week five: women's work

gender socialization

children learn about the social expectations, attitudes, and behaviors typically associated with boys and girls - looks at socialization and factors that influence gender development - reinforces intensive motherhood

concrete ceiling and steretypes

creates negative stereotyping comes from effects of being female and negative beliefs against ethnic/racial groups - both gender stereotypes and racial/ethnic stereotypes contradict "good leader stereotypes

why are women structurally disadvantaged

due to gender segregation and institutional sexism - women placed in jobs with less power and limited mobility - more likely to be hired in "staff" positions rathe rather "line" that provide TOP experienced - lack of access to a political network = lack of mentoring, fear of mentoring (afraid of being sexual taken advantage of by higher ups that can affect their reputations or create problems)

gender inequalities: gender perspective on unpaid care work

husband and wives display culturally sanctioned gender roles through activities done in the home - intensive motherhood = extensive maternal care, defines male caregivers as insufficient - women's paid work = secondary to primary role as mother/wife - arises from trad. gender ideologies - predicts egalitarian beliefs about gender should lead to egalitarian divisions of household labor - gender equal attitude couples see housework as responsibility of both partners - more likely to practice equitable division of household labor

double jeopardy/sexualized racism/racialized sexual harassment

intersection of gender, race, class importance - ethnic or minority women at risk for increased racial and sexual harassment - minority group status denotes marginality and lack of power within the workplace, racism expressed through sexual harassment and aggression

whats the problem with unaffordable child care?

leads to children staying home alone, older kids take care of younger ones, bring kids to work, or take lower paying/part time work that increases poverty

maternity leave policies

maternity protection measure providing time off for mothers following the birth of a child - important for women's health and child development

concrete cieling

metaphorical line or barrier that woman of color face/hit within the work force

formal labor sector

official labor sector where people get a paycheck and pay taxes

advantages from women's unpaid labor

reduces poverty, income is devoted to family subsistence (better for kids), positive relationship with gender equality and women's empowerment

role congruity theory

the incompatibility between the female gender role and the leadership role

own account workers

women who do their own types of informal work - trading or selling at markets

informal labor sector

women's earning within the home or on the side of the road for example - usually work in family run enterprises, usually paid small amounts or nothing at all

why does the gender wage gap matter?

women's workdays = longer, meaning less leisure time for women - work responsibilities of women limits women's employment - women's private sphere reduces time availability for paid work - affects types and quality of employment, reduces wages - time and energy on UCW reduces earning power, limits women and girls opportunities for education - limits political participation, increases vulnerability due to their dependence on men's wage earning

second shift

work one paid work shift, and unpaid 2nd work shift at home before/after work

Women's unpaid labor

work such as housework, food prep, child care etc. - not paid for, invisible and uncounted, done in the private sphere - women on average work 45 min more than men every day - just as essential to the individual, family, community, societal well-being

women's paid labor

work that women do outside of the home - where they get paycheck, pay taxes, usually involve jobs with lower pay or lower status

sexual harassment

workplace harassment in the form of a sexual nature, seen as sex discrimination

societies views on maternity protection and child care

- 1/4 world's women receive paid maternity leave - most developed economies require at least 14 weeks at 2/3rds pay funded by social security - family leave policies are 2 faced = no paternity leave reinforcing mothers are primary parents, maternity leave encourages women to withdraw from the labor force temporarily, lowering benefits that reinforce gender inequality in market and family - extensive parental leaves in absence of public or private supports may encourage woman to stay out of the labor force = reinforcing that women are 'unreliable'

advantages of maternity protection

- affordable child care promotes gender equality improving womens employment opportunities - free or low cost child care services reduces poverty

examples of maternity protection convention policies

- cannot terminate women during pregnancy or absence of maternity leave except on grounds other than being pregnant or on maternity leave - may come back to work paid at the same rate, one or more daily breaks/daily reduction of hours to work to breastfeed

reduction of gender gap - 3Rs: redistribute

- done at the household level to make it fair - paid family leave policies to encourage men's early involvement in child care - eliminate gender divisions as childhood chores - programs to engage men and boys in care labor and reduce perceptions that is "women's work"

government role with gender discrimination

- gov. commitment to enact and enforce pay equity legislation, to intern. conventions regarding pay equity, reduce gender segregation and provide family supports - must be able to factor in cross-cultural variations in gender pay gap = includes making wage policies to reduce it, enact legislation or create policies to end pay discrim., may pass pay equity laws

feminist perspective on sexual harassment

- it's about power - reinforces subordinate position of women and privileges existing gender hierarchy privileging men - intimidates and discourages women from work and assures male dominance occupationally and economically - used to influence woman not to go into male dominated fields - seen as consequence of gender socialization promoting male dominance, sexual objectification of woman, and cultural approval of VAW

reduction of gender gap - 3Rs: recognize

- measure and recognize value of UCW to economies - include UCW in national accounts - promote the use of reliable measures of UCW - monitor UCW to assess program and policy imports

how do gender stereotypes play into the glass ceiling

- must reduce beliefs that women lack leadership skills and abilities - not easy or quick to get rid of as it requires gender stereotyping must change - need anti-discrim. legislation barring discrim. in hiring and promotion, gov. policies and programs to reduce structural disadvantages faced by women

