

regulates attention and task switching, and controls the three lower subsystems of working memory including the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rhythms. When light levels are low, the SCN downregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland. When light levels are low, the SCN upregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland

Hypothalamus

regulates the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system

Fixed interval

reinforcement after consistent amount of time passes; tends to produce increased behavior just before the reward and decrease behavior just after

Fixed ratio

reinforcement after consistent number of behaviors

Variable interval

reinforcement after inconsistent amount of time passes

Variable ratio

reinforcement after inconsistent number of behaviors

Behavioral component of attitude

relates to how a person acts toward something. In the above examples, voting for or against a candidate reflect the behavioral component of attitude

Affective component of attitude

relates to how a person feels about something, including positive or negative evaluations or emotions (e.g. anger, excitement)

Triad

relationship among three people; can have three potential social ties, making triadic relationship more stable but less intimate than dyads

Dyad

relationship between two people; has only one social ties, making dyadic relationships the most intimate (e.g. romantic couples, business partners); however, dyads are also less stable than larger groups because if either person leaves, the group ceases to exist

Frontal lobe

responsible for many functions, including the active manipulation of information involved in reasoning and problem solving (known as working memory) and the initiation of voluntary motor movements

Thalamus

responsible for relaying sensory information to the cerebral cortex

episodic buffer

responsible for temporal processing (understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from long-term memory into working memory (e.g. remembering how to multiply when figuring out a tip at a restaurant)

Tertiary kinship

secondary kin of first-degree family members (e.g. mother's uncle)

speech shadowing

selective attention process used in dichotic listening tasks (competing information presented in each ear) that involves repeating information presented in one ear while tuning out the competing information in the other ear

Cultural relativism

there are no "right" or "wrong" cultural practices; most inclusive of cultural differences; less likely to occur in a health care situation that is culturally relativistic

Motor cortex

sends motor commands from the brain to the muscles of the body

Tonic receptors

sensory receptors that continue to produce action potentials throughout the duration of a stimulus; tonic receptors are limited to the peripheral nervous system and are not found in the brain

(sleep) Stage 3/4

slow-wave sleep (delta waves); declarative memories are consolidated here

Depressants

slows down CNS function; i.e. alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines; depressants exert their primary anxiolytic effect through binding at the GABA receptor, enhancing the effect of GABA, the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system

Fictive kinship

social ties that are not consanguineal or affinal (e.g. adopted children)

(Kohlberg) Conventional

society's norms & values -Stage 3. Conformity & interpersonal accord Wanting to be "good" to secure the approval of others (e.g. I'll do my homework so the teacher likes me) -Stage 4. Law & order Obeying laws of society (e.g. I'm not going to speed because it's against the law)

macula

special part of retina rich in cones

Taste aversion

specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs after just one instance of becoming ill following food/beverage consumption; long lasting and can develop despite many hours passing between consumption and illness

Stimulants

speeds up CNS function, elevates mood; i.e. amphetamines, cocaine

Young-Helmholtz theory (trichromatic theory)

states that all the colors we see are the result of the combined activity of three types of photoreceptors: Those that respond to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths of light

Opponent-process theory

states that color vision occurs because of the opposing responses of three sensory receptor complexes (red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white)

Psychosexual theory of development

states that personality develops through five psychosexual stages that begin in childhood; conflict in any of these stages can lead to psychological issues (e.g. anxiety) in adulthood

Place theory

states that specific wavelength frequencies generate vibrations at specific loci on the basilar membrane of the cochlea. Hair cells located at the base of the basilar membrane are activated by high frequency sounds, and hair cells located at the apex of the basilar membrane are activated by low frequency sounds

Weber law

states that the smallest difference between two stimuli that can be perceived (called the just-noticeable difference) is based on the original stimulus intensity, not on a constant value. If you can barely perceive the difference between 10 lb and 11 lb (a 10% difference), you can also just barely detect a difference between 50 lb and 55 lb (a 10% difference)

(sleep) Stage 1

theta waves

(sleep) Stage 2

theta waves still predominate but are interrupted by occasional sleep spindles (bursts in frequency) and K-complexes (increase in wavelength)

