week 3

UN General Assembly

a body composed of representatives of all states that allocates UN funds, passes nonbinding resolutions, and coordinates third world development programs and various autonomous agencies through the Economic and Social Council

European Commission

role is to propose problems and provide solution, people who are working for the interest of the European Union as a whole, leaders are appointment by the states but are made to represent the eu, identifies problems for the eu and proposes solution to the council of the European union

International organizations (IOs)

,Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) such as the UN and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)-when shared norms and habits may not suffice to solve international dilemmas and achieve mutual cooperation, institutions play a key role. They are concrete, tangible structures with specific functions and missions. These institutions have proliferated rapidly in recent decades and continue to play an increasingly important role in international affairs.-include intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), such as the UN, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).-Liberals point out that, contrary to what realists or constructivists maintain, it is the codification of international norms in institutions that gives norms their power, these institutions create incentives to reciprocate behavior encouraged by a norm-Some IGOs are global in scope; others are regional or just bilateral (having only two states as members). Some are general in their purposes; others have specific functional purposes. Overall, the success of these IGOs has been mixed; the regional ones have had more success than the global ones, and those with specific functional or technical purposes have worked better than those with broad purposes (see Chapter 10). IGOs hold together because they promote the national interests (or enhance the leverage) of their member states—not because of vague ideals., Among regional IGOs, the European Union (EU) encompasses some of the most important organizations,Global IGOs (aside from the UN) usually have functional purposes involving coordinating actions of some set of states around the world, NGOs tend to be more specialized in function than IGOs, Many NGOs have economic or business-related functions. The International Air Transport Association coordinates the work of airline companies. Other NGOs have global political purposes—for example, Amnesty International for human rights and Planned Parenthood for reproductive rights and family planning. Still others have cultural purposes—for example, the International Olympic Committee.-Religious groups are among the largest NGOs—their memberships often span many countries.-Today, many NGOs desire access to IGOs to help shape rules and norms. NGOs with broad purposes and geographical scope often maintain observer status in the UN so that they can participate in UN meetings about issues of concern. For example, Greenpeace attends UN meetings about the global environment, meetings such as the annual conference of parties for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are attended by nearly all states, dozens of other IGOs, hundreds of NGOs, and thousands of citizens, all in an effort to shape solutions to global warming-A web of international organizations of various sizes and types now connects people in all countries.

7.2.3 Observing and Peacekeeping

,Peacekeepers actually perform two different functions: observing and peacekeeping. Observers are unarmed military officers sent to a conflict area in small numbers simply to watch what happens and report back to the UN. With the UN watching, the parties to a conflict are often less likely to break a cease-fire. Observers can monitor various aspects of a country's situation—cease-fires, elections, respect for human rights, and other areas, The function of peacekeeping is carried out by lightly armed soldiers (in armored vehicles with automatic rifles but without artillery, tanks, and other heavy weapons).They can interpose themselves physically between warring parties to keep them apart (more accurately, to make them attack the UN forces in order to get to their enemy). UN peacekeepers often try to negotiate with military officers on both sides, tactical actions and understandings that support a cease-fire.-Peacekeeping is much more difficult if one side sees the UN forces as being biased toward the other side. Israel feels this way about UN forces in southern Lebanon, for example, In general, when cease-fires break down, UN troops get caught in the middle.-Many countries contribute their national military forces to UN peacekeeping missions.,easons for troop contributions to UN peacekeeping vary. Some states feel that, by contributing to a common good, they are advancing the interest of peace while simultaneously projecting the image of a strong military power. In this way, states may serve to increase their soft power. Alternatively, some states find contributing to these missions financially beneficial because peacekeeping forces are paid by UN contributions. In a few countries such as Nepal and Sierra Leone, sending military forces out of the country for peacekeeping is useful for domestic political stability after a civil war., In some conflicts, peacekeepers organized outside the UN framework have been used instead of UN-commanded forces.-Peacekeepers from regional organizations have also been deployed to monitor and enforce cease-fire agreements and transitions after civil war., Peacekeeping forces have generally been unable to make peace, only to keep it, Thus, peacekeepers are usually not sent until a cease-fire has been arranged, has taken effect, and has held up for some time.-To address this problem, the Secretary General in 1992 proposed the creation of UN peacemaking(or peace enforcement) units that would not only monitor a cease-fire but also enforce it if it broke down, Not only did the member states refuse the request for soldiers, they criticized the idea of peacemaking altogether. Since then, the UN has authorized member states to provide real military forces, not peacekeepers, when fighting may be required, Generally speaking, the permanent members of the Security Council have not contributed extensive numbers of peacekeeping troops, but rather have been asked to pay for the missions

Studying IOs...What Keeps IR Scholars Up at Night?

-Enlargement and disintegration Why/when do countries join or leave IOs? ~European Union, 1973 - 2014; Brexit ;TPP; WTO What effects does enlargement have on IO policymaking? ~Increases collective action problems ~Enforcement and monitoring more important/difficult -Compliance When do states fulfill their obligations under international agreements? When (and why) do they cheat? Do IOs "screen" or "constrain"? Ex: Human rights treaties, trade agreements -Who "controls" decision-making within IOs? Powerful states (US, others) IO bureaucrats Ex: the International Monetary Fund Domestic politics and IOs Domestic interests and IO policymaking Ex: WTO disputes, IMF bailouts Current threats to IOs / cooperation Is it time to panic (yet)? Is the "liberal world order" collapsing?

10.3.9 Immigration, Brexit, and the Future of the European Union

-European political crises began to take their toll on support for the EU over the past decade. After the 2008-2009 Great Recession and the fallout from the Greek debt crisis, Europe was hit with a migration crisis in 2015., e EU responded by approving a plan to resettle many of the refugees, despite objections from the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania. This plan strained relations between Germany and newer Eastern European members. The EU agreed to pay Turkey to take back refugees who had arrived in Greece after March 2016., Many EU members and human rights organizations criticized the deal. Largely due to economic and political concerns, EU members did not wish to resettle Syrian refugees in their own countries. Several member states were still struggling with unemployment after the Great Recession and the Greek debt crisis., These same anti-EU sentiments in Great Britain reached a fevered pitch in June 2015, with the British prime minister scheduling a vote on the future of British membership in the EU in one year. The election about British exit ("Brexit") from the EU was expected to be close, but most observers predicted the forces of supranationalism would prevail. After all, despite membership in the EU, Great Britain had maintained autonomy in important areas such as finance (the British did not use the euro) and foreign policy. Yet, in June 2016, British citizens voted by a slim margin (51.9 percent in favor) for leaving the EU.-Negotiations over Brexit will need to cover many issues. Britain must pay a fee to leave the EU—an amount that must be negotiated between Britain and the remaining EU members. The status of EU citizens in Britain and British citizens living in Europe needs to be clarified. Crossing the border between Ireland and Great Britain will need new rules since Ireland plans to remain in the EU.-While many in the EU would love to punish the British for leaving—charging a large leaving fee, raising tariffs, and the like—Great Britain remains a major trading partner of many EU states and is a member of NATO.-NATO membership overlaps partly with the EU. Russia and even the United States are European actors in some respects but not others. One truly universal IGO exists in Europe—the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE). Operating by consensus, with a large and universal membership of 56 states, the OSCE has little power except to act as a forum for discussions of security issues.-international integration is not a matter of a single group or organization but more a mosaic of structures tying states together, But a less-tangible aspect of integration is the sense of identity that develops over time as economic (and other functional) ties bring people closer together across borders. Supranational identity, culture, and communication are also aspects of international integration.

