Week 1 - Revision Questions

A social support approach for increasing exercise adherence?

A person (e.g., spouse, family member, friend) has a favorable attitude toward another person's involvement in an exercise program. Social support can be enhanced by participation in a small group, the use of personalized feedback, and the use of a buddy system.

Define learner-determined feedback?

Average feedback is a type of augmented feedback that presents a statistical average of two or more trials rather than results on any one of them. Might block dependency-producing effects Allows the instructor to formulate a more complete idea of the learner's error tendency Gives the learner more reliable information about what to change and how to change it

Describe social cognitive theory?

Exercise behavior is influenced by both personal and environmental factors, particularly self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is strongly related to exercise participation, especially in middle-aged and older adults. Social cognitive theory has produced some of the most consistent results in predicting exercise behavior (Bandura, 1986, 1997).

What is feedback? Define it

Information provided to the learner about the action just made; often syonymous with augmented feedback. Inherent feedback is information provided as a natural consequence of making an action; it is sometimes called intrinsic feedback. Augmented feedback is information from the measured performance outcome that is fed back to the learner by some artificial means; it is sometimes called extrinsic feedback.

Define reinforcement?

Reinforcement is the use of rewards and punishment, which increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future.

Explain the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards?

Research shows that being paid for working on an intrinsically interesting activity can decrease a person's intrinsic motivation for the activity.

Describe the health belief model?

The likelihood of exercising depends on the person's perception of the severity of health risks and appraisal of the costs and benefits of taking action. Overall, there is inconsistent support for predictions of exercise behavior with the health belief model (Becker & Maiman, 1975).

Define the two general descriptors for feedback frequency?

Absolute frequency of feedback refers to the total number of feedback presentations given to a learner across a set of trials in practice. Relative frequency of feedback refers to the percentage of trials receiving feedback.

Define faded feedback?

Faded frequency is a feedback schedule in which the relative frequency is high in early practice and reduced in later practice.

Do people like feedback?

Unless it is overdone, learners like feedback.

Describe the transtheoretical (or stage of change) model?

A person progresses through six stages of change: 1. Precontemplation: Does not exercise 2. Contemplation: Has fleeting thoughts of exercising 3. Preparation: Exercises, but not regularly enough (Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross, 1992) 4. Action: Has been exercising regularly, but for less than 6 months 5. Maintenance: Has been exercising regularly for more than 6 months 6. Termination: Once exercisers have exercised for 5 years During exercise, behavior induction strategies are used during the different transtheoretical stages (Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross, 1992). Matching the intervention to the stage of change is effective in producing high levels of regular exercise.

Define the guidance hypothesis and give an example?

A view emphasizing the guidence properties of augmented feedback, which promotes effective performance when it is present but has dependency producing (guidence-like) effects on retention tests of learning. For example cough holding a gymnast during a handstand, but cannot retain balance after.

What is motivational interviewing?

An intervention to increase the likelihood of a client's considering, initiating, and maintaining specific strategies to reduce harmful behavior via an interview. Motivation to change is elicited from the client rather than the counselor. Client-counselor relationship is more of a partnership.

Define average feedback, and explain how it is different to summary feedback?

Average feedback is a type of augmented feedback that presents a statistical average of two or more trials rather than results on any one of them. Might block dependency-producing effects Allows the instructor to formulate a more complete idea of the learner's error tendency Gives the learner more reliable information about what to change and how to change it

Define bandwidth feedback? Describe the two general rules that apply? How do you determine the band? Should it be bigger or smaller?

Bandwidth feedback is a procedure for delivering feedback in which errors are signalled only if they fall outside some range of correctness. First - No feedback is given if if some measures of performance fall within acceptable level Second - Precise feedback is given in indicating the amount and direction of the error when performance falls outside the range of acceptability. Decided by the level of error tolerance appropriate to a beginner. Larger bandwidth produces more learning then small bandwidths.

Explain five or more factors important for getting into flow?

Be motivated to perform (maintain a balance between goals and skills). Achieve optimal arousal before performing. Maintain an appropriate focus (stay in the present, focus on key points). Use precompetitive and competitive plans and preparation.

List and describe two behaviour modification approaches for increasing exercise adherence?

Behavior modification is the planned, systematic application of learning principles to the modification of behavior. Prompts: Verbal, physical, or symbolic cues initiate behaviors (e.g., posters encouraging people to take the stairs, placing running shoes by bed). Contracting: Participants enter into a contract with their exercise practitioners.

What are blank trials and are they useful for learning?

Blank trials are trials in which feedback is not received. With groups actually benefiting from learning and improving at about the same rate in acquisition.

