WARRIOR WOMEN FINAL

How are cases of rape and other sexual offenses (e.g. sexual harassment) dealt with in the U.S. military? Why is this problematic?

"According to Elizabeth L. Hillman, commanders, members of congresss, legal reformers, educators, media converage, and political response are significant resources dedicated to eradicating this violence." However, these efforts have been unsuccessful because 'military institutions resist cultural change." Also, the pervading "view of women as vulnerable yet dangerous, soldiers as male and overpowering" The prevention of sexual assault is crucial for military readiness btw

What is the etymology of the term Amazon, and why is this significant?

"Amazon" = Greek epithet/"outside signifier"; used as a **label for masculine women** — "outside signifier" = didn't call themselves Amazons like the Phoenicians, = outside signifier; "Phoenicians" called THEMSELVES Chanani Variety of potential meanings: "without a breast" (Hellanicus); breastless (could equate to masculine) —> difference in meaning (literal vs. figurative) could explain inconsistencies between etymology and art —> art doesn't show Amazons missing a breast Byzantine etymology theory = (women) who did not eat bread (a-maza [bread]); plausible — Sauromatians (Herodotus) possibly conflated or the same as Sauropatides, those who trample (pateo) and eat lizards (sauroi)/those who live in Sauromatia Aeschylus - "husbandless eaters of raw meat" — **husbandless + raw meat = primitiveness VIA GREEK POV — doesn't mean chaste; can also mean promiscuous - in a society where marriage is not a cornerstone 3 "Greek parts" to the etymology Homer - antianeirai = "women equal to men" —> indicates group of women only Diodorus - ethnic race with subordinate men Nicolaus of Damascus - elite warrior women of the Galactophagians —> *segment* of the population Etymology leads to notion of Amazons as an ethnic group scholars suggest that the "ethnic group models" for Amazons are IMAGINARY - either as a group of women only or a group where women and men have switched gender roles **scholars do not consider third usage — Amazons could = WW in known ancient societies - would = segment of their population, given a general term?

What does the Sanskrit term yavanī mean?

"foreign/Ionian/Greek" female guard — seen in a statue from Gandhara c.50-150 CE wears a Greek chiton and helmet — Hellenistic influence probably held a spear, though arm was broken off Yavani = feminine variant of yavana or yona - Ionian or Greek words — but could refer to Greek or foreign *women*; both yavana/yavani gradually come to refer to any foreigner coming from western Asia or eastern Mediterranean Saka-s = Scythians Yavana = Greek male, Yavani = Greek female OR Yavani could = any foreigner p.244 the Greeks left in Bactria after Alexander the Great left invaded NW India after being pushed out by the Saka-s, established "Indo-Greek kingdom" —> after they fell (? left?), Scythians invaded, because they were pushed out of Bactria by the Yuezhi; Yuezhi in turn conquered NW India —> Yuezhi absorb "Indo-Greek-Scythian" culture **Scythians and Greeks amalgamated into stock foreigner (/foreign invader) in Indian thought** Within caste system, Saka-s and Yavani conflated and delegated to being Sudra's — were not Arya, upper 3 castes ***term refers to a "stock character" in Sanskrit drama — palace attendant who helps king with weapons and hunts with him [she often is the one carrying the king's bow and arrow] LECTURE - refers to imported bodyguard *or* imported Greek courtesan **importance of conflation of Scythians and Greeks — women warriors "imported" from the Scythians could be called yavani; yavani = either female guard or courtesan; records of kings importing "Greek" concubines and guards — could have been Scythian Saka-s women, not Greek, but because the two were conflated, they appeared Greek LECTURE: yavani = Greek or Ionian woman Yavana = masculine of Greek derived from Old Persian Yauna, from Greek ιαονες or ιωνες refers to either character in sanskrit drama *or* imported bodyguard *or* imported Greek courtesans yavani women originally MUGHALS - early modern - imported women

Who were the intimate bodyguards of ancient Indian kings?

*Key points: guard/hunt; Yavani; Megasthenes' Indica with Chandragupta (fem. guards on "bacchic hunts"; descriptions match Kautilya's Arthasastra (not contemporary but shows Mauryan ideology) + Kama Sutra* Female body guards/hunting companions; protected him at night within the harems as women/some wives would plot to kill him during his sleep (male bodyguards not allowed inside the harem) Evidence of them being referred to as Yavani as early as the 1st c. CE; Yavani = greek/(foreign) female guard (and courtesan); Greeks amalgamated with Scythians - Saka-s - to eventually refer to not just Greeks but any foreigner from Eastern. Medit --> women end up appearing Greek when potentially are not Context/source = Megasthenes' Indica, a Greek ethnography that details the authors time in Chandragupta's court (first Mauryan emperor c.321-297 BCE) —> idealized account ~ "projecting a Greek vision of utopia," BUT still contains some historical reality, including female bodyguards described as going on "bacchic hunts" with the king ~ appeared to the Greeks as maenads women were purchased from their fathers for the equivalent of a bride price Megasthenes' descriptions of the women are corroborated by ancient Sanskrit texts — Kautilya's Arthasastra and Vatsyayana's Kama Sutra. Kautilya = alleged contemporary of last Nanda king + Chandragupta —> he asserts that he killed the last Nanda king and placed Chandragupta on the throne Dating has been disputed; has information that post-dates the Mauryan era, probably written in the 4th c. CE or later HOWEVER, **origin of ideology = at least Mauryan era, if not earlier**

How has ancient history been conceived in the west? Why are histories of Scythians, Sauromatians, Thracians, and Libyans subaltern to those of the Greeks?

20th c. scholarship based on modern concepts of gender paradigms, the M/F binary; scholars evaluating other cultures through the binary = PRESENTIST Ultimately apply modern constructions of gender, masculine / feminine mannerisms, traits, etc. — e.g. association of Amazons as "manly" **neither modern/20th C. or Greek POV provides a proper understanding of how WW/"Amazons" viewed themselves as females "subaltern" - p.121 - no extant source material, particularly writings ≈ no Scythian/Sauromatian./Thracian/Libyan "voice"

What kinds of clothing do Amazons wear on Greek vases? With what ethnic groups are Amazons associated by their dress?

550 BCE onwards, Amazons no longer waring Greek hoplite armor, but dressed like MALE Thracians —> Thracian peltae (shields) and zeira (cloaks) (95) Some vases show them fighting alongside men; some scholars deny that they are wearing full-on Scythian garb, just "exotic" costumes (95) Diodorus claims that the Amazons attacked Athens alongside Scythian men; vases, if depicting the same legend, are then much earlier pieces of evidence —> ** "associated with Scythians in art that pre-dates Herodotus" ** (99) Diodorus also tells us that the Scythian women did fight like men (*Scythians, not Amazons* — vs. others who say that Scythian women did not fight) Fully Scythian archers by 520's; wear leather pointed cap, pants and a jacket Artists known for "mix and match" costume origins, all representing "barbarian nature of Amazons" BUT recent evidence (Davis-Kimball) shows Scythians and other groups wearing such clothing —> matches the burials (97-8)

What kinds of similarities arise in Greek texts between Amazons and Scythians, on the one hand, and Amazons and Sauromatians, on the other?

Another approach = looking at artistic depictions rather than just literary sources, which also reveal some fundamental understanding of "barbarian women who rode and fought" though exaggerated in imagery, real women inspired these depictions of "barbarian women" — but they soon became a homogenous deadly female race of Amazons in reality, they are a reflection of real women described in various sources (Sauromatians, Scythians, Thracian, Libyan) AMAZONS VS. SCYTHIANS Texts replacing Scythians with Amazons (Lysias) Hellanicus says that Thracians first made iron; Lysias changes it to the Amazons; archaeological evidence — earliest iron weaponry discovered in areas said to contain Amazons key point = conflating Scythians and Amazons VS Herodotus, who clearly differentiates between Scythians and Amazons as separate groups who joined to form the Sauromatians Herodotus notes that both groups had similar lifestyles before merging — nomadic, stuck with horses and weapons, hunted and raided Claims that women are completely different — Scythian women are domestic, don't hunt, don't ride, don't fight/carry weapons Similarities: Scythian women did fight (archaeological evidence + LECTURE: focus on discovery of iron weaponry —> Hellanicus: Scythians discovered the use of iron to make superior weapons, VS. Lysias: Amazons discovered iron Archaeological evidence that some of the Scythian and Sauromatian women were warriors, buried with weaponry, and *perhaps called Amazons by the Greeks* = HISTORICAL BASIS FOR THE AMAZONS confirmed by archaeology Sauromatian women were buried with bows & arrows AMAZONS VS. SAUROMATIANS Hellanicus replaces Sauromatians with Amazons Hippocrates says Sauromatian women sear off their breast in order to make their other arm stronger ~ implies that the women are weak, which is contrary to the notion that warrior women effeminized their men; claims they must kill either 1 or 3 enemy men (dep. on story version ~ Herodotus vs. Hippocrates) in order to marry; once married, they only fought when necessary, but were not the prime warriors; **differentiates between Scythians and Sauromatians via the 'marital prowess" of the Sauromatian women VS. Hellanicus says the Amazons cut off their breast in order to better use their weapons (reverse ~ effeminizing) LECTURE answer Hippocrates vs. Hellanicus —> Sauromatian women cut off breast vs. Scythian women cut off

What is the relationship between Amazons and Thracians?