So, Why Brexit in 2016?

-Rise of UK Independence Party (UKIP): Won 2014 European Parliament election - a threat to a EU is the nationalist EU parties are getting more power and they oppose eu which means that there is more time spent on there issues which is that they don't like eu -legit a anti-eu party -David Cameron's miscalculation: Win mandate to silence anti-EU right- wing Tories & renegotiate terms of EU membership from strength -Rising immigration -The wages of austerity- Greece economy really bad and this was trying to bail them out, which had to make short term cuts, and now resentment Stagnation & rising in equality- Large cuts to government service ~divided after the referendum and only some want to leave, division between ages

Free Trade Area

A zone in which there are no tariffs or other restrictions on the movement of goods and services across borders-meant lifting tariffs and restrictions on the movement of goods across (EEC) borders, as was done shortly after 1957. Today the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is an extended free trade area associated with the European Union; its members are Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland.

10.2 Integration Theory

-The theory of international integration attempts to explain why states choose supranationalism, which challenges once again the foundations of realism (state sovereignty and territorial integrity).-the process of integration has never gone beyond a partial and uneasy sharing of power between state and supranational levels. States have been unwilling to give up their exclusive claim to sovereignty and have limited the power and authority of supranational institutions., UN, represents only a step in the direction of international integration.-The most successful example of the process of integration by far—though even that success is only partial—is the European Union., Until 70 years ago, the European continent was the embodiment of national sovereignty, state rivalry, and war. For-That Western European states began forming supranational institutions and creating an economic community to promote free trade and coordinate economic policies caught the attention of international relations (IR) scholars, who used the term integration to describe what they observed.Seemingly, integration challenged the realist assumption that states were strictly autonomous and would never yield power or sovereignty. These scholars proposed that European moves toward integration could be explained by functionalism—growth of specialized technical organizations that cross national borders. According to functionalists, technological and economic development lead to more and more supranational structures as states seek practical means to fulfill necessary functions such as delivering mail from one country to another-The new wave of integration in Europe and elsewhere has encountered limits and setbacks. Integration reduces states' ability to shield themselves and their citizens from the world's many problems and conflicts, Integration can mean greater centralization at a time when individuals, local groups, and national populations demand more say over their own affairs. The centralization of political authority, information, and culture as a result of integration can threaten both individual and group freedom. Ethnic groups want to safeguard their own cultures, languages, and institutions against the bland homogeneity that a global or regional melting pot would create. As a result, a growing number of states and their citizens, in Europe and elsewhere, have responded to the new wave of integration with resurgent nationalism. Indeed, these forces have set in motion a wave of disintegration of states running counter to (though simultaneous with) the integrating tendencies in today's world-The forces of disintegration or separation are not limited to the developing world. The rise of economic nationalism was clear in Great Britain in its vote in 2016 to leave the EU. In the United States, President Donald Trump campaigned on a platform of "America first"—a message of national pride and antiglobalization., Throughout the successful and unsuccessful efforts at integration runs a common thread—the tension between nationalism and supranational loyalties (regionalism or globalism). In the less successful integration attempts, nationalism stands nearly unchallenged, and even in the most successful cases, nationalism remains a potent force locked in continual struggle with supranationalism. This struggle is a central theme even in the most successful case of integration—the European Union.

UN Peacekeeping Operations (PKO)

-Where in the UN Charter?? - "Chapter six and a half..." - Chapter 6: Pacific Settlement of Disputes - Chapter 7: Action with respect to breaches of peace/aggression UN has no permanent military force - Forces are borrowed from member nations • Currently :- Nearly 90,000 personnel in 14 operations - Nearly $7 billion ~ where is the UN Charter? UN authorizes force it doesn't have an arms so needs to get it, peacekeeping sess + blue helmet come in - keep from not peacekeepers never leave almost every case with major conflict in past 70 years still there relevant to go in bc stay for so long and lots of money goes in it for troops ~middle democracy can help deter do by offering military so a well trained military is not hanging out in the capital

The European Union

-started as 6 now 28 -largest economy in the world -our economy has becoming more enormously successful -> big picture, long term past 10 years current news not mess a) Europe, 1945: Lorient, France: economic devastated after WWI as was Germany - V two great powers of Europe completely destroyed after fighting 3 wars in past 75 years- how the heck to stop b) schuman declaration: he proposes what becomes EU, as a person illustrates what was the prob we is born in a place where his livid experience shows fight over terrority - damage of conflict, short version, and not gonna like each other, it wont change, we need to make war not feasible, we need to make economically impossible ~this low-key gets ride of sovereignty ~ international orgazanvtion of coal and steel french in charge happen in 1951 c)treaty of Paris: 6 countries, only industrialized and rearm together, the uk wasn't there and British didn't want to join d) treaty of Rome: 1950s, it creates the European economic community or com

Peacekeeping Problems

Lack of ability to keep peace [Bosnia, Sierra Leone, Rwanda] Mission creep [Somalia] Lack of funding [all!] Assault/human rights violations [Congo, Kosovo] -> troops get involved and bad for reputation to try to resolve conflict if they get it themselves

supranational

Larger institutions and groupings such as the European Union to which state authority or national identity is subordinated.

treaty of Rome

1950s, it creates the European economic community or com

Lisbon Treaty

A European Union agreement that replaces a failed attempt at an EU constitution with a similar set of reforms strengthening central EU authority and modifying voting procedures among the EU's expanded membership-To grapple with the implications of an expanding EU, the 25 leaders signed an EU constitution in late 2004, and the European Parliament gave it a strong vote of support in 2005. To take effect, it had to be ratified by all 25 states, including several requiring referenda. The constitution would establish a stronger president of the EU, as well as a foreign minister, and would replace the requirement for consensus in EU decision making with majority voting in more cases. It also guaranteed fundamental rights to all EU citizens. But voters in France and the Netherlands rejected the constitution and the process halted. At the end of 2007, the EU moved forward with another new proposed constitution, the Lisbon Treaty. The Treaty was similar to the previous constitution but faced a popular referendum only in Ireland,came into force in 2009.-The Treaty created numerous changes in both the structure and the day-to-day operations of the EU. Some of those changes promote more supranational decision making. For example, a charter of human rights was made legally binding on all member states. A new position called the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy was created to better coordinate foreign policy among member states.-some changes allow state members and individual citizens to place more checks on EU power., Treaty also attempts to increase transparency by requiring European Council meetings to be held in public. And in an attempt to engage EU citizens directly, the Commission must now take up any proposal or petition that receives 1 million signatures.