List and describe three reinforcement approaches for increasing exercise adherence?

Chart attendance and participation. Rewards improve attendance but must be provided throughout the length of the program. Feedback: Providing feedback to participants on their progress has positive motivational effects. Self-monitoring: Participants keep written records of their physical activity.

Define the three different intervals used to describe feedback timing?

Concurrent Feedback - Feedback during the ongoing movement Feedback Delay Interval - The interval of time after the completion of movement until feedback is presented Post Feedback Delay Interval - Interval after the provision of feedback until the next movement starts.

Is concurrent feedback effective? What are two ways you can give concurrent feedback?

Concurrent feedback facilitated performers during practice, but once removed performance greatly diminishes. Through guidance helping a gymnast hold a handstand also through verbal instructions such as describing cue in how to do a squat.

Discuss positive and negative factors associated with exercise participation that are demographic in nature?

Demographic variables (e.g., education, income, sex, socioeconomic status) have a strong association with physical activity. Barriers to exercise are similar for white and nonwhite populations.

Feedback can be broad or precise. Who benefits from which?

Depending on the skill level of the performer. Early practice learner errors are so large, that precise information about the error size does not matter due to the lack of movement control. At higher levels movement control is much more precise and precise feedback can be utilised effectively.

What are some downsides of using punishment?

Drawbacks of punishment: Punishment can arouse fear of failure. Punishment can act as a reinforcer. Punishment can create an unpleasant, aversive learning environment.

Describe ecological models?

Examine frameworks versus specific variables (Dishman et al., 2004). Explain how the environment and behaviors affect each other. Take into consideration intrapersonal (e.g., biological), interpersonal (e.g., family), institutional (e.g., schools), and policy (e.g., laws at all levels) influences (Sallis & Owen, 1999).

Describe the theory of planned behaviour?

Exercise behavior is made up of intentions, subjective norms and attitudes, and perceptions of ability to control behavior (Ajzen & Madden, 1986). Quality and strength of intentions are important as well as people's perceptions of their ability to perform better in influencing behavior.

Describe at least three reasons why people exercise?

Exercise combined with proper eating habits can help people lose weight. Weight loss should be slow and steady. Both the physiological and psychological benefits of exercise can be cited to persuade sedentary people to initiate exercise. Maintenance and initiation of physical activity are critical.

Describe at least three reasons why people don't exercise?

Exercise professionals should highlight the benefits of exercise and provide a supportive environment to involve sedentary people in physical activity. People often cite time constraints for not exercising, but such constraints are more perceived than real and often reveal a person's priorities. People of different ages or sexes often cite different reasons for not exercising.

Name the two main feedback categories? Can you define each of them, and give an example?

Faded Feedback - Giving the learner feedback high frequencies in early practice, then gradually reducing the feedback to prevent the learner from becoming dependent. For example a tennis serve utilising a large range of cues then slowly eliminating cues and allowing the learner to remember them. Summary feedback is information about the effectiveness of performance on a series of trials that is presented only after the series has been completed. There is an optimal number of trials to include in summary feedback reports, with either too few or too many trials decreasing learning. For a long jumper's last five jumps, summary feedback might be that his plant foot landed beyond the takeoff board on his first, third, fourth, and fifth jumps and on the takeoff board during his second jump

Three intrinsic approaches for increasing exercise adherence?

Focus on the experience itself. Take a process orientation. Engage in purposeful and meaningful physical activity.

Two cognitive-behavioural approaches for increasing exercise adherence?

Goal setting should be used to motivate individuals. Exercise-related goals should be self-set rather than instructor-set, flexible rather than fixed, and time-based rather than distance-based. Cognitive techniques: Dissociative strategies emphasize external distractions and the environment and produce significantly higher levels of exercise adherence than associative strategies focusing on internal body feedback.

Are physical guidance techniques effective? What happens after the guidance is removed?

Guidance plays a important role in frightful or dangerous situations. But physical guidance has shown to be errorfull in skill retention.

Differentiate between individual barriers and environmental barriers?

Health issues: Physical limitations, injury, poor health, pain and soreness, psychological problems Inconvenience: Lack of access to facilities, crowded facilities, lacking transportation, other commitments Lack of motivation and energy: Feeling lazy or unmotivated, too much effort Lack of social support: No exercise partner, lacking support from spouse Lack of time and money

Describe the two main premises underlying effective reinforcement?

If doing something results in a good consequence (such as being rewarded), people tend to repeat the behavior to achieve additional positive reinforcement. If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence (such as being punished), people tend not to repeat the behavior to avoid more negative consequences.