Arctinus - calls Penthesilea Thracian; black-figure vase painting of the scene shows her with leopardskin, associated with Thracian maenads LECTURE: black figure vase - Penthisilea vs.. Achilles - POINT OF THE SECTION/PENTHESILEA = IDENTIFICATION AS A THRACIAN, NOT AN AMAZON Etymology suggests "Amazon" = foreign WW, possibly Thracian Other vase paintings show WW in Thracian gear — peltae (crescent shields), mantles, cloaks LECTURE - amphora painting — **identified as Amazons BUT there is no Greek inscription noting as such (in the way that the black figure vase has Penthesilea's name) Misidentified? More likely simply showing Thracian WW?? Opposite side of vase shows male figures wearing zeira — Thracian cloak Increase in depictions after 550 BCE ≈ increased interaction between Thracians and Greeks **Possible that artwork featuring "Amazons" are in fact showing Thracian WW** Women in "Amazon" images = "Amazons" to the Greeks *because they are WW* but to the WW themselves, possibly identified as Thracian THRACIAN ≠ EURO. THRACIAN — Thracians also in Asia Minor —> the Mariandynians — both Mariandynians and Amazons said to also live in the Thermodon region next to the Leukosuroi — "White Syrians'/Scythian Assyrians (Syrians colonized by the Scythians, who then took a group and had them form a colony along the Thermodon) ; both driven out of the region, Mariandynians by the Assyrians — possible that Amazons = Mariandynians "white Syrians" = Syrians next to Themiscyra = Assyrians (terminology interchangeable) LECTURE - Syrians lived near the Thermodon , and they were brought there as colonists...etc....The conclusion is that the Mariandynians lived next to the Syrians and therefore may have been the original people to live at Themiscyra along the river (and would ≈ Amazons) If Thracian, were NOT a society of women only Diodorus describes Amazons of Themiscyra as living in matriarchal society with men

What has been the link between the recent history of the definition of combat and the controversy over women serving in the military?

Biggest controversy surrounding women in combat = definition of direct ground combat as it pertains to women connection between modern history and women in combat = women in military combat roles are found throughout history (of US + world) women given more opportunities to serve in the 70s with the end of the draft, start of volunteer forces, legal cases, armed conflicts biggest change came with Gulf War — increasingly accepted; 90s saw the repeal of combat exclusion laws in the Air Force and Navy + more open positions in the army "Link": — interrelationship between definition over time + different opinions on female participation changing nature of war alters definition which alters opinions —> "vanishing front line" = nature of war is different, everywhere is a combat zone on the ground, everywhere is subject to attack — e.g. Iraq and Afghanistan ***runs counter to those who claim that women should only be in combat roles that necessitate defensive measures, not offensive actions*** —> In modern warfare, regardless of where you are, you need to be prepared to go on the offensive in order to remain safe; not an option to simply defend yourself —> ***goes against restrictive policy*** Definition is dictated by policy and congress — no law dictates that women cannot serve in combat roles— meaning that the definition changes depending on the context and there is never one single, clear definition —> role of women in combat is shaped by a combination of law + policy + practice + internal military opinions ; at the time of Skaine's publication, exclusion laws repealed to allow women in combat roles, *but still has restrictions on ground combat positions* [NOTE - as of 2016, US army allows women in direct, "front-line" ground combat roles] still difficult for women to participate — face military forces where 80%+ is male; slow growth; women prevented from advancing to certain positions because they require certain combat experience Biggest takeaway = definition and policy changes over time to fit necessity within the military — after the draft ended in the 70s, they needed to boost #s with women; in WWII women were definitely participating in combat roles, though only "auxiliary" forces; after the war, positions are formalized (allowed to truly join) *but still restricted by congressional provisions from certain combat roles, namely ground combat* over the past 50 years, policy/law repeatedly changed but always worded to sustain exclusion —> 1988 Risk Rule — didn't simply prevent women in direct combat, but prevented women from being a member of any noncombat unit associated with a combat unit when danger was either equal or greater to the combat unit ~ government attempt at a standardized exclusion policy definitional crisis over 'ground combat' as well — after repeal of Risk Rule, policy still barred women from ground combat roles, though they were now allowed in other combat roles 1994/current as of 2010 def. = active battleground where objective is to defeat the enemy despite exposure to hostile forces defining direct combat = biggest controversy over policy/definition since it reflects cold war strategy vs. tactics/organization necessary in Iraq, Afghanistan different branches of the military have different definitions and policies — Army defines direct combat differently than department of defense, navy, air force; though it generally defines it as offensive actions where there is a "risk of capture," it also uses vague wording that makes it unclear if self defense counts as "repelling enemy assault" - the latter is also considered an aspect of direct combat; *VS* D.O.D., which only defines it direct ground combat modern definition of direct ground combat = soldiers directed to destroy the enemy and engage in offensive actions; no longer a matter of whether or not you are in danger - everyone is in danger when there is no defined front line

For whom is California named?

Calafia = queen of the "Amazons" of "California" name ascribed by Montalvo, not Columbus; changed it for aesthetic/stylistic purposes (sounded better); claimed that "California" was a rocky island LECTURE - etymology Calafia Etymology ~ (Islamic) caliph - Islamic ruler; successor of Muhammad Muslims called Saracens + pagans by Christians Popular books called historia antiqua fantasy version ~ ride flying griffins

How did Yasser Arafat motivate women suicide bombers?

Called them equal, his "army of roses" who were the "hope of Palestine"; forced society to allow them to play an equal role in military in order to strengthen it in his speech, used the word Shahida to describe the women; first time someone had ever used/created a feminine version of the word "martyr" told the women that they would "liberate" MEN - specifically their husbands, sons, fathers - from oppression by "sacrificing" the way they "always have" — but now with their lives. personal analysis of his speech— no true gender equality, more oppression of women in the name of familial duty; comes across as ~ why kill the men when women are expendable?/ men deserve to be liberated from oppression, but women don't.

From where were women bodyguards imported?

Central/western Asia; in the ancient period, probably came from Scythia, though often referred to as Greek; as seen with the term yavani, the Greeks and the Saka-s were conflated into a single category—> Saka women were identified as Yavani women, who were then described as being Greek rather than Scythian later during the Mughal period/at least until the 17th c., women imported from central Asia, referred to as Tartar, Uzbek, Calmuk, and Georgian

Who was Cratesipolis and why is she significant in Macedonian history?

Cratesipolis was the wife of Alexander (son of the regent Polyperchon) had been Olympias' ally (recall that it was Polyperchon who invited her back to Macedon in order to oust Adea. Polyperchon, a previous enemy of Cassander, fought Cassander after Olympias' death, however soon switched sides after Cassander offered him generalship over the Peloponnesian army. After Alexander was assassinated by a revolutionary Sicyonian army, Cratesipolis assumed control over his troops. Under her command, she defeated the Sicyonian army. She furthermore ruled the poleis of Patrae, Sicyon and Corintch for seven years, but would hand over the latter two to Ptolemy I.

What is cultural hybridity? How may have cultural hybridity allowed women to rule ancient Halicarnassus and Caria? (NB: Halicarnassus was the main city in what became the Persian province of Caria).

Cultural hybridity = when two cultures merge and take on a hybrid form, retaining elements from both/borrowing from the other; though Herodotus denies intermarriage between Greeks and Carians in Halicarnassus, most argue he's lying + Vitruvius notes that some Greeks brought some Carians back and Hellenized them PENROSE - original Greek colonists were Doric Troizenians, and even if they didn't intermarry in Halicarnassus, and Halicarnassian 'Greeks' were "pure" Doric, they still had taken on elements / become familiar with native Ionian (Carian, Persian) culture —> CULTURAL HYBRIDITY = Influence of the Carians, who had many female rulers—> due to cultural hybridity, Halicarnassians of all backgrounds would have a *very* different POV on gender than Athenians *Carian queenship was NORMAL; multiple examples of women either co-ruling with their husbands or brothers, or obtaining sole rule after the deaths of their husbands — *even when there are male relatives old enough to rule* Artemisia II & Ada I were both Persian satraps of Caria, gained role after husbands' deaths

Who was Cynnane, and how did she promote the political prominence of her daughter Adea Eurydice?