Drive reduction theory

suggest that motivation results from the desire to maintain homeostasis

Yerkes-Dodson law

suggest that there is an optimal level of physiological or mental arousal at which performance is maximized; performance will decline with too little or too much arousal

Incentive theory

suggests behavior is primarily motivated by extrinsic (external) rewards, rather than internal rewards or biological drives

Incentive theory of motivation

suggests that individuals are motivated according to external rewards. Therefore, people engage in behavior that results in the most desirable outcomes. For example, people are motivated to go to work to make money

Trait theory

suggests that personality is the result of a combination of traits that are relatively stable over time; does not account for external influences on personality or for the reasons underlying personality traits

Spreading activation

suggests that when a node in the semantic network is activated, the nodes directly connected to the node are then activated as well (i.e. priming)

Strain theory

suggests that when individuals are unable to attain socially acceptable goals (e.g. having a nice car) through legitimate means (e.g. a job), the resulting strain may lead to deviant behavior (e.g. stealing)

Humanistic theory of motivation

suggests that, assuming more basic needs (like hunger) have been met, individuals are ultimately motivated to seek self-actualization, the ultimate fulfillment of their own potential. The motivation to pursue a medical degree is an example of wanting to fulfill one's potential.

Meritocracy

system in which individuals with the most merit (e.g. talent, ability, effort) progress and earn rewards. In other words, factors such as prestige or social connections do not count in meritocracy

Normative social influence

takes place when people attempt to fit in

Displacement

taking out unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to acceptable thoughts/behaviors (e.g. punching a pillow when angry about being fired)

Crystallized intelligence

the ability to apply skills and knowledge that have already been learned; thought to increase with age

Glass escalator

the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs; Exemplifies institutional discrimination because it involves systemic actions or policies that benefit one group (males) at the expense of another (females) based on group stereotypes (i.e. men are better leaders than women)

Total fertility rate (TFR)

the average number of children born per woman during her lifetime

Universalism

the belief that cognition controls language, posits that certain cognitive processes are universal, so all human languages also possess certain universals (e.g. noun)

Convergence

the extent to which the eyes turn inward (converge) to focus on an object; closer objects require more convergence, which helps the brain infer distance; things far away - muscle of eyes relaxed, things close to us - muscles of eyes contract

Absolute poverty

the inability to secure basic necessities of life, such as food and shelter

glass ceiling

the mostly invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to the top levels at work

Optic disc

the region of the retina where both the optic nerve (ganglion cell axons) exits the artery that vascularizes (supplies blood to) the retina enters. The optic disc is known a the "blind spot" because there are no photoreceptors in this area

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

General fertility rate (GFR)

the total number of live births per year for every 1000 women of childbearing age in a population , which is a better measure of fertility than the CBR b/c it accounts for the age distribution and sex ratio of the population

long-term memory

thought to be a permanent store with an infinite storage capacity consisting of two branches: explicit memory and implicit memory

Semantic long-term memory

thought to be stored as a network of interconnected concepts (nodes) in a semantic (meaning-based) network

Sublimation

transforming unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to acceptable thoughts/behaviors (e.g. taking up boxing as a hobby to vent anger)

Hallucinogens

triggers mind-altering effects; lysergic acid diethylamide

Compliance

type of conformity whereby an individual publicly goes along with the group but privately maintains his or her own stance

Unconditioned response (UR)

unconditioned responses occur naturally, without learning (e.g. nausea in response to cytotoxic medication)

Token economy

uses tokens (e.g. gold stars) as secondary reinforcers to encourage certain desired behaviors; tokens can be exchanged for something the individual wants (e.g. candy)

Core nations

wealthy with strong, diversified economies and centralized governments; take resources from (exploit) poorer countries and lead the global economic market through the export of goods around the world

sclera

white of the eye

(Piaget) preoperational stage

~2-7 yrs -Representing real things with words & images -developmental hallmark: pretend play; egocentrism; language development

(Piaget) concrete operational stage

~7-11 -Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies; performing arithmetic -developmental hallmark: conservation; mathematical transformation