European Commission

A European Union body whose members, while appointed by states, are supposed to represent EU interests. Supported by a multinational civil service in Brussels, the commission's role is to identify problems and propose solutions to the Council of Ministers-The Commission has 28 individual members—one from each member state—who are chosen for four-year renewable terms. Their role is to identify problems and propose solutions to the Council of the European Union. They select one of their members as the Commission president. These individuals are supposed to represent the interests of Europe as a whole (supranational interests), not of their own states, but this goal has been met only imperfectly.

Council of the European Union

A European Union institution in which the relevant ministers (foreign, economic, agriculture, finance, etc.) of each member state meet to enact legislation and reconcile national interests. Formerly known as the Council of Ministers. When the meeting takes place among the state leaders, it is called the "European Council."-The European Commission lacks formal autonomous power except for day-to-day EU operations. Formally, the Commission reports to, and implements policies of, the Council of the European Union (formerly named the Council of Ministers). The Council is a meeting of the relevant ministers (foreign, economic, agriculture, finance, etc.) of each member state—politicians who control the bureaucrats (or who try to)-nearly all issues are now decided by qualified majority voting. The Treaty's definition of a qualified majority is that at least 55 percent of EU members, representing 65 percent of EU citizens, must vote in favor to secure passage-In the 1970s, state leaders (prime ministers or presidents) created a special place for themselves in the EC, to oversee the direction of the community; this structure again shows state leaders' resistance to being governed by any supranational body

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

A European Union policy based on the principle that a subsidy extended to farmers in any member country should be extended to farmers in all member countries-One key aspect of a common market was achieved, at least in theory, in the 1960s when the EU (then the EC) adopted a Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). In practice, the CAP has led to recurrent conflicts among member states and tensions between nationalism and regionalism.,The CAP was based on the principle that a subsidy extended to farmers in any member state should be extended to farmers in all EU countries. That way, no member government would be forced to alienate politically powerful farmers by removing subsidies,subsidies to farmers today absorb about 40 percent of the total EU budget,-The next step in the plan for European integration, after a free trade area, customs union, and common market, was an economic and monetary union (EMU), which would coordinate the overall economic policies of the member states for greatest efficiency and stability. In this step, a single currency would replace the separate national currencies-To reduce state leaders' fears of losing sovereignty, the Treaty of Rome provides that changes in its provisions must be approved by all member states-In 1981, Greece was admitted, and in 1986, Portugal and Spain joined. Inclusion of these poorer countries with less industry and lower standards of living created difficulties in effectively integrating Europe's economies (difficulties that persist today)

UN Security Council

A body of five great powers (which can veto resolutions) and ten rotating member states, which makes decisions about international peace and security including the dispatch of UN peacekeeping forces.

The United Nations System

A group of autonomous organizations affiliated with the United Nations. • Founded in 1945 by 51 states

European Court of Justice

A judicial arm of the European Union, based in Luxembourg. The court has actively established its jurisdiction and its right to overrule national law when it conflicts with EU law-in Luxembourg adjudicates disputes on matters covered by the Treaty of Rome—which covers many issues. Unlike the World Court ), the European Court has actively established its jurisdiction and does not serve merely as a mechanism of international mediation. The European Court can overrule national laws that conflict with EU law—giving it unique powers among international courts. In addition, it hears cases brought by individuals, not just governments. In hundreds of cases, the Court has ruled on matters ranging from discrimination in the workplace to the pensions of Commission staff members.

Neofunctionalism

A theory that holds that economic integration (functionalism) generates a "spillover" effect, resulting in increased political integration-is a modification of functional theory by IR scholars to explain these developments. Neofunctionalists argue that economic integration (functionalism) generates a political dynamic that drives integration further. Closer economic ties require more political coordination in order to operate effectively and eventually lead to political integration as well—a process called spillover.

World Health Organization (WHO)

An organization based in Geneva that provides technical assistance to improve health conditions in the third world and conducts major immunization campaigns

10.1 Globalization and Integration

Common to most discussions of globalization is a sense that there are forces in the world bringing us all closer together., trade agreements., This chapter discusses the sources of this "coming together." First, we will discuss state decisions to cooperate in order to create international organizations that are supranational—they subsume a number of states and their functions within a larger whole, On a regional level, the European Union (EU) is a somewhat more supranational entity than the UN; other regional organizations have tried to follow Europe's path as well, but with only limited success.-These intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) all contain a struggle between the contradictory forces of nationalism and supranationalism—between state sovereignty and the higher authority of supranational structures, Great Britain's decision in 2016 to leave the EU., The other source of "coming together" we examine is technological change, specifically the revolution in information technologies such as the Internet., operate globally and regionally across state boundaries without formal political structures-Whether the sources of integration are from states or nonstate actors, the process of integration always involves transnational actors or issues. Transnational actors (for example, multinational corporations [MNCs] and nongovernmental organizations [NGOs]) bridge national borders, creating new avenues of interdependence among states. Transnational issues (for example, global warming or the spread of information technology) are processes that force states to work together because they cannot solve or manage these issues alone. This chapter explores how transnational actors and issues can lead to integration either through the actions of states or through technological change.

10.3.1 The Vision of a United Europe

Europe in 1945 was decimated by war. Most of the next decade was spent recovering with help from the United States through the Marshall Plan. But already, two French leaders, Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman, were developing a plan to implement the idea of functionalism in Europe—that future wars could be prevented by creating economic linkages that would eventually bind states together politically.-n 1950, Schuman as French foreign minister proposed a first modest step—the merger of the French and German steel (iron) and coal industries into a single framework that could use the two states' coal resources and steel mills most efficiently. Coal and steel were key to European recovery and growth.-If coal and steel sound like fairly boring topics, that was exactly the idea of functionalists

Institutions of the EU: European Court of Justice (ECJ)

HQ in Luxembourg Active jurisdiction over all EU members Can strike down domestic laws of EU members One judge from every member state Key: "supremacy" (EU law superior to national law)

7.2.7 Autonomous Agencies

In addition to its own programs, the UN General Assembly maintains formal ties with about 20 autonomous international agencies not under its control. Most are specialized technical organizations through which states pool their efforts to address problems such as health care and labor conditions.-The only such agency in international security affairs is the International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA), headquartered in Vienna, Austria-The longest-established IOs, with some of the most successful records, are specialized agencies dealing with technical aspects of international coordination such as aviation and postal exchange.-The major coordinating agencies of the world economy are also UN-affiliated agencies, although they operate as essentially stand-alone IGOs-Overall, the density of connections across national borders, both in the UN system and through other IOs, is increasing year by year. In a less tangible way, people are also becoming connected across international borders through the meshing of ideas, including norms and rules. And gradually the rules are becoming international laws.

UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

Many poor countries depend on export revenues to finance economic development, making them vulnerable to fluctuations in commodity prices and other international trade problems-A structure established in 1964 to promote third world development through various trade proposals-negotiates international trade agreements to stabilize commodity prices and promote development. Because countries of the global South do not have much power in the international economy, however, UNCTAD has little leverage to promote their interests in trade. The World Trade Organization (WTO) has thus become the main organization dealing with trade issues

Institutions of the EU: European Central Bank

Mario Draghi, President, 2011-19 Christine Lagarde, 2019-26 Economic and Monetary Union (EMU, the "Eurozone"): 19 of 28 EU states that have adopted the euro as their single currency ECB sets monetary policy (interest rates) and regulates banks in the eurozone

UN Security Council (UNSC)

Most powerful part of the UN: its enforcement wing Passes resolutions for the use of force; sanctions; investigations Key feature: 5 permanent veto members (P5):- China, US, Russia, UK, France- Why? Ten other rotating members - who are they?- out of rotation some get picked more a) realist and crudest part of the UN- why give 5 veto? great power in success if un can't do stuff without these 5 countries on boards < league of nations didn't work with the u.s > keep small so action is able to happen b) rotation of the UNSC-regional hegemony are most frequently considered, domestic and international politics, multiple sets of actors-security general this sucks un needs to do something c) 10 staff and bureaucrats- career interest, rent seeking -eant to make a fiifernce countries around the table nor-permant usually take position of this sucks and they need to put $ and troops -> easier to do bc it usually isn't there money domestic - each of the 5 thunk of the issues on terms for their own geopolitical and personal goals -> France usually supports there formers colonies -> to get something done all have to agree bc 5 can veto

Supranationalism

One over arching power group takes more importance of apply the then nation. The EU's authority of law in the ECJ trumps the law of the individual nations, national identity is subordinate to the larger instittion in this case the eu

7.2.3 Peacekeeping Forces

Peacekeeping forces are not mentioned in the UN Charter-The UN Charter requires member states to place military forces at the disposal of the UN, but such forces were envisioned as being used in response to aggression (under collective security). In practice, when the UN has authorized force to reverse aggression—as in the Gulf War in 1990—the forces involved have been national forces not under UN command.-The UN's own forces—borrowed from armies of member states but under the flag and command of the UN—have been peacekeeping forces to calm regional conflicts, playing a neutral role between warring forces

International Institutions

Recall our discussion of liberal institutionalism... "Institutions": international structures that guide relations between states - May be formal IOs, but also includes treaties, informal institutions, etc. International institutions facilitate cooperation by addressing the problems of collective action we've discussed thus fa

How Do International Institutions Affect Cooperation?

Reducing "transactions costs" of cooperation Facilitate negotiations and group decision-making Facilitating side payments and issue linkage Gathering and sharing information Setting standards of behavior • Formal rules and informal "norms"Monitoring and enforcement • Verifying compliance, punishing "cheating" Resolving disputes • Courts, arbitration procedures, third-party intervention a) many IGOs

General Assembly

The "Parliament of Man" or "World Assembly" 193 Members Meets September to January All states have a seat and a voice! ("one state, one vote") But...a "talking shop" - Resolutions are non-binding - Cannot force members or UN staff to do much of anything Three main powers: - Accredit national delegations • Ex. The Koreas in 1991- Control finances - Administrative oversight Appoints SG on recommendation of Security Council

10.3.7 Expanding the European Union

The EU has expanded from 15 members to 28 since 2004, with potentially far-reaching changes in how the EU operates.-The European Commission expanded to 25 members, without the five largest having two seats, and with new voting rules that moved away from a requirement for consensus.-Turkey continues to seek membership, although Turkey's president said in 2018 it would not "beg" for membership., Supporters also argue that Turkey as an EU member would serve as a bridge between Europe and the important but unstable Middle East region and as an example of secular democracy to other Middle Eastern countries. -Opponents note that Turkey would be the only Muslim country in the EU yet would become the second most populous EU member after Germany.-As the new members joined the EU since 2004, the ability of the EU to reach decisions by consensus became more complicated, Recall that collective goods are generally harder to provide in larger groups, where free riding is less obvious, than in smaller ones. Furthermore, by Western European standards, the new members are relatively poor. Existing EU members were wary of being dragged down by these economies, most of which are still embroiled in the painful transition from socialism to capitalism and sometimes lack stable currencies.-Perhaps as a result of these pressures, the EU in the last decade has shown signs of dividing into "inner" and "outer" layers—with states such as France and Germany joining a currency union and deepening their integration, and those such as Britain and perhaps the new members operating at the edges of the EU with more autonomy. Still, in some areas, there have been strides toward integration. Since 1995, the EU has established and expanded the Schengen Area, a zone in which border controls have been abolished. Goods and people move freely within the zone without stopping at borders.

European Union (EU)

The European community, from 15 has 28 member states, and is communicating to try to get more, enomposly successful organization, multi-level governance - EU has a set of and think about Established after world war 2, main founders france and Germany which was significant because they hadn't gotten along, was created to make cohesion within europe, most successful IGO The idea of super nationalism - governments that super seeds national

7.2.5 The General Assembly

The General Assembly is made up of all 193 member states of the UN, each with one vote- It usually meets every year, from late September through January, in plenary sessionThe Assembly coordinates UN programs and agencies through the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which has 54 member states elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. ECOSOC manages the overlapping work of a large number of programs and agencies. Its regional commissions look at how UN programs work together in a particular region; its functional commissions deal with global topics such as population growth, narcotics trafficking, human rights, and the status of women; and its expert bodies work on technical subjects that cut across various UN programs in areas such as crime prevention and public finances. Outside ECOSOC, the General Assembly operates many other specialized committees. Standing committees ease the work of the Assembly in issue areas such as decolonization, legal matters, and disarmament

7.2.3 Peacekeeping Missions

The Secretary General assembles a peacekeeping force for each mission, usually from a few states totally uninvolved in the conflict, and puts it under a single commander. The soldiers are commonly called blue helmets. Peacekeeping forces serve at the invitation of a host government and must leave if that government orders them out. Authority for peacekeeping forces is granted by the Security Council, usually for a period of three to six months, which may be renewed—in some cases for decades.-Funds must be voted on by the General Assembly, and lack of funds is today the single greatest constraint on the use of peacekeeping forces. Special assessments against member states pay for peacekeeping operations.