Cynnane was the daughter of Phillip II and his first wife, Audata who was Illyrian. According to Polyaenus, Cynnane trained for war. First royal Macedonian woman on the battlefield Daughter = Adea Eurydice, with Amyntas **Amyntas was killed by Alexander III, therefore Cynnane replaced him in terms of commanding his army** She promoted the political importance of her daughter by seeking to marry her to the newly appointed king Phillip III Arrhidaeus, who was mentally disabled (which would allow Adea to exert political influence over his dominion). To carry out her plan, she faced the Macedonian forces. The brother of the Macedonian regent Alcetas killed Cynnane, and her army mutinied and demanded that Cynnane's will (that her daughter Adea marries King Phillip III Arrhidaeus) be carried out, and the army "married them on the spot." (pages 195-197) The fact that Arrhidaeus was mentally disabled allowed Adea to exert political influence. This was the logic behind Cynnane's plan.

What is the relationship between Amazons and Libyans?

Diodorus - "Amazons" of North Africa; race ruled by women with domesticated men; infant girls have breasts seared off (prevent them from growing) "African Amazons" = distortion of Libyan WW real warrior queens ruling Cyrene (e.g. Pheretime) Modern WW in Libya —> Qaddafi's female bodyguards Armed women = part of his "cultural revolution" — inspired by his mother Not just his "show girls"—actual bodyguards that defended him Women shown being 'feminine' - buying/wearing makeup; female army leaders are married and have children —> *reveals that WW do NOT have to consider themselves to be 'masculine' (or to dress/act according to societal concepts of masculinity) Libya considers their armed female forces to be equal to their male counterparts, and equally vital ***Suggests that WW were NOT necessarily viewed as masculine within THEIR OWN cultures*** — potentially did not see themselves, or were not seen by others, as masculine

What set women bodyguards apart from other women?

Female masculinity — as female "gatekeepers" they hold canes or, as in a piece of poetry about a mythological guard, have a **sword**— swords were forbidden to most women and **set the guards apart**—they were given the sword because of their abilities and female masculinity descriptions of guards also separates them from "normal" women — were "fierce and beautiful" and "well built" — antithesis of "timid and shy" Indian women fierce, beautiful, well built ~ "Amazon"/yavani women (Saka-s in reality)

What kind of evidence do we have for women bodyguards in ancient Persia? Might one use the evidence from India to fill in the blanks for what we don't know about Persia? What are the risks in doing so?

Fragmentary evidence; often have to rely on Greek or Latin descriptions about court life Heracleides' description of Persian palace is similar to Megasthenes' description — inner guards are female, outer guards are male; women guarded, hunted, are called concubines — just as in India c.350 BCE foremost, are female guards; said that they sing/play harps; *can be used as concubines*; Curtius Rufus describes royal retinue — queens have female attendants around their carriages who ride on horseback — were likely guards Arrian describes the 100 Median women offered to Alexander as Amazons by Atropates, but does assert that he thinks they were barbarian women dressed in Amazon costume c. 330s; described as carrying axes instead of spears + "light leather targets" vs. shields considering Hercleides description of the 300 Persian female guards, "Median woman" could describe Persian women — easy conflation as Median satraps served Persian kings = possibility (Media located west of Persia in the mountains) Median satraps = mini-kings with courts —> **women may have really be the satrap's guards** Clear similarities between Persian and Indian customs with female guards may give us a better idea, but you cannot assume that everything was the same (?)

Was Joan transgender? Why or why not?

Hard to say definitively/can't give her that label ~ anachronistic dressing as a male = not cross-dressing; does not indicate that she considered it to be an expression of her gender/sexuality How do you understand her gender? la pucelle? the maiden? = feminine? or is that just a consequence of the prophesy (≈ so she fit the story)? *sans-gender* ? Could be considered genderless? Difficult to support any conclusion about her gender since her voice is absent in the record—subaltern—no idea how she thought of her own gender

How was the Persian ruler Atossa raised? How might we understand her story? Is it a true story? Why did Atossa dress as a man?

Hellanicus - the first Persian queen to lead armies was raised by her father as a male (likely in order to) inherit the kingdom, concealed her femininity; first woman to wear a turban and wear pants; first to communicate in writing; conquered nations, known for her courage PENROSE - account may be fabricated, but illustrates a woman-man ruler, and one more manly than Artemisia; from a Persian perspective, is presented as an example of FEMALE MASCULINITY

What does the term "Hellenistic" mean? How is it different from "Hellenic"?

Hellenistic - Greek like — applies to Macedonians, Persians, Indians, Egyptians, Babylonians, Jews, etc. **Hellenistic women could lead armies and fight; men were willing to follow them Hellenic - (purely) Greek *323-30 BCE = Hellenistic Era* - period of interculturation among the Greeks , Macedonians, and others ****Cleopatra VII = the last Hellenistic pharaoh of Egypt***

How did gender roles for male soldiers in Macedon and the Hellenistic kingdoms differ from those of mainland or other Greeks?

Hellenistic kingdoms - cultural fusion; **interculturation** monarchies, not democracies ~ hierarchy can make a difference ..... It is evident that male soldiers in Macedon were willing to follow the female warrior queens in battle, such as those who followed Cynnane against the Macedonians. They furthermore demonstrated respect by ensuring that her will be carried out after her death. Even Adea Eurydice "carried much favor" with the Macedonian army she later came to oversee after Arrhidaeus. Olympias was able to rule due to her "masculine" courage and Cratespolis was similarly capable of commanding armies left in her command after the death of her husband. This loyalty to warrior queens differs from the mainland Greeks such that they did not question the authority of a warrior queen.

Why was Queen Artemisia I called a man? How was she viewed from different perspectives by Greeks and Halicarnassians?

Herodotus writes that at Salamis, Xerxes extolled her prowess and called her a man, in comparison to his army of men, who were turning into 'women' — some scholars (not Penrose) claim that Xerxes' quote in Herodotus emphasizes how effeminate the Persians/"barbarians" were considered by the Greeks Penrose — despite the fact that Herodotus admits it was "hearsay," possible that Xerxes actually said that, and Herodotus wasn't fictionalizing the account to effeminize "barbarians" — makes sense from a Persian POV/within Persian framework + Herodotus more familiar with Persians (AND female rulership??) having grown up in Halicarnassus + he presented his work while Salamis veterans were still alive (and could contest his account) Herodotus records that though she attacked an allied ship to save herself/her own ship, the fact that she was a female who voluntarily led 5 war ships against the Greeks means that she has "daring" and "courage" —> andreia. = not just courage but intelligence ~ masculinity Hellenistic-era anon. text Tractatus de Mulieribus Claris in Bello gives more detail than Herodotus — says when Xerxes returned to Persia, he gifted Artemisia armor and his Phoenician commanders spindles (symbolism) —> VS. Polyaenus, who gives no sources, but says the spindles were sent to a Persian admiral PENROSE - Polyaenus' account makes more sense than Tractatus de Mulieribus; Herodotus records that the Phoenician commanders were beheaded after Salamis in both cases, like Xerxes' words in Herodotus, makes sense in the cultural context (using traditional ANE practice of gift exchange to chastise or praise subordinates) Philostratus (Greek, c.2nd-3rd CE) emphasizes her masculinity due to her choice to wear mens clothing (and bear arms); used her as a means to chastise and effeminize the Greeks, who he relays don opulent robes and dance/drink at festivals ~ nothing courageous Halicarnassians likely viewed her more favorably since they followed her into battle — result of cultural hybridity in Halicarnassus - where Greeks and Carians mixed; female rulers were *not* uncommon amongst Carians/areas of Asia (and Libya), which explains why they followed her/viewed her favorably; Carian/Halicarnassian POV vs. Greek POV ~ must "provincialize Athens" and try to determine Carian/Hal. POV, understand how she was seen by her own people normal for her to have acquired her position as ruler after the death of her husband ruled as a "tyrant," for which she was praised ~ acceptance of her masculinity + female power Oppositional and unorthodox in her behavior — Herodotus claims she was the only one to contest Xerxes' plans, records that she predicted Persian failure at Salamis and warned Xerxes) Scholars have varied interpretations of Herodotus' account; some argue that Herodotus strove to be realistic and accurate, but others claim that her role as "tragic warner" was added later Pseudo-Plutarch says her predictions are too accurate to be true —> **one of the reasons why Herodotus earned the name "the father of lies"***

What types of virile sexual behavior are prescribed for women in the Kama Sutra?

In Kama Sutra, records that within royal women's quarters, only man allowed in is the husband, leaving the wives "unsatisfied" —> female servants take on "masculine role" — "dressed as men, take the men's place, and use carrots, fruits, and other objects to satisfy" them "purusayita" in the Kama Sutra = "virile behavior in women" — literal Sanskrit refers to use of dildos/"artificial phalluses" with women taking the active role ** "with both males and females" 'virile' woman shown with bow-and-arrow in the Kokasastra — two possibilities: female guard (weapons) doing the pleasuring or female servant dressed as male guard —> indicates that there were two types of female masculinity in the Indian court — martial & sexual could describe woman shown as a stone butch ~ doesn't want to be touched, doesn't identify as feminine

When and why do most nations increase the number of women in their militaries?