Do different reinforcement strategies affect people in the same way?

If doing something results in a good consequence (such as being rewarded), people tend to repeat the behavior to achieve additional positive reinforcement. If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence (such as being punished), people tend not to repeat the behavior to avoid more negative consequences.

How much feedback is too much feedback? What limitations do you need to consider?

In general, too much information is not useful. A good rule is to decide what error is most fundamental and focus the feedback on that. In, general too much information is generally not useful. Information-processing and memory capabilities of the learner particularly a child are limited. Youthful learners can take in and retain very much information during multiple feedback presentations. With doubts that the learner can be effective in correcting then next action in more then one way.

A decision-making approach for increasing exercise adherence?

Involve exercisers in decisions regarding program structure. Develop balance sheets. Completing a decision balance sheet to increase awareness of the costs and benefits of participating in an exercise program can enhance exercise adherence.

Define knowledge of results?

Knowledge of results (KR) is augmented verbal (or verbalizable) information fed back to the learner about the success of an action with respect to the environmental goal.

How important is feedback? Consider this in the context of 'knowledge of results'. Is it important? Is it essential?

Knowledge of results (KR) is augmented verbal (or verbalizable) information fed back to the learner about the success of an action with respect to the environmental goal. Produces motivation, or energizes the learner to increase effort Provides information about errors as a basis for corrections Directs the learner's attention toward the movement or the movement goal Creates a dependency, leading to problems at feedback withdrawal The effects of feedback as a motivating tool are primarily indirect in their influence (e.g., KR encourages the learner to keep practicing, and the results of this additional practice are what influences learning). KR directs the learner to think about externally directed information. The information content of KP directs the learner's attention to process movement-related information, an internally focused process. Researchers have studied ways of scheduling the provision of feedback so the most useful information content can be delivered without detrimental effects.

Do people request feedback more often after a poor performance or a better performance? Why?

Learner Determined Feedback - Learners seemed to request feedback more in trials they performed better in. Results in stronger retention of performance, such as using KR for their strongest skills rather then weakest.

Describe five or more factors that disrupt flow?

Nonoptimal physical preparation and readiness Injury Fatigue Not feeling good physically Nonoptimal environmental or situational conditions External stresses Unwanted crowd response Uncontrollable influences of the event Lack of confidence or a negative mental state Negative thinking Self-doubt No control of mental state Inappropriate focus Thinking too much Worrying about what others are doing Frustration with teammates' effort Problem with precompetitive preparation Poor precompetitive preparation Distraction before competition Interruption to precompetitive preparation

Is video replay a helpful feedback tool? What are the pros and cons?

Not always useful for learning provides too much information, making learners confused about what to take away. Cuing can be utilised to direct the learner to particular features of movement as feedback, becoming effective for learning

Describe three or four statistics relating to exercise adherence and attrition?

Of sedentary adults, only 10% are likely to begin a program of regular exercise within a year. Of people who start an exercise program, 50% will drop out within 6 months. Among both boys and girls, physical activity declines steadily through adolescence from about 70% at age 12 to 30% to 40% by age 21. In England, only approximately 32% of boys and 24% of girls aged 2 to 15 achieved the recommended levels of physical activity.

What does exercise adherence matter?

Only 10% to 25% of American adults are active enough to maintain or increase cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness levels. 66% of Americans were overweight or obese in 2005. In 2013, two-thirds of all U.S. adults were overweight and one-third were obese. In 1990, no state had an obesity rate of greater than 19%. By 2010, no state had an obesity rate of less than 20%. From 2000 to 2005, obesity increased by 24% and the percentage of superobese increased by 75%. The propensity to be overweight increases with age: 44% of people aged 18 to 29 and 77% of people aged 46 to 64 were overweight in 2005. Among youths from 12 to 21 years of age, 50% do not participate regularly in physical activity. Among adults, only 10% to 15% participate in vigorous exercise regularly (three times a week for at least 20 minutes). Of sedentary adults, only 10% are likely to begin a program of regular exercise within a year. Of people who start an exercise program, 50% will drop out within 6 months. Among both boys and girls, physical activity declines steadily through adolescence from about 70% at age 12 to 30% to 40% by age 21. In England, only approximately 32% of boys and 24% of girls aged 2 to 15 achieved the recommended levels of physical activity.

Describe self-determination theory?

People are inherently motivated to feel connected to others within a social milieu (relatedness), to function effectively in that milieu (effectance), and to feel a sense of personal initiative in doing so (autonomy). Self-determination theory was able to predict adherence in overweight and obese participants (Edmunds, Ntoumanis, & Duda, 2007).