7.2.4 The Secretariat

The Secretary General of the UN is the closest thing to a "president of the world" that exists. But the Secretary General represents member states, Where the great powers do not have consensus, it is hard for the Secretary General to make anything happen., -is nominated by the Security Council—requiring the consent of all five permanent members—and must be approved by the General Assembly, term of office is five years and may be renewed,have come from various regions of the world but never from a great power.-The Secretariat of the UN is its executive branch, headed by the Secretary General. It is a bureaucracy for administering UN policy and programs, just as the State Department is a bureaucracy for U.S. foreign policy. In security matters, the Secretary General personally works with the Security Council. The Secretariat is divided into functional areas, with undersecretaries general and assistant secretaries general.-The UN staff in these areas includes administrative personnel as well as technical experts and economic advisers working on various programs and projects.-One purpose of the UN Secretariat is to develop an international civil service of diplomats and bureaucrats whose loyalties lie at the global level, not with their states of origin, The UN has been fairly successful in this regard; the Secretary General is most often seen as an independent diplomat thinking about the whole world's interests, not acting as a pawn of any state.-The Secretary General is more than a bureaucratic manager. He (it has not yet been a she) is a visible public figure whose personal attention to a regional conflict can move it toward resolution.The UN Charter allows the Secretary General to use the UN's good offices to serve as a neutral mediator in international conflicts—to bring hostile parties together in negotiations. The Secretary General also works to bring together the great power consensus on which Security Council action depends., Thus the Secretary General remains, like the entire UN system, constrained by state sovereignty..

7.2.2 The Security Council

The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security and for restoring peace when it breaks down. Its decisions are binding on all UN member states, define the existence and nature of a security threat, to structure the response to such a threat, and to enforce its decisions through mandatory directives to UN members (such as to halt trade with an aggressor).-The five permanent members of the Council—the United States, Britain, France, Russia, and China—are the most important. What they can agree on, generally the world must go along with. Issues on which they disagree can quickly become contentious.-Security Council resolutions require nine votes from among the 15 members. But a no vote by any permanent member defeats the resolution—the veto power. Many resolutions have been vetoed by the permanent members, and many more have never been proposed because they would have faced certain veto-The Security Council's ten nonpermanent members rotate onto the Council for two-year terms. Nonpermanent members are elected (five each year) by the General Assembly from a list prepared by informal regional caucuses. Usually there is a mix of regions and country sizes, though not by any strict formula. Often, countries lobby vigorously for a seat on the Council, producing books, advertisements, and memos to gain votes from other members of the regional caucuses.-shows the recent rotations of members onto the Security Council. The system of nomination by regional caucuses has worked to keep the regional balance on the Council fairly constant as individual states come and go. Major regional actors tend to rotate onto the Council more often than do less important states.-Members can abstain on resolutions, an option that some permanent members use to register misgivings about a resolution without vetoing, The Security Council meets irregularly (in the New York City UN headquarters) upon request of a UN member—often a state with a grievance regarding another state's actions.-The Security Council's power is limited in two major ways; both reflect the strength of state sovereignty in the international system. First, the Council's decisions depend entirely on the interests of its member states (see Figure 7.3). The ambassadors who represent those states cannot change a Security Council resolution without authorization from their governments. Second, although Security Council resolutions in theory bind all UN members, member states in practice often try to evade or soften their effect. For instance, trade sanctions are difficult to enforce. A Security Council resolution can be enforced in practice only if enough powerful states care about it.-Even when the Security Council cannot agree on means of enforcement, its resolutions shape the way disputes are seen and ultimately how they are resolved.

7.2 The United Nations

The UN and other international organizations have both strengths and weaknesses in the anarchic international system. State sovereignty creates a real need for such organizations on a practical level because no central world government performs the function of coordinating the actions of states for mutual benefit. However, state sovereignty also severely limits the power of the UN and other IOs because governments reserve power for themselves and are stingy in delegating it to the UN or anyone else. The UN has had a mixed record due to these strengths and weaknesses—in some ways providing remarkable global-level management and in other ways appearing helpless against the sovereignty of even modest-sized states (not to mention great powers).

History of the UN

The UN was founded in 1945 in San Francisco by 51 states. It was the successor to the League of Nations, which had failed to counter aggression effectively in the 1930s. Like the League, the UN was founded to increase international order and the rule of law to prevent another world war., A certain tension has long existed between the UN and the United States as the world's most powerful state, The UN in some ways constrains the United States by creating the one coalition that can rival U.S. power—that of all the states., The United States is not rich or strong enough to keep order in the world by itself. And, as a great trading nation, the United States benefits from the stability and order that the UN helps create-In the 1950s and 1960s, the UN's membership more than doubled as colonies in Asia and Africa won independence.-The growth in membership thus affected voting patterns in the UN. During the UN's first two decades, the General Assembly had regularly sided with the United States, and the Soviet Union was the main power to use its veto in the Security Council to counterbalance that tendency. But as newly independent states began to predominate, the United States found itself in the minority on many issues,-Throughout the Cold War, the UN had few successes in international security because the U.S.-Soviet conflict prevented consensus. The UN appeared somewhat irrelevant in a world order structured by two opposing alliance blocs.-States in the global South also used the UN as a forum to criticize rich countries in general and the United States in particular., After the Cold War, the great powers could finally agree on measures regarding international security. In this context, the UN moved to center stage in international security affairs-For years, the United States failed to pay its bills, even though a new Secretary General shrank budgets and jobs as the United States had demanded.-Currently, the UN follows a principle of "three pillars"—security, economic development, and human rights—which are considered mutually necessary for any of them to succeed.-Today, the UN is more important than ever, yet it is still in danger of failing. In the coming few years, the UN must continue to grapple with the challenges of its evolving role given the limitations of its budget and the continuing strength of state sovereignty.

UN Secretariat

The UN's executive branch, led by the secretary-general

Treaty of Rome

The founding document of the European Economic Community (EEC) or Common Market, now subsumed by the European Union.-in 1957, the same six states (France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg) created two new organizations. One extended the coal-and-steel idea into a new realm, atomic energy.

UN Charter

The founding document of the United Nations; it is based on the principles that states are equal, have sovereignty over their own affairs, enjoy independence and territorial integrity, and must fulfill international obligations. The Charter also lays out the structure and methods of the UN-

European Union (EU)

The official term for the European Community (formerly the European Economic Community) and associated treaty organizations. The EU has 28 member states and is negotiating with other states that have applied for membership-was created after World War II and has developed since. But whereas the UN structure has changed little since its Charter was adopted, the EU has gone through several waves of expansion in its scope, membership, and mission over the past 60 years.