In times of emergency and war Under international pressure When there are shortages of men

What factors have led to women serving in both support and combat roles?*

Increase in number of women serving in both sectors is in part a product of necessity — e.g. need women in combat roles in order to assess and prevent female suicide bombers; literal need for manpower in times of emergency/war ~ shortages of men women often forced to engage in combat roles even when they have been assigned to noncombatant roles—> nature of war - duty calls when in the thick of war, must always be ready to serve but would never receive recognition and promotions that accompanied their actions [once again, note that this changed in 2016] *international pressure* — e.g. in the US ~ one of the last countries to allow women into certain combat roles (vs., for instance, Canada, which cultural ideology —> socialist ideology leading to conscription in Israel; female suicide bombers being persuaded/inspired to serve (Palestine, Iraq, Afghanistan) Support roles include medics, military police, health care, admin Individual determination + recent (~since the 90s) policy repeals and new policies (c.2016) allowing women to serve in direct combat roles

How do the stories of Amazons relate to those of Thracians, Scythians, Sauromatians, and Libyans?*

KEY POINTS: Scythians & iron (Hellanicus, Lysias); Sauromatians & breast removal (Hellanicus, Hippocrates); Thracians & Penthesilea + Mariandynians in the Thermadon region (artwork, descriptions); Libyan/Cyrene "Amazon" warrior queens (Diodorus, Herodotus on Pheretime - distorted) Similar locations ~ Asia Minor, Caucasus, modern western Asia; Libya Similar weaponry; similar physical structure (e.g. bone analysis) Greek artwork of "Amazons" features similar weaponry and clothing as contemporary known WW — Scythian archers, male Thracian clothing; Davis-Kimball shows that artistic depictions used diverse elements associated with WW - e.g. clothing and weapons that match Scythian burials vs. Scythians: texts replace Scythians with Amazons —> Hellanicus says that Scythians were the first to make iron; Lysias turns them into Amazons indicates conflation of the groups by the Greeks; archaeological evidence of Scythian and Sauromatian WW buried with iron weaponry, including arrowheads ≈ "Amazons" HISTORICAL BASIS FOR AMAZONS CONFIRMED BY ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF SCYTHIAN AND SAUROMATIAN WW Kurgans found not only in Volga-Ural region associated with Sauromatians, but in the Lower Don region associated with Scythians — across the board, finding burials containing WW with weaponry ascribed to the Amazons via artwork and literature Scythian WW burials are not common — indicated high status potentially as either chieftain or priestess; grave goods, positions within the kurgan, funeral rites, and *bodily sacrifices* indicate potentially were chieftains in line with Greek fear of matriarchy ~ woman in power Ctesias (Greek physical in a Persian court) compares Amazons to Asian Scythians - Sacae - but notes that the Sacae warrior queens rule and command male and female soldiers; also does not describe them as being 100% matriarchal/ruling women through their own lineage and direct right — rather describes queens who gained access to power (eg. via dead husbands) and as such are then interpreted by the Greeks as matriarchal societies in general vs. Sauromatians: Hellanicus claims that Amazons/Scythians (two become conflated) seared off their breasts with iron in order to facilitate weapon use VS. Hippocrates claims that Sauromatians cut off their breast to make their arm stronger —> either way, goes along with myth + evidence found in burials Hippocrates implies that Sauromatian women are weak since they have to cut of their breast in order to 'make their arm stronger', goes contrary to notion that the effeminized men; rather, they were WW but after a mandatory few kills + marriage, only fought as needed; note that Hippocrates differentiated between Scythian and Sauromatian women via the latter's military prowess Herodotus — Scythians + Amazons = Sauromatians; claims that Sauromatian women can't marry until they kill (*like Hippocrates*) vs. ASIAN Thracians from Asia Minor Penthesilea called both Thracian and "Amazon" —> all evidence points to Thracian; iconography and figures on vases (e.g. leopardskin associated with Thracian maenads) + increased interaction between Greeks and Thracians = possibility that artwork depicts Thracians, not Amazons — wearing Thracian armor POST-COLONIAL APPROACH —> PENTHESILEA = THRACIAN, NOT AMAZON Mariandynians = Thracians in Asia Minor - said to ALSO live in the Thermodon region next to the Assyrians, who drove them out ~ Amazons were similarly driven out of the region Plato says that Thracian women rode horses, knew how to defend themselves as nomads ~ similar to Amazon characterization could not be all women if Thracian (vs. "matriarchy" of all women descried by Diodorus) VS. Libyans - Described by Diodorus as "Amazons" of north Africa; race ruled by women with submissive men; infant girls have breasts seared off "African Amazons" = distortion of Libyan WW — *real warrior queens ruling Cyrene* Pheretime of Cyrene; led troops, took revenge; presented as particularly barbaric and savage in certain accounts Libyan WW potentially did NOT see themselves, or were seen by others, as masculine within their culture continuity/modern evidence — Qaddafi's female bodyguards are actual bodyguards but still embrace the "feminine" side (e.g. makeup, clothing, marriage, children) — WW do NOT have to consider themselves masculine to be warriors; Libya still considers female forces equal to male

How did the publication of Las Sergas de Esplandián (The Deeds of Esplandian) result in the search for the "island" of California? What was the tale of Amazons related in this text? Whom were they fighting, and who was their leader?

Lecture - CONQUISTADORS DRIVEN BY PROMISE OF GOLD IF THEY FIND THE AMAZONS Montalvo's Las Sergas de Esplandián specifically elaborates on Columbus's account, for instance changing the name to California; embellished details like the notion that THEY HAD GOLD AND ONLY GOLD (not something mentioned by Columbus) ~ impetus for conquerers and explorers to find them (also impetus for those funding expeditions) Relates that the Persian emperor of Constantinople rounded up all of the "barbarian" clans and organized an attack against the Christians; Calafia is too headstrong and is injured in battle and captured; falls in love with her captor, Esplandian, marries him and converts to Christianity; in sequels, she reappears as a warrior queen, but on the side of the Christians Montalvo published in 1510; by 1533, first expedition sent by Cortez to find California (Baja); explorers were killed by natives; two more by 1539 Diego Velazquez' hiring of Cortes to explore/conquer inland Mexico included a search for the island of the Amazons; period of expeditions sent by Velazquez coincides with 5 year period of high publication rates

What kinds of controversies have surrounded the issue of women serving in combat? Does physical ability play a role in where and when women might serve? What effect, if any, do women serving in the military have upon unit cohesion?

Less qualified males have been selected over more qualifies women for key leadership positions due to "dated ideas." There are two standards: one for men and one for women. This is problematic because, since the standard for men will automatically be higher, it ensures that they have a better chance of reaching a higher ranking. While men and women have different hormones and body compositions, there are similarities in skills and strength, and many claim that this is what the military should focus on so that anyone who meets the standard should serve in all fields. An argument against women serving is such that their physical and emotional capabilities may not accommodate the physical and emotional strains required during warfare (but this argument can be refuted when we take into account the Soviet women fighters and North Vietnamese as well). Unite cohesion: It ahs been argued by some that the prenense of women may negatively affect unit cogesion (how well soldiers function or work together) in these ways: their ability to physically perform, forced intimacy and privacy, men protecting women,and sexual misconduct/pregnancy. But all of these could be refuted: with strong leadership, good traning and discipline, all of these would be non-issues

How were the customs of the Sauromatian women similar to those of the Amazons?

MAIN POINT = CUT OFF THEIR BREAST; sources vary -- Hippocrates says Sauromatians, Hellanicus says Amazons; Hellanicus also denies that they could cut it off without dying -- says they sear it off with iron when young

What is the relationship among Amazons, Scythians, Sauromatians, and matriarchy?

Matriarchy claimed to be both a myth by some scholars Matriliny ≠ matriarchy Ctesias describes the Sacae - Asian Scythians; doesn't reveal them to be 100% "matriarchal" or describe them as gunaikokratoumenoi, but compares them to Amazons; led both men and WOMEN in battle (~cultural in Scythia) and had power, but didn't derive power from a matrilineal line. Scythians and Sauromatians may have featured some form of matriarchy/gynecocracy Majority of burials in Pokrovka reveal WW as the "chief burial" in the kurgan — suggests that Sauromatian WW described by Herodotus may have been real

How has warfare changed over the past 50 years, and how has this affected women in the military?