Why is reinforcement complex?

People react differently to the same reinforcement. People are unable to repeat desirable behaviors. People receive different reinforcers in different situations.

Name the 'big three' reasons people give for inactivity?

Perceived lack of time Lack of energy Lack of motivation

Is physical guidance a good strategy? What are the pros and cons?

Physical guidance acts very powerfully to reduce errors, sometimes preventing them completely. This is fine as long as guidance is present, but learners can sometimes grow dependent on guidance allowing performance to deteriorate, when guidance is removed.

Is the positive approach or negative approach to teaching and coaching more effective? What about a mix of the two?

Positive approach focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior, which increases the likelihood of desirable responses occurring in the future. Negative approach focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors, which should lead to future redirection of these inappropriate behaviors. Most coaches and instructors combine positive and negative approaches. Sport psychologists agree that the predominant approach with physical activity and sport participants should be positive because the negative approach often instills fear in participants.

List and briefly discuss four properties of augmented feedback?

Produces motivation, or energizes the learner to increase effort Provides information about errors as a basis for corrections Directs the learner's attention toward the movement or the movement goal Creates a dependency, leading to problems at feedback withdrawal

List the four interdependent ways augmented feedback operates in real-world settings?

Produces motivation, or energizes the learner to increase effort Provides information about errors as a basis for corrections Directs the learner's attention toward the movement or the movement goal Creates a dependency, leading to problems at feedback withdrawal

According to Weinberg and Gould, what are the two main functions of feedback?

Provide knowledge of results (feedback regarding the correctness of an action). Provide sincere and contingent feedback. Provide motivational and instructional feedback. Use varied types of feedback—verbal praise, facial expressions, and pats on the back.

Is punishment effective? What are some guidelines for how to use it 'effectively'?

Punishment can control and change behavior, but 80% to 90% of reinforcement should be positive. Be consistent by giving everyone the same type of punishment for breaking similar rules. Punish the behavior, not the person—convey to the person that it's his or her behavior that needs to change. Allow athlete's input in making up punishments for breaking rules. Do not punish athletes for making errors while playing. Do not embarrass individuals in front of teammates or classmates. Use punishment sparingly, but enforce it when you use it. Do not punish other teammates for an individual's mistake. Make sure punishment is age appropriate. Make certain athletes understand the reason for the punishment.

What are four different behaviours/outcomes you can focus on rewarding?

Reward appropriate behaviors—choose the proper behaviors to reward. Shape or reinforce successful approximations of difficult behaviors. Reward performance as well as outcome. Reward effort. Reward emotional and social skill.

Explain some differences and similarities between knowledge of results and kinematic feedback?

Similarities involve verbal, augmented and after movement KP doesn't talk about the movements success in relation to the environmental goals which KR does.

Define successive approximations, and shaping? And give an example?

Successive approximations are steps toward the target behavior, the behavior you want to shape Rewarding of small improvements as the skill is learned, this is called shaping and allows people to improve as they get closer to the desired response. Example players learning overhand volleyball serve, you might first reward the proper toss, then the proper motion then good contact and finally the execution that puts all the parts together successfully.

Define summary feedback? List some reasons for why it is effective/ineffective? And how many trials should you summarise?

Summary feedback is information about the effectiveness of performance on a series of trials that is presented only after the series has been completed. There is an optimal number of trials to include in summary feedback reports, with either too few or too many trials decreasing learning.

List three reasons why summary feedback might work?

Summary feedback might prevent the dependency-producing effects of frequent feedback. Summary feedback might produce more stable movements. Summary feedback appears to encourage learners to analyze their inherent movement-produced feedback to learn to detect their own errors.

Discuss positive and negative factors associated with exercise participation that are demographic in nature? Other positive and negative factors - such as cognitive and personality variables? Specific behaviours? Factors relating to the social environment? The physical environment? Characteristics of the physical activity itself?

Table 18.2

Should your feedback focus on the product of movement, or the movement itself?

The movement itself, a skilled instructor can know the proper patterns of action for which feedback should be provided. A machine can provide jelly beans to successful performances.

How would you use feedback with a total beginner compared to with someone playing that sport for 10 years?

Utilise more precise feedback with someone who has been playing sport for 10 years whilst utilising more broad feedback with a beginner as they are still learning the movement controls.

How important is enjoyment when it comes to exercise adherence and maintenance?

Weight control (counter obesity epidemic) Reduced risk of cardiovascular disease Reduction in stress and depression Enjoyment Building self-esteem Socializing