10.3.3 Structure of the European Union

The structure of the EU reflects its roots in technical and economic cooperation. The coal and steel experts have been joined by experts on trade, agriculture, and finance at the heart of the community. The EU headquarters and staff have the reputation of being colorless bureaucrats—sometimes called Eurocrats—who care more about technical problem solving than about politics-Although the rule of Eurocrats follows the functionalist plan, it has created problems as the EU has progressed. Politicians in member states have qualms about losing power to the Eurocrats.,Citizens can throw their own political leaders out of office in national elections, but the Eurocrats seem less accountable.-

7.2.2 Proposed Changes

The structure of the Security Council is not without problems. Japan and Germany are great powers that contribute substantial UN dues (based on economic size) and make large contributions to UN programs and peacekeeping operations. Yet they have exactly the same formal representation in the UN as tiny states with less than one-hundredth of their populations: one vote in the General Assembly and the chance to rotate onto the Security Council (in practice they rotate onto the Council more often than the tiny states). As global trading powers, Japan and Germany have huge stakes in the ground rules for international security affairs and would like seats at the table., But including Japan and Germany as permanent Security Council members would not be simple

7.2.3 Recent Missions

The two largest peacekeeping missions in 2018 were in the Democratic Congo and in the Darfur region of Sudan. In the Congo mission, over 20,000 peacekeepers monitored a cease-fire and protected civilians after a civil war. In 2012, these UN peacekeepers proved weak when a rebel movement in the unstable east of the country went on the attack, displacing civilians. A decade after the main war ended, such recurrent attacks proved vexing for UN forces. Additional troops were added in 2013-2014 to help confront local rebels.-In 2007, the Security Council approved a nearly 20,000-troop peacekeeping force for the Darfur region in Sudan, after several years of resistance from the Sudanese government. As of 2018, that force still maintains a strength of nearly 16,000 troops and police personnel. The UN troops joined an already deployed (but small) AU contingent. It took several more years for all of the authorized troops to arrive because of numerous objections from Sudan, and attacks on civilians continued despite their presence. In 2012, fighting between government and rebel forces drove 25,000 civilians out of one refugee camp. The Darfur mission is in addition to nearly 18,000 UN troops enforcing a cease-fire between Sudan and newly independent South Sudan, as well as an interim UN security force of nearly 5,000 troops, focused on the disputed town of Abyei on the border between Sudan and South Sudan. The UN's other largest peacekeeping operations were in Mali (trying to maintain stability during a government transition), the Central African Republic (protecting civilians after the end of a civil war), and Lebanon (following the 2006 Israeli-Hezbollah war). The largest recent missions reflect the resurgence of UN peacekeeping after a shakeout in the mid-1990s. In the 1990s, the UN had several spectacular failures in peacekeeping, in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Angola, and Somalia.-But problems with sex-related crimes in UN peacekeeping operations and the importance of women in postwar societies spurred the Security Council to pass Resolution 1325 in 2000 to focus attention on gender issues in UN peacekeeping and reconstruction (see Chapter 3). As UN peacekeeping has become more intensive in recent years, new missions have expanded the range of what are now called broadly peace operations.-

7.2.6 UN Programs

Through the Economic and Social Council, the General Assembly oversees more than a dozen major programs to advance economic development and social stability in poor states of the global South., UN helps manage global North-South relations: It organizes a flow of resources and skills from the richer parts of the world to support development in the poorer parts.-The programs are funded partly by General Assembly allocations and partly by contributions that the programs raise directly from member states, businesses, or private charitable contributors, varies from one program to another., UN program has a staff, a headquarters, and various operations in the field where it works with host governments in member states.-Several of these programs are of growing importance. The UN Environment Program (UNEP) became more prominent in the 1990s as the economic development of the global South and the growing economies of the industrialized world took a toll on the world environment-UNICEF is the UN Children's Fund, which gives technical and financial assistance to poor countries for programs benefiting children, Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is also busy. UNHCR coordinates efforts to protect, assist, and eventually repatriate the many refugees who flee across international borders each year to escape war and political violence, The UN Development Program (UNDP), funded by voluntary contributions, coordinates all UN efforts related to development in poor countries.-UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

UN System

Tradeoff: sovereignty vs. global governance League of Nations v 2.0 - US pushed for creation: a "do over" of the interwar era - Stalin balks: deal over Soviet representation & veto power Budget: about $2 billion (not including peacekeeping operations) Staff: 15k @ HQ; 60k worldwide a) General Assembly: economic and social committee : regional and functional commissions, expert bodies, other committees, Security Council: military staff committee and security council, Secretary General/ Secretariat: UN staff, Word Court, Committees, UN programs, autonomous agencies

Structure of the UN

UN General Assembly, where representatives of all states sit together in a huge room, listen to speeches, and pass resolutions. The General Assembly coordinates a variety of development programs and other autonomous agencies through the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Parallel to the General Assembly isthe UN Security Council, in which five great powers and ten rotating member states make decisions about international peace and security. The Security Council dispatches peacekeeping forces to trouble spots. The administration of the UN takes place through the UN Secretariat-National delegations to the UN, headed by ambassadors from each member state, work and meet together at UN headquarters in New York City. They have diplomatic status in the United States, which as host country also assumes certain other obligations to facilitate the UN's functioning. For example, the U.S. government has permitted people such as Fidel Castro—normally barred from entry to the United States—to visit New York long enough to address the UN. A major strength of the UN structure is the universality of its membership. The UN had 193 members in 2018. Almost every territory in the world is either a UN member or formally a province or colony of a UN member-One way the UN induced all the great powers to join was to reassure them that their participation in the UN would not harm their national interests.-The UN Charter establishes a mechanism for collective security—the banding together of the world's states to stop an aggressor.

7.2.1 The UN System-Purposes of the UN

UN is the closest thing to a world government that has ever existed-its members are sovereign states that have not empowered the UN to enforce its will within states' territories except with the consent of those states' governments.-although the UN strengthens world order, its design acknowledges the realities of international anarchy and the unwillingness of states to surrender their sovereignty.-he basic purpose of the UN is to provide a global institutional structure through which states can sometimes settle conflicts with less reliance on the use of force.- UN Charter-The UN does not exist because it has power to force its will on the world's states; rather, it exists because states have created it to serve their needs. A state's membership in the UN is essentially a form of indirect leverage. States gain leverage by using the UN to seek more beneficial outcomes in conflicts (especially on general multilateral issues for which a global forum brings all parties together). The cost of this leverage is modest: UN dues and the expenses of diplomatic representatives, in addition to the agreement to behave in accordance with the UN Charter (most of the time).-States get several benefits from the UN. Foremost among these is the international stability (especially in security affairs) that the UN tries to safeguard; this allows states to realize gains from trade and other forms of exchange The UN is a symbol of international order and even of global identity. It is also a forum where states promote their views and bring their disputes. And it is a mechanism for conflict resolution in international security affairs.-Despite its heavy tasks, the UN is still a small and fragile institution. Compare, for instance, what states spend on two types of leverage for settling conflicts: military forces and the UN-The UN deals with the issues that are perhaps the most difficult in the world-states turn many of these difficult problems over to the UN and hope it can take care of them.