No longer a defined front line - formal battle line characteristic of early US wars allowed women to remain close to the combat zone but not endangered in the way that such proximity would be now — nature of war has changed; no longer easy to determine where one will be attacked; no longer clear who the enemy is; terrorism is a different beast — terrorists don't just target military forces, they target innocent people has meant that women are barred from posts which place them "at risk" - as exemplified by the 1988 Risk Rule, which prohibited women from joining combat units, and further prevented them from joining non-combat support units that were at "equal or greater risk" than a nearby combat unit progressivism, feminist movements of the late 19th c. have changed attitudes towards female participation in combat roles; 90s saw more than 50% support their participation, and also support for the repeal of both the Risk Rule + combat restrictions in the Navy and Air Force; army didn't capitulate in the same way, but did open up more positions Modern war = changing nature of war (stated above) —> ***changing nature of war in the 21st c. in particular has created a need for women in combat roles*** not just a need for manpower or women's proven ability to perform well under fire; extends to specific necessity within ground combat units — with terrorism comes female suicide bombers, who are harder for men to locate ~ men can't access all the places that women can — have to deal with cultural and religious differences —> NECESSITY to have women on the ground

How and why did Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, become powerful, especially after Alexander's death?

Olympias became powerful because of her appointment as regent by Polyperchon, who was enraged by the fact that Adea Eurydice's appointment of Cassander as regent, which was an open act of defiance towards himself as regent. Although Olympias was in refuge at Molossia at the time, Polyperchon requested her to return in order to Macedon in order to fight Adea Eurydice. Olympias won the battle and forced Adea to kill herself and also ordered the Arrhidaeus be killed. She maintained a position of political strength, called her "reign of terror" because her actions resembled those of male monarchs who "eliminated their rivals upon ascension to the throne" (just as Olympias had done to Adea. (pages 198-200) Shortly thereafter, though, she was condemned to death by Cassander for vengeance for killing his friends and family. Her power and courage was seen as masculine by the men she ruled, so in turn they respected her

How were Penthesilea and other Amazons associated with men?

On one hand, known as man-haters/killers; her name means "suffering of the people" — makes it clear that she is a Greek construct/creation — **her historicity is questionable** Penthesilea has multiple "friendly" associations with men—commands troops with male units; serves as an ally to the Trojans; some legends claim she had a son MAIN POINT: Penthesilea had both "sexual and social" (benign) interactions and associations with men, *as conceived by the Greeks* — suggests a different understanding of the Amazons problematizes traditional understanding/conception of the Amazons being a group of women only/man-haters — **working with men** Vase paintings show Amazons living with men LECTURE: "Amazon" refers NOT to her race, but to her ACTIVITIES ~ warrior. [SHE WAS THRACIAN]

Why is Joan's story controversial?

Originality of her visions are questionable — prophesies were already in circulation that a girl from Domremy would save France; *was likely a motive* since she must have known about them; probable that she heard of the prophesy before claiming she heard voices; that she knew about them is evidenced by the record that she talked about the prophesy with her escort to Chinon, Robert de Baudricourt maintained same qualities as girl in the prophesy — *stayed a virgin* For most of her "miracles," there can be a rational explanation — e.g. with her sword, she likely saw it or found out about it when she visited the church Saint Catherine on her way to Chinon — wasn't told by Catherine in a vision that she should retrieve the sword; with her recognition of Charles VII, could have been told what he looked like before entering the court DESPITE the things that can explain some features of her life, certain elements are inexplicable — no way to truly explain how she knew about military situations while they were happening, how she predicted Orleans + coronation [but obviously not real 'visions' from saints]

Who was Pheretime? What were her accomplishments? Why did she lose power, ultimately?

Pheretime of Cyrene; married to Cyrenean king Battus III; Persian vassal; while Herodotus only says that she wanted an army but failed to get one, other ancient sources claim that she "acted independently, led troops, took revenge" and became an ally of the Egyptian satrap; Herodotus presents her actions against the rebellious Barcans as sadistic and cruel after she and her forces (obtained from the Persians) retook Cyrene (customary Persian punishment for rebels but 'barbaric' to the Greeks) and claims that when she returned to Egypt, she was punished by the gods and eaten alive by maggots; other authors present her as being less cruel ~ possibly that Herodotus was purposely exaggerating Pheretime's rule as destructive in order to oppose the notion of successful female rulership

How does the U.S. military deal with issues of pregnancy and motherhood?

Pregnancy: AND recommends women (since they are in their prime childbearing years) to plan their pregnancies around their military and operational duties; also, the implementation of pregnancy prevention and emergency contraception training. Pregnancy may pose the woman's career in jeopardy The provision of medical care, including abortions, in overseas military hospitals has been a problem: in 1979, the funds were reduced. In 1992, Congress passed an amendment to make abortions available, but Bush I vetoed it. This changed under Bill Clinton. But anti abortion forces in Congress implemented the prohibition of military hospitals to perform abortions expect in the case of life endangering cases, rape or incest. The comprising of navy missions to evacuate pregnant women Military readiness; soldiers are "non-deployable" when pregnant; morning after pill in 2010 in all hospitals including overseas. Motherhood The military has implemented efforts in 2008 to accommodate family life for either single or new mothers (only applies to single parents after they have enlisted, since single parents cannot enlist in the first place). In 2008, the Army extended deployment deferment from 4 to 6 months; increased the time to a year to accommodate breastfeeding. Some families can go with a deploying soldier in some cases; day care centers; 10-day paternity leave for new fathers; allowing families to stay in 1 place for longer. Problems still faced: it might be necessary to deploy couples together; but deployments can also affect children.

How and why have women ended up on the "front line" (so to speak) of combat?*

Recent/modern - choice (2016 repeal of ban of women in direct front-line ground combat) + need for skilled individuals, not enough men + need for women specifically No longer a defined front line - formal battle line characteristic of early US wars allowed women to remain close to the combat zone but not formally endangered in the way that such proximity would be now (though they were killed by cannons and gunfire)— nature of war has changed; no longer easy to determine where one will be attacked; no longer clear who the enemy is; terrorism is a different beast — terrorists don't just target military forces, they target innocent people pre-Gulf War + War on Terror, changing nature of war meant that women were barred from posts which placed them "at risk" - as exemplified by the 1988 Risk Rule, which prohibited women from joining combat units, and further prevented them from joining non-combat support units that were at "equal or greater risk" than a nearby combat unit with the current nature of war, where there is no defined combat zone and where women are often the enemy and are located in areas inaccessible to men, women have become a *necessity* extends beyond need for a female to interact with other females on the ground; progressivism, feminist movements of the late 19th c. have changed attitudes towards female participation in combat roles; 90s saw more than 50% support their participation, and also support for the repeal of both the Risk Rule + combat restrictions in the Navy and Air Force; army didn't capitulate in the same way, but did open up more positions Modern war = changing nature of war (stated above) —> ***changing nature of war in the 21st c. in particular has created a need for women in combat roles*** not just a need for manpower or women's proven ability to perform well under fire; extends to specific necessity within ground combat units — with terrorism comes female suicide bombers, who are harder for men to locate ~ men can't access all the places that women can — have to deal with cultural and religious differences —> NECESSITY to have women on the ground as restrictions ease up, women who WANT to fight are being allowed to engage in active combat roles CHANGING DEFINITION OF DIRECT GROUND COMBAT GIVEN A NEW TYPE OF WAR — since there is no front line and everyone is in danger, direct combat = those who go on the offensive ~ who seek out and destroy the enemy (definition c. 2010/Skaine) as of 2016, women are now allowed to serve in front-line ground combat roles ON THE FLIP SIDE - can consider female revolutionaries [e.g. even suicide bombers in middle east + Sri Lanka + Chechen "Black Widows"] to be serving on the "front line" of combat / in direct combat roles significant to note that many women have to prove that they want to perform the task of a suicide bombing —e.g. Tamil Tigresses — or are compelled by a sense of duty and pride—e.g. Yasser Arafat's Palestinian "shahidas" (feminized version of 'martyrs')

How did women find ways to serve in the military during early U.S. wars (e.g the American Revolution and the Civil War)?

Revolutionary War - Molly "Pitcher"—earned name from task of bringing pitchers of water to her husband and others on the front line—when her husband was wounded, she took over his cannon and fought; Margaret Corbin—similar situation as Molly Pitcher, but was tasked with doing other "domestic" tasks for her husband while at war—when he was wounded, she took over the cannon; Debra Sampson — **disguised herself as a male** — only discovered as a female when forced to be treated by a physician after being wounded —> current belief that many women disguised themselves or took over for their husbands, etc. War of 1812 - like during the revolutionary war, records of women fighting as women Civil War (1861-5)— women fighting as women and fighting as men; Dr. Mary Walker, served in the Union army, was a PoW, earned the medal of honor for her service as a doctor - *only woman in history to earn one* [still]; Clara Burton, founded the Red Cross — many women serving as nurses, including black women; many women who disguised themselves and served as men — kept their gender secret quite well since some were not discovered until after they died Spanish-American War (end of 19th) — nurses — foundation of the Nurse Corps in the Medical Department

Why are traditional Athenian and/or twentieth-century Western ideas of gender inadequate to understand Scythian, Sauromatian, and Thracian gender roles?

THEY DID NOT NECESSARILY DIVIDE SOCIETY INTO THE SAME BINARY; society/WW didn't necessarily see the women as masculine Both modern and Athenian gender paradigms revolve around M/F binary, which is NOT reflected in "Amazon" societies "Amazons are a reflection of societies where the sex-based distribution of labor was quite different than that of the Greeks" (122)

Did the Amazons of antiquity exist? *

The Amazons existed, but they did not call themselves Amazons, and there is no evidence for an all-female society; rather, there were societies where female warriors were not uncommon, where female rule was acceptable, and where women were, most importantly, the antithesis to the Greek ideal

What was the Don't Ask Don't Tell policy? Why was it controversial? (NB: It was repealed on 9/11/11.)

The DADT policy was a law that Congress passed in 1993. It mandated the discharge of openly gay, lesbian or bisexual service members. It was controversial (as was its debate for being repealed) for several reasons: It was especially difficult for women considering they made up 15% of the armed forces and therefore represented nearly 50% of the Army and Ari force discharges under DADT. It is very expensive since many of those who were discharged held critical occupations and important foreign language skills. Many conservatives claim that it is an agenda to "destroy religion" or lead to other vies (slippery slope) One sergeant found the DADT policy a hinderance during wartime; a hinderance to more important issues and wartime efforts The presence of openly gay and lesbian marines will elevate tensions and disruption of good order. Health issues; HIV Maintaining DADT imposes secrecy, undermines unit cohesion and the discharging of gays and lesbians is at the expense of the military readiness of the U.S. (45)

Why was the power of Ptolemaic queens more formally established than that of their other Hellenistic (e.g. Seleucid, Macedonian) warrior queens?

The power of Ptolemaic queens was more formally established than that of other Hellenistic warrior queens because they served as co-rulers with their husbands, brothers and sons. This allowed them to maintain authority for a more consistent duration, whereas Macedonian women generals commanded armies only temporarily during the crises of the successors (verbatim pages 203-204). This more formalized role of Ptolemaic queens was much influences by Ancient Egyptian conceptions of the role of women in power reasons why women gain power: pattern of warfare / kings dying / internecine murder (within the family) — allows women to attain power monarchical government / ***family dynasties**** entitled to rule within this hierarchy ~ royal women take precedent/have more power than males beneath them Greek - δυναστεια - dunasteia — dynastic power co-rulers precedents (pharaohs)

What does it mean to provincialize Athenian thought?

Utilize a "peripheral" POV — not a Eurocentric/Athenocentric POV Use anthropological and archaeological evidence, Sanskrit literature, and Greek ethnographies to understand WW from their own POV — how they saw themselves* e.g. as chapter reveals, WW did NOT necessarily consider themselves "masculine" — the GREEKS identified WW as masculine/"Amazons"

What kinds of scholarly controversies surround the use of weapons in burials of women as evidence that they were warriors?

VS Davis-Kimball Baumer: denies existence of Amazons; acknowledges existence of women warriors but only in the "light cavalry" units; didn't have any "special status" because those buried with weapons weren't elaborate burials, *though some buried in central chambers of kurgans* Hanks - criticizes the fact that Davis-Kimball and Guliaev only use archaeological evidence to posit that the women had the "special status" as warriors or religious leaders; calls the weapons "indirect evidence" of their lives "Direct evidence" = looking at the bodies themselves, not grave goods — "activity stress markers" but *already done* — Davis-Kimball observed the bowleggedness of the warrior women ~ horse riders + injuries **Debate over Sauromatian arrowheads** ~ what the weaponry indicates Russian archaeologists argue for the primacy of archery in warfare Italian archaeologists argue that they indicate hunting Hanks believes arrowheads suggest that women both fought *and* hunted PENROSE: question should be, if these women were capable of hunting and/or fighting, wouldn't they attack any approaching enemies?

Who was buried at the tomb in Vergina? In terms of warrior queens, why is the burial significant? What kinds of controversies surround the burial? Do the findings in the tomb correlate with written evidence?

Vergina = site of ancient Macedonian capital Aegae; location of burial site has inclined scholars to believe that it is the royal cemetery of the Argead dynasty SIGNIFICANCE: Queen's burial included royal grave goods + weapons and armor — *including iron spearheads and arrowheads* — but no jewelry ~ enjoyed hunting and fighting over traditionally female activities significant because she is the only queen buried with male weapons rather than jewelry, pottery, etc. (though there were other female burials containing bronze axes, similar to those attributed to Amazons in Plutarch) CONTROVERSIES: little literary evidence prior to Philip II to indicate any Macedonian POV on warrior queens/female masculinity; definite that Macedonians experienced interculturation when conquering Thrace, Illyria, and Molossia *more importantly,* dating has been disputed archaeologist who discovered the tomb - Andronicos - claimed that the king and warrior queen were Philip II + Cleopatra (executed by Olympias; buried later), fits his proposed date range of 350-325 BCE VS other archaeologists who argue the tomb holds Philip III Arrhideaus and Adea Eurydice (Philip III = brother & successor of Alexander c.323) - according to *literary sources,* Adea Eurydice was a warrior queen who rode out to battle; they date the tomb to 317, when both fell in battle evidence = items and architecture only found during or after Alexander's reign; in particular, style of tomb only found in Asia Minor before Alexander's conquests brought the tradition back to Greece/Macedonia difficult to date accurately — bone analyses are inconclusive since they fit both couples FINDINGS Weapons - Andronicos argues those in the queen's chamber belonged to the king ~ storage, denying the mere existence or potential for the queen to have been a warrior as well VS. others who argue that weapons, particularly the pectoral armor, spears and arrows found arranged next to her body, belonged to her — *argued based on the positioning of the weapons + absence of any jewelry, except for a royal wreath, pin, and diadem ~ the latter three are found with both M+W, but replacement of weapons for jewelry indicates she was a woman who sought battle, not domesticity; additionally, greaves were most likely for her (the variance in size isn't surprising since many warriors, including the king, were buried with multiple sets; could have disintegrated) ***There IS literary evidence for Macedonian/Argead warrior women** — Athenaeus reports that certain women in the Argead court were "qualified" to wear greaves - incl. Audata (Philip II's first wife) and daughter Cynnane, who was the mother of Adea Eurydice*** —> Audata too old for the tomb Europa - Cleopatra's infant daughter, also killed (?) - potentially buried in tomb I with Cleopatra and Philip II since it contains the bones of an older man, younger woman, and infant child; no infant found in tomb II

Were there historical warrior queens in Asia Minor from whom the legend of the Amazons may have been partly inspired?*

YES - All cultures mentioned above featured queens who ruled, thus appearing as some form of a matriarchy, which would then incline the Greeks to sensationalize over time into a race of all women; Carian queens, Pheretime of Cyrene (Herodotus), Persian Atossa (first to lead armies, raised male, Hellanicus; Penthesilea) Carian queens Artemisia I (Salamis), Artemisia II (Rhodes), and Ada I (named satrap after besieging the city for Alexander) of Halicarnassus orientalist ancient historians projected queenship in Caria to all of Asia ~ effeminizing Pheretime of Cyrene (Libya) - fierce warrior queen who became a Persian vassal; presented by Herodotus as cruel and borderline sadistic — not just a WW, but "took revenge" in horrific ways when punishing enemies —> more indicative that Herodotus was possibly exaggerating her rule, presenting it as destructive in order to undermine successful female rule Persian Atossa - first queen to lead Persian armies accd. to Hellanicus; **was raised as a male, taught to fight and conquer, wore mens clothing** —> from a Persian POV, presented as an example of female masculinity *many of these women were directly compared or referred to as Amazons by ancient authors* On the more legendary side, Penthesilea = "Amazon" but really, if she existed, was likely a Thracian warrior queen; story of battle vs. Achilles = adds to Amazon legend

What kinds of weapons did the Amazons use? Were they skilled equestrians?