The UNSC: Cold War vs. Post-Cold War

UNSC has been far more active since the end of the Cold War During the Cold War, US-USSR deadlock prevented many resolutions from passing Post-Cold War: large increase in UN peacekeeping activities hard to get something done because never get an idea russia and the us could agree on ex: Palestine and Israel

Roles of the Secretary-General

UNSG: part CEO, part "world moderator," part issue advocate Can set agenda internationally - often on moral or norm-related issues ("secular pope") Lead international "crisis manager" Far more social power than material power... Selection - Article 97: "...shall be appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council..." - Candidate must receive the votes of at least 9 members of the United Nations Security Council, with no vetoes from permanent members - Needs majority vote of the United Nations General Assembly

Customs Union

a common external tariff adopted by members of a free trade area; that is, participating states adopt a unified set of tariffs with regard to goods coming in from outside-participating states adopt a unified set of tariffs with regard to goods coming in from outside the free trade area. Without unified tariffs, each type of good could be imported into the state with the lowest tariff and then reexported (tariff-free) to the other states in the free trade area; this would be inefficient. The Treaty of Rome committed the six states to creating a customs union by 1969. A customs union creates free and open trade within its member states, bringing great economic benefits. Thus, the customs union remains the heart of the EU and the one aspect widely copied elsewhere in the world.

Council of the European Union:

a country nominates a minster to the council and defend its interests, examine and negotiate legislation, try to align national interest Same thing to try and reconcile national interests

European Parliament

a quasi-legislative body of the European Union that operates as a watchdog over the European Commissions and has legitimate power -which falls somewhat short of a true legislature passing laws for all of Europe. At present, it operates partly as a watchdog over the Commission, but with some power to legislate. It must approve the Commission's budget but cannot control it item by item. The parliament shares power with the Council under a "co-decision procedure" in areas such as migration, employment, health, and consumer protection.-The Economic and Social Committee discusses continent-wide issues that affect particular industries or constituencies

security community

a situation in which low expectations of interstate violence permit a high degree of political cooperation-as for example, among NATO members-Some scholars focused on the less tangible sense of community ("we" feeling) that began to develop among Europeans, running contrary to nationalist feelings that still existed as well. The low expectation of violence among the states of Western Europe created a security community in which such feelings could grow. This is a prime example of the identity principle discussed in

Common Market

a zone in which labor and capital (as well as goods) flow freely across borders-means that, in addition to the customs union, member states allow labor and capital (as well as goods) to flow freely across borders. For instance, a Belgian financier can invest in Germany on the same terms as a German investor.

UN Charter, Chapter VII (Collective Security)

action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of peace, and acts of aggression

Single European Act of 1986

an act that set a target date of the end of 1992 for the creation of a true common market (free cross-border movements of goods, capital, people and services) in the European Community (EC)-European integration has proceeded in a step-by-step process that produces tangible successes, reduces politicians' fears of losing sovereignty, and creates pressures to continue the process.Often major steps forward are followed by periods of stagnation or even reversals in integration. The first major revision of the Treaty of Rome—the 1985 Single European Act—began a new phase of accelerated integration. The EU set a target date of the end of 1992 for the creation of a true common market in Europe. This comprehensive set of changes was nicknamed Europe 1992and centered on about 300 directives from the European Commission, aimed at eliminating nontariff barriers to free trade in goods, services, labor, and capital within the EC. The issues tended to be complex and technical. For instance, professionals licensed in one state should be free to practice in another, but Spain's licensing requirements for, say, physical therapists may have differed from those of Britain. The Commission bureaucrats worked to smooth out such inconsistencies and create a uniform set of standards. Each national government had to pass laws to implement these measures.- For example, a dispute raged for decades over the definition of chocolate.-Under the pressure of integration, however, the EU is moving to unify standards such as food regulations. The chocolate wars illustrate that the seemingly simple concept of economic integration sets in motion forces of change that reach into every corner of society and affect the daily lives of millions of people. The Single European Act also gave a new push to the creation of a European Central Bank (in Frankfurt, Germany), and a single currency and monetary system—long-standing goals that have since been accomplished.-The 1992 process moved economic integration into more political and controversial areas, eroding sovereignty more visibly than before.

Euratom

an organization created by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 to coordinate nuclear power development by pooling research, investment, and management-the European Atomic Energy Community, was formed to coordinate nuclear power development by pooling research, investment, and management. It continues to operate today with an expanded membership. The second organization was the European Economic Community (EEC), later renamed the European Community(EC).

who pays for this

contributions by its members, mostly the u.s

Does peacekeeping work?

countries less likely to fall back in to conflict if peacekeeping, mission have keep the peace * big issues how do you get out? also remain -UN decides peacekeeping -individuals decide if they want to get involved and what how, to contribute

European central bank

economic and monetary union, 19 of the 28 states of the eu that have adopted the euro as there single currency, EBC sets monatary policy (interest rates) and regulates banks in eurozone, -can't raise or lower interest rates, give away soverinety

European Court of Justice

now it has judicial reviews and supremacy EU law supieori two national law, can be struck down by court and binding, one judge from every member state, active jurisdiction over all eu members , Based in luxenbery, court has activity established its jurisdiction and its right to over-rule national law, when it conflicts with eu law

European Coal and Steel Community:

precursor to EU, between France and Germany to try to have relations between then and stop fighting by pooling resources together of coal and steel together, literally cooperating over steel and coal, network and framework to grow indusrtry, reducing trade barraiidr for trade in coal and steel, the idea of integrating over coal and steal in the idea of neofunctionilsm It evolved to become the eu, member states of coal and steel, worked to reduce trade barrier and coordinate policies of coal and steal

10.3.6 Monetary Union

euro, has replaced national currencies in 19 EU member states, as mandated in the Maastricht Treaty, The European Central Bank took over the functions of states' central banks.- Monetary union is difficult for both economic and political reasons, fundamental economic and financial conditions must be equalized, integrated economy that is also politically centralized, the central government can reallocate resources,, EU does not have centralized powers of taxation or control of national budgets.-One solution is to work toward equalizing Europe's economies. For example, to reduce the disparity between rich and poor EU states, the Maastricht Treaty increased the EU budget by $25 billion annually to provide economic assistance to the poorer members.-The main solution adopted at Maastricht was to restrict membership in the monetary union, at least in the first round, to only those countries with enough financial stability not to jeopardize the union-countries to cut budgets and benefits and to take other politically unpopular moves, all 12 EU members that wanted to participate in the euro qualified.-Money is more political than steel tariffs or chocolate ingredients. A monetary union infringes on a core prerogative of states—the right to print currency. Because citizens use money every day, a European currency along these lines could deepen citizens' sense of identification with Europe—a victory for supranationalism over nationalism. When the euro went into circulation in 2002, people for the first time could "put Europe in their pocket.-Conflicts have arisen within the eurozone. In 2004, the European Commission challenged the EU member states for voting to let France and Germany break the euro rules by running high budget deficits. And Latvia's government lost power within six months of the country's joining the EU, under pressure of unpopular budget cuts needed to meet the euro rules within four years. In 2010, new challenges to the euro arose. Greece, which had previously admitted to falsifying economic data in order to be admitted to the eurozone, had for years borrowed more than it could repay and needed a European bailout to survive the global financial crisis. Because Greece used the euro, its troubles affected global investors' impressions of all euro states. Worse, the debt problems soon spread beyond Greece. In fact, in 2010, only two states in the EU (Finland and Luxembourg) actually met the EU targets for debt levels.