YES - skilled equestrians; also explains names of queens — Hippolyta bow/arrows, spears, double-headed battle axes — shown in iconography Scythians known for "triad" — arms, horses, and animal-style art —> known for disseminating Hellenic culture AND their own culture too throughout Eurasia (e.g. triad) —> shared with the Amazons... bows/arrows found in funeral sites of Scythians, Sauromatian, Macedonian, in areas of Asia Minor, and elsewhere + same cultures have other forms of evidence revealing similar weaponry; extends even to the "Amazons" imported to India who were skilled archers and rode and hunted with the king

How did the Hellenistic kingdoms differ from other Greek societies, especially those of mainland Greece (e.g. Athens, Sparta)?

acceptance of female rule, permission for women to fight in battle NOTE — Macedonian women generals commanded armies only temporarily during the crises of the successors (verbatim pages203-204). (VS. formal, continuous rule by Ptolemaic queens) WW/ female rule not a feature of democratic societies / Greek poleis; was a feature in Macedonian culture, in other parts of Alexander's growing empire, and in Greek poleis located outside mainland Greece (influenced by native "barbarian" culture) evidence of warrior queens in successor kingdoms after Alexander's death — Ptolemaic queens and Seleucid (Syrian) queens E.g. Ptolemaic Egypt — for natives, women = direct co-rulers with husbands or sons (vs. indirect power for Macedonian women) —> receptive audience in both Macedonians and Egyptians to their role as warrior queen or co-ruler; Egyptian precedent with female pharaohs *given evidence, royal Macedonian women in Macedonian and Hellenistic kingdoms able to gain power via not only indirect ("feminine") scheming, but through co-rule and sometimes direct rule; big factor = ability to lead troops —> warrior queens confirmed by archaeology and literature

What kinds of weapons did the Spaniards believe the Amazons of California had? Why is this significant?

believed that they had gold weapons; letters from conquerers performing an active search say they are searching for these women who carry bows, arrows, and targets —> same weapons affiliated with the Amazons —> conquerers either looking for the mythic that never existed, or Columbus spotted female archers/warriors and assumed it was an island of Amazons; from there, the account was sensationalized by Montalvo and others

How has Herodotus' description of the Scythians been verified by archaeology? Has archaeology verified Herodotus' description of Scythian women? Why or why not?

big question: why didn't Herodotus think that Scythian women didn't fight? statement DENIED by archaeology and anthropology — they DID fight GULIAEV - kurgans discovered in not only the Lower Don/Tanais region, but the middle Don, where Herodotus locates the Scythians (vs. Sauromatian kurgans previously found in the Volga/Ural regions); all have similar weaponry associated with Amazons (iron weaponry, including arrowheads and spearheads everywhere) burials were of young noble Scythian (warrior) women, as indicated by their age (bones) and status (grave goods, size of kurgan, etc.) Herodotus notes bodily mutilation of as a sacrifice after a Scythian king's death — used to explain cut off fingers found with bones of sacrificed animal in kurgan Herodotus claims Scythians inhaled cannabis; archaeological evidence found for resin, hash, hemp seeds Penrose: why would Herodotus tell us that Scythian women didn't fight when there are indications that some of them certainly did (while some didn't as well) Herodotus does NOT tell us that Scythian women fought**** —> why?? STEWART - excavation of kurgans that match Herodotus' accounts (and others) ~ gives credence

Were those surrounding the Greeks less misogynistic than the Greeks themselves? If so, why?

evidence suggests YES Macedonians vs. the Greeks ~ Macedonians able to follow a female leader in battle, whereas Greeks would never —> = "political, cultural, and possibly ethnic difference" between the two; Macedonian court was influenced by outside (Illyrian) influence during the reigns of Phillip II (whose wife Audata was Illyrian), his son Alexander III the Great, its foundations were still Macedonian. Therefore, by retaining the culture of a foretime, they somewhat maintained the stature of women. Furthermore, Ptolemaic Queens were less misogynistic because of their being heavily influenced by the Ancient Egyptian pharaoh queens who were held in the same status and regard as their husbands, **unlike in Macedon where they only temporarily lead armies in times of successor crises or served as mere regents** Macedon and Ptolemaic Egypt therefore strayed from Greek misogyny due to their cultural hybridity and influence of Illyrians and Ancient Egyptians. They therefore supported women generals such as Olympias, Adea Eurydice and Cratesipoli, whereas the Greeks saw this as a quality that proved their "barbaric" nature.

What precedents did Ptolemaic women pharaohs have?

female pharaohs, pre-Ptolemaic; royal women had power The Old Kingdom: Neitaqerti (2175 BCE) who succeeded her brother after he had been murdered by his subjects (whom she later drowned to avenge her brother's death). The Middle Kingdom: Sobekneferu, the daughter of Amenamhat, ruled 1785-81 BCE. The fact her name is inscribed in a cartouche, which is the marker of an outright pharaoh, indicates that she served directly rather than as regent. She is also found on the Saqqara king list. Although she is depicted in images with the body of a woman, she wears the male pharoanic clothing. Such an ambiduity may have legitimized her role as pharaoh. Queen Hatshepsut, daughter of Thutmosis I and wife of the next Pharaoh, Thutmosis II, and initially the regent for her stepson, Thutmosis III. She usurped the throne after being regent for several years. Although her stepson tried to erase her from historical memory, if was ironically this act that has allowed us to ensure her existence as archaeologists glued her broken statue pieces back together. Furthermore, account by Greek historian Manetho recorded a woman monarch who was mother of a Greek variant of the name Thutmosis III, which corresponds to Hatshepsut. Similarly to Sobekneferu, she chose to dress in male pharoanic clothing. Nefertiti, wife of Amenhotep III who changed his name to Akhenaten, who joined her husband in elevating the cult of Egyptian diety/god-like force Aten over that of Amon-Ra. She, like all pharaonic queens, were associated to the divine, hence further legitimizing their authority, such as Nitokret who was called "the god's wife." Later Ptolemaic queens would similarly be equated with Isis and other goddesses. co-ruling with sibling/husbands ~ incest = common within Egyptian dynasties

What challenges have women faced in the U.S. and other militaries? (e.g. rape, health care, maternity leave, abortions, etc.)*

gender related issues — logistics; consensual sexual relationships, incl. with same sex; pregnancies; gender/sexuality discrimination; sexual harassment, assault, rape Logistics - reconfiguring sleeping arrangements and bathrooms in order to accommodate women — has caused certain areas like Navy submarines to take years to open up positions due to the cost of creating new quarters; on the other hand, though war in Iraq started off poorly, with no policies or structures in place to provide privacy or help with women's health issues, permanent bases eventually changed to meet women's needs — separate female-only quarters, quarters for married couples Consensual relationships —doesn't matter if consensual unless relationship is between two married individuals; no fraternizing with someone of the same rank, superior rank, or someone who is married (adultery — doesn't matter if relationships are between same genders or opposite genders same sex relationships — women were heavily affected by DADT (c.1982; ended in 2011) - those with vendettas against women accused them of having same-sex relations, causing them to be discharged ~ taking advantage of the policy, sometimes lying in the process; caused the discharge rate to be nearly equal between the two genders, despite the fact that women only made up 15% of the military — doesn't make sense, was being used nefariously; DADT also went against majority opinion in both public and military population by the 2000's; arguments against the repeal included fears of *losing unit cohesion*, HIV spreading, increased costs, defecting heterosexual military members who don't feel comfortable around non-normative genders; **reality is that none of this is ultimately true, save the ultra-religious/conservative/homophobic; most today do not care.** pregnancy - from 1940s-70s, pregnant women automatically discharged in Israel, women are still discharged or exempt if pregnant policy recommends women (since they are in their prime childbearing years) to plan their pregnancies around their military and operational duties Pregnancy may pose the woman's career in jeopardy The provision of medical care, including abortions, in overseas military hospitals has been a problem: in 1979, the funds were reduced. In 1992, Congress passed an amendment to make abortions available, but Bush I vetoed it. This changed under Bill Clinton. But anti abortion forces in Congress implemented the prohibition of military hospitals to perform abortions expect in the case of life endangering cases, rape or incest. The compromising of navy missions to evacuate pregnant women Military readiness; soldiers are "non-deployable" when pregnant; morning after pill in 2010 in all hospitals including overseas. RAPE - "According to Elizabeth L. Hillman, commanders, members of congress, legal reformers, educators, media coverage, and political response are significant resources dedicated to eradicating this violence." However, these efforts have been unsuccessful because 'military institutions resist cultural change." Also, the pervading "view of women as vulnerable yet dangerous, soldiers as male and overpowering" The prevention of sexual assault is crucial for military readiness btw MOTHERHOOD - have had to deal with various barriers posed by having infants and children The military has implemented efforts in 2008 to accommodate family life for either single or new mothers (only applies to single parents after they have enlisted; single parents can't enlist at all). In 2008, the Army extended deployment deferment from 4 to 6 months; increased the time to a year to accommodate breastfeeding. Some families can go with a deploying soldier in some cases; day care centers; 10-day paternity leave for new fathers; allowing families to stay in 1 place for longer. Problems still faced: it might be necessary to deploy couples together; but deployments can also affect children. In foreign countries, COERCION - e.g. Yasser Arafat, al Qaeda

As this article was written in 1944, how is it dated? How might a more contemporary approach rethink some of the categories used herein?

incredibly Eurocentric "dramatic/stupendous conquests" Cortez = hero —> Leonard praises the conquistadors but fails to mention that they massacred the natives (note - natives = best term for indigenous; Native Americans/Indians = imposed names post-colonial approach more appropriate — not from a eurocentric POV but from the POV of these supposed mythical women —> if they did exist, they definitely did not consider themselves Amazons; their hostility would be more appropriately regarded as defense against an invading force — e.g. if it was indeed a matriarchal society and the men were indoors while the women outdoors (~ if there were an abundance women seen on an island, not necessarily an entire island of women; matriarchy in this context also takes on a rather Hellenic belief that only a society of women/barbarians could be ruled by a woman)

What kinds of weapons were found in the graves of Scythian "Amazons"?

iron knives, iron spearheads and darts, iron but mostly bronze arrowheads; rarely iron swords; no battle-axes (as depicted in iconography and literary evidence concerning Amazons)