European Council

fend its interests, examine and negotiate legislation, try to align national interest Same thing to try and reconcile national interests- when it is state leaders

Neofunctionalism

heory that holds that economic integration generates a spill over effect that leads to political integration -economic integration needs to have cooperation among which needs to gave political ties if you want economic coordination then you are going to need political cooperations, these technicals things can lead to cooperation of policies -technical IO issue area will just encourage more coorperations, and spill over -> that doesn't sound threading to the politician Postal IO exsample

European Parliament

legislative body of the EU, watchdog over the eu commission, and has limited legislative power, and some budgetary, members are democratically elected by citizens of European countries from their own countries, power has increased over time -national government implement EU laws -directly elected by citizens

7.1 Roles of International Organizations

most international conflicts are not settled by military force, anarchic nature of the international system based on state sovereignty, the security dilemma does not usually lead to a breakdown in basic cooperation among states., states usually work with other states for mutual gain and take advantage of each other only in limited circumstances-States work together by following rules they develop to govern their interactions, Over time, the rules become more firmly established and institutions grow up around them., do so because of self-interest, realized by regulating international interactions through institutions and rules, thereby avoiding the costly outcomes associated with a breakdown of cooperation-International norms-morality is an element of power drawing on the core principle of identity (most state leaders want their publics and other leaders to see them as upholding high morals).-Some norms, such as sovereignty and respect for treaties, are widely held; they shape expectations about state behavior and set standards that make deviations stand out. Constructivist scholars in IR emphasize the importance of these global norms and standards. The attempt to define international norms follows a centuries-long philosophical tradition. Philosophers such as Kant argued that it was natural for autonomous individuals (or states) to cooperate for mutual benefit because they could see that pursuing their narrow individual interests would end up hurting all. Thus, sovereign states could work together through structures and organizations (such as Kant's proposed world federation) that would respect each member's autonomy and not create a world government over them-Agreed norms of behavior, institutionalized through such organizations, become habitual over time and gain legitimacy. State leaders become used to behaving in a normal way and stop calculating whether violating norms would pay off for each possible action, Today, such plans seem ridiculous. Over time, states refrain from behavior not only for cost-benefit reasons (as emphasized by realists and liberals) but also for normative reasons having little to do with material calculations (as emphasized by constructivists). Legitimacy and habit explain why international norms can be effective even when they are not codified and enforced.-The power of international norms and standards of morality, however, may vary when different states or world regions hold different expectations of what is normal., In cases of diverging norms, morality can be a factor for misunderstanding and conflict rather than a force of stability., constructivist scholars point out that even if international norms are violated, states (even the United States) go to tremendous lengths to justify behaviors that violate the norms. This suggests that strong norms do exist and are recognized by even the most powerful states.

Maastricht Treaty

signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht in 1992, renamed the EC as the EU and committed it to further progress in three main areas. The first was monetary union (discussed shortly), in which the existing national currencies were abolished and replaced by a single European currency. A second set of changes, regarding justice and home affairs, created a European police agency and responded to the new reality that borders were opening to immigrants, criminals, sex traffickers, and contraband. It also expanded the idea of citizenship so that, for example, a French citizen living in Germany can vote in local elections there. A third goal of Maastricht—political and military integration—was even more controversial. The Treaty commits European states to work toward a common foreign policy with a goal of eventually establishing a joint military force.- Some citizens of Europe began to react strongly against the loss of national identity and sovereignty implicit in the Maastricht Treaty., ratified by all (then 12) members. The ratification process stirred up strong public feelings against closer European union in several countries., fewer participating countries than had been originally hoped.-Europe's economic integration has begun to reshape political economy at a global level. The EU now sets the rules for access to one of the world's largest markets, for a vast production and technology network, and for the world's strongest currency., Political and military integration have been much more problematic

Eurozone

the countries that use the euro as a common currency

International norms

the expectations held by participants about normal relations among states-are the expectations actors hold about normal international relations-

International Integration

the process by which supranational institutions come to replace national ones; the gradual shifting upward of some sovereignty from the state to regional or global structures-refers to the process by which supranational institutions replace national ones—the gradual shifting upward of some sovereignty from state to regional or global structures. The ultimate expression of integration would be the merger of several (or many) states into a single state—or ultimately into a single world government. Such a shift in sovereignty to the supranational level would probably entail some version of federalism, in which states or other political units recognize the sovereignty of a central government while retaining certain powers for themselves.

Maastricht Treaty

the treaty create the euro, 1992, it commits the eu to a single currency and also to a common foreign policy

Peacebuilding

the use of military peacekeepers, civilian administrators, police trainers, and similar efforts to sustain peace agreements and build stable, democratic governments in societies recovering from civil wars-since 2005, a UN Peacebuildinhg Commonism has coordinated and supported these activities

British View

think that eu can cause issue, france and Germany who we both have been in conflicts, don't want to give up sovereignty and to be wrapped up with these , we have been fine alone and why give it up

British not strongly in support of EU

winston Churchill said there needs to be a relationship between france and Germany, needs to happen, we will cheer it on but they need to make it happen, we have our own thing going on and relationships with US -UK had strong country such as candida ~Britian came in at the same time as Denmark and Ireland - not as big of deal, Morgan thatcher bring Britain to EU, 67% vote to in UK referendum. she wants it to be a free trade era. bringing them in -in a limited way

Why Do States Form/Join IOs?

• Realism - Strongest states create, design, and participate in IOs as "masks for power" or to lock in power structures - IOs have little independent effect on outcomes • Liberalism - IOs help states solve collective action problems & achieve mutual gains - And/or...states join IOs primarily for domestic political reasons • Social theories - States create/join IOs for social reasons (e.g., logic of appropriateness) - IOs transform state interests through socialization, argument, etc.

UNSC Reform

• The legitimacy question: Is it appropriate for the UNSC to mirror the world distribution of power as it stood in 1945? Current reform proposals: "G4": Japan, Germany, Brazil, India- 23 member council, w/ 6 new permanent seats (2 to Africa)- G4 would defer using veto for 15 years - should expand "Uniting for Consensus" (UFC): South Korea, Italy, Pakistan, Argentina - want to try to get a great on table-these countries have enough regional importance - 25 member council, w/ 10 new elected seats- No new permanent members • African Union (54 African countries)- 26 member council, 6 new permanent seats (2 to Africa) P5 views- on different countries - prod EU in Africa -ps views us as wishy washy all have dif opinions Problem: need 2/3 General assembly approval, with no current UNSC vetoes! -its been great bc no ww3, from 1945s word has changed, need a current reform proposal, need a broader representation, etc. , current reform proposal security exists, stuff like golf war are approved unclear U.N when they do agree clear signal