How did the Greeks understand gynecocracy?

literal - "rule by women" = "any situation where women held power over men or others" (144) **understood from an "ethnic POV"

How, as a historian, might you understand the Amazons and other women warriors using a postcolonial approach?*

looking at available evidence, we can construct some idea of their lifestyle and culture; with these forms of evidence one can try to locate the subaltern "Amazonian"/WW point of view and self-identification; e.g. for some women like Artemisia I of Caria or Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt, female rule and/or participation in battle was customary; similarly, Scythian and Sauromatian women saw themselves not as Amazons, but as women who fight, like their ancestors; 19th century sikh female warriors and queens - e.g. Ranjit Singh's bodyguards and Rani of Jhansi (ruled as regent for her entire life after her husband the Raja died) — all have precedents - e.g. bodyguards have precedent with Mai Bhago + women allowed into Gobind Singh's Khalsa women can and did rule and lead armies as Persian vassals; occurring outside of mainland Greece, where Greeks living on the 'fringe' in Asia Minor experienced interculturation and could accept their rule; their acceptance is the result of cultural hybridity at work in Asia Minor from an Athenian/Greek "orientalist" POV (e.g. Arrian), all of these women were ruling gynecocracies (~ societies ruled by women), not societies where both genders could rule and both forms of rule were accepted; incapable of accepting the truth; could only identify these women as examples of FEMALE MASCULINITY (antithetical) provincializing Athens and using a post-colonial approach reveals that for those in Asia Minor, women could rule in the same capacity as men; it was NOT a matriarchy according to modern standards

How did the collapse of the Soviet Union affect women serving in military roles in Russia? Did things improve for women, or get worse?

more active in USSR; less serving today, roles downplayed to show only ~ used in parades got worse post WWII, decrease in occupation ~ primary role was to bear children, repopulate After the collapse of the Soviet Union, women were no longer allowed to serve in the military as they did before. Things worsened for them. They were allowed in the military but only for parade purposes because they were told they were no longer useful in it. It is possible that they were moreso needed in the civilian sector to rebuild the lost population.

Why does Israel conscript women? Do they serve the same amount of time as men? Which women are exempt?

philosophical basis for conscription = military created as a place for diverse peoples to unite under a common identity and cause, and gain "civic virtue" —> "important in principle for all citizens to have this experience of service" [and thus attain civic virtue] [90] reality is that by limiting the amount of time that women can serve, they deny true gender equality within society, since it limits their opportunities; inequity results in a situation where service is mandatory but one does not gain the civic virtue that men attain; ultimately "general conscription does not lead to civic equality" (92) CLASS - founded under essentially socialist ideology serve for 2 years vs. men serve until 51; major effects on post-military civilian life — limits opportunities since society accords respect and power in proportion to service and military rank/achievements —> rank only earned by serving longer ~ automatically prohibitive Mothers and married women are exempt + religious (Orthodox) reasons; role within the home is considered more important than military duty (suggests then that motherhood/marriage > the need for civic virtue) [90] "process of regendering" caused by conscription when mothers/wives are exempt [92]

What were Joan's major accomplishments?

provided inspiration for Charles VII; laid out *her* plan ≈ a woman planning/predicting what would eventually happen — besiege Orleans and drive out the English, crown Charles VII at Reims —> successes made her a living warrior-saint within weeks Not just a female warrior — was able to lead the entire army at Orleans — though not technically a general/commander, was the leader symbolically, a 'mascot' in practice — source of inspiration; men rallied around her, followed/listened to her successfully saw Charles VII coronated at Reims; stood beside the king and was able to attest that she had enacted the will of god

What are the motives of women suicide bombers? From what kinds of backgrounds do women suicide bombers come?

secular organizations usually seeking liberation as a people/independent and recognized state; nationalism motivating suiciding bombings Tamil Tigers/Tigresses; target political leaders; must truly believe in their mission and prove that they want to be suicide bombers; mental fortitude valued more than military/tactical intelligence; trained specifically if chosen Syrian Socialist National Party - earliest use of female suicide bombers (1985); 45% Kurdistan Workers Party in Turkey - 76% During conflict with Russia post-collapse of USSR, Chechen rebels started using female suicide bombers; c.2002-3, almost half were female; referred to as the Black Widows; held buildings under siege (theater in Moscow, children's school, planes) MOTIVES - generally the same as men; bombers = soldiers, just following orders rather, using women is a war tactic because they are less noticeable or expected in the public (~most don't expect a female suicide bomber) which allows them to get closer to their victims and penetrate more secure/populated areas without arousing suspicion accd. to Skaine's research, little evidence that women have a specific motivation some do, however — cases where bombers are mothers or wives seeking revenge for the deaths of their sons or husband most bombers are more educated - e.g. students, lawyers other motives: They had lost a husband or son during an armed conflict with the enemy If a woman has committed adultery, she can be shamed into becoming a suicide bomber. If a women is infertile, she can be convinced that her purpose for bearing a child can be replaced with her purpose for giving her life for the liberation of her country.

Why were Spanish explorers looking for Amazons in Mexico?

starts with Columbus - believed that in the indies there was an island with Amazons, Califia; belief became that if there are some on the island, there must be some on the mainland as well in part, due to the vague nature of available records of their existence; rumors of Amazons coming from everywhere, easy to believe Columbus when he claims he saw them Expedition funding often required some search for the Amazons Leonard argues that rumors gained legitimacy when they began appearing in both formal histories and fictional fantasies Montalvo's Las Sergas de Esplandián specifically elaborates on Columbus's account, for instance changing the name to California; embellished details like the notion that THEY HAD GOLD AND ONLY GOLD (not something mentioned by Columbus) ~ impetus for conquerers and explorers to find them (also impetus for those funding expeditions) important to note that while formal histories gave legitimacy, majority those who would eventually go on expeditions were reading fiction rather than histories or chronicles —>the average soldier had no interest or didn't even know about scholarly books, leads to the fact that they believed what Montalvo wrote

What is the traditional model that has been used to understand the Hellenistic kingdoms? How might a postcolonial model of cultural hybridity yield different results?

traditional model = hellenocentric, inflicts a process of hellenization —> focus on the establishment and spread of Greek culture ~ history starts with Greek presence VS. postcolonial focus on interculturation — gives agency to the 'colony' need to look at power of the Ptolemaic queens as the result of interculturation and cultural hybridity —> Greco-Egyptian interculturation, NOT hellenization need to look at role of Macedonian women and changing power dynamics in the context of interculturation with non-Greek *European* cultures —> Olympias (Molossian), Adea Eurydice (part Macedonian, part Illyrian ~ Illyrian influence in Macedonian court)

How might we understand the existence of powerful women in Asia Minor?

women can and did rule and lead armies as Persian vassals; occurring outside of mainland Greece, where Greeks living on the 'fringe' in Asia Minor experienced interculturation and could accept their rule; their acceptance is the result of cultural hybridity at work in Asia Minor from an Athenian/Greek "orientalist" POV (e.g. Arrian), all of these women were ruling gynecocracies (~ societies ruled by women), not societies where both genders could rule and both forms of rule were accepted; incapable of accepting the truth; could only identify these women as examples of FEMALE MASCULINITY (antithetical) provincializing Athens and using a post-colonial approach reveals that for those in Asia Minor, women could rule in the same capacity as men; it was NOT a matriarchy according to modern standards

What factors make it difficult for women to be promoted into positions of authority?*

women can be serving in combat roles through immediate necessity (e.g. self defense ≈ go on the offensive) BUT are technically in noncombatant roles and as such, are acting against policy and will never receive recognition for their actions, *though they were unavoidable*; consequently, promotions that require combatant experience are restricted to men, as women do not 'technically' serve in certain combat units **women can never even enter the career track necessary to attain a top position** similarly, women also prohibited from other combat roles that are restricted to men but are necessary to attain leadership positions ***RAND study reported that Army's exclusion policy that prevents women from engaging in direct ground combat has a major impact on their later opportunities*** note again, however, that as of 2016, US army now allows women to fight on the front-line in Israel, limited conscription of 2 years + exclusion from certain combat roles necessary to advance their careers in the military = inability to advance, inability to gain any of the honor associated with military service as such honor is measured by time spent and rank within the military

Did Siddhartha Gautama have women bodyguards? What is the evidence, and how should we treat it?

yes - both texts and iconography show female guards — sanskrit Lakitavistara biography has speech from Buddha's aunt to the female servants on the night that he (successfully) attempts to leave the palace — women are told to arm themselves with weapons *and* play music *and* bejewel themselves; women with spears told to surround his bed iconography also shows women women with spears surrounding his bed [scenes show them under the gods' "magical sleep," which allows him to escape] ***must treat evidence with caution because it significantly post-dates the events; e.g. iconography is from early CE ~ 500 years later and could tell us more about contemporary female customs than those from Buddha's lifetime***