gender equal family friendly work measures

- offer paternity leave, make parental leave, after initial maternity/paternity leave, available to both mean and women - make "normal" work family compatible, provide flexible arrangements with regard to work schedule - short leave for emergencies - reduction of daily hrs or work and overtime - more equal sharing of family responsibilities between men and women

reduction of gender gap - 3Rs: reduce

- reduce overall time spend by woman and men on UCW - improve time and energy saving infrastructures - provide time and energy saving technologies - invest in early childhood education, daycare and elder care services

intersectionality and the glass ceiling

- some women face burden of racism and sexism - higher up on the organizational ladder (management), fewer woman you find - women make up smaller % of corporate boards - can make it worse if you are not the standard in your country = i.e. not white or straight in the USA

tripartite model of sexual harassment = identifies 3 behavioral dimensions

1. gender harassment = verbal, or nonverbal behaviors that are violent or degrading against woman 2. unwanted sexual attention = suggestive comments, or sexual advances 3. sexual coercion = requiring sex as a condition of employment or job rewards

3 contributors to the glass cieling

1. gender stereotypes 2. organizational practices 3. family responsibilities (both real and assumed by others)

what are the three explanations for gender inequalities

1. time availability perspective on unpaid care work 2. relative resources perspective on unpaid care work 3. gender perspective on unpaid care work

why do employed women make less money than employed men?

1. women are segregated and concentrated in lower paying, female dominated jobs 2. family responsibility leads to more women that men working part time jobs 3. women lack the experience and training for better paying jobs 4. outright gender wage discrimination

informal labor sector

Includes a small enterprises, trading, and selling at markets, work done on a contract basis in the home, and "under the table" and "off the books" employment.

Feminist Economies

Seeks to broaden the study of economics to include the importance of women's unpaid household and care labor to economies, women's labor in the informal sector, and the impact of economic policies on women - undercounting of women's labor results in less governm. attention to programs/policies addressing women's needs

gender wage gap

The difference between the earnings of women who work full-time year-round as a group and those of men who work full-time year-round as a group. - worldwide GWG is 23% - without targeted action, or increased pace of change, gender parity in wages won't occur until 2086

3 main reasons for gender wage discrimination

a. traditional undervaluation of womens work - jobs designated as 'women's jobs' pay less, if a women does it, it's less than a man b. assumed woman can be paid less bc income is only a supplement to her husband's and job is secondary to UCW as a wife/mother c. employees can pay women less, increases employers' profits

maternity protection convention, 2000

all three are required: 1. at least 14 weeks of maternity leave 2. women on maternity leave receive cash benefit no less than 2/3rds of her previous earnings 3. to reduce burden on employers, reduce discrimination against employed mothers, paid through social security or other public funds

human capital approach

any attributes a person has that contribute to her productivity including education, skills and focus - idea that women get paid less bc less skilled, less educated or less experienced workers

why is it imp. to stop the wage gap

crucial to achieve gender equality and reduce poverty of woman and their families - multiple causes require multiple solutions - i.e. women's greater responsibility for household and care labor must be addressed bc they affect types of jobs and numbers of hours women work - must change gender stereotypes - reflects difference between men and women in choice of education, vocational training, and encouraging women to study "male" occupations - must improve valuations of jobs to reduce gap and segregation - increasing wages for care jobs reduces gap for women of color

organizational tolerance

degree to which an organizational is perceived by employees to be insensitive or tolerant of sexual harassment - in these environments, complaints not taken seriously, perpetrators not fully punished, woman may face more harassment

gender wage discrimination

discriminate against women bc of their gender resulting in lower pay compared to men

International Labor Organization (ILO)

division of UN bringing together governm, employers, and workers to set labor standards, develop policies, and create programs promoting decent work for all women and men

gender inequalities: relative resources perspective on unpaid care work

division of household labor reflects relative economic power of women and men, whoever contributes more economic resources is able to better avoid household labor - partners share domestic duties - partners earn less expected to do more at home - smaller income gap between an employed woman and husband = smaller gender household labor gap - incomplete bc in some countries woman's income isn't associated with decreased care work

effects of women's paid labor

economic empowerment = key to women's quality - earning money buys freedom and some power - often offset by the difficulties of balancing work and family, low wages, limited promotion opportunities and poor work conditions -women's status only enhanced when dependent on men

egalitarian beliefs

emphasizes equality and equal treatment across gender, religion, economic status, and political beliefs

gender job segregation

employed women and men tend to work in different jobs and employment sectors and men hold the higher positions compared to women in the same job category

vulnerable employment

employment in informal labor sector - economically precarious, lacks boar protections and benefits of formal employment

gender responsive budget analysis

examines how national budgets impact women and girls differently than men and boys - measure governmental commitment to women's specific needs and rights, includes focus on the unpaid care economy

how does a women's responsibility to the home cause a glass ceiling

home and family my prevent upward mobility in the organization - creates motherhood penalty (in pay and promotion) - employers may assume children will interfere with home respons. or commitment and will not promote them - remain disproportionately responsible for household labor and child/elder care - anticipated conflict between work and family, women in high status careers forgo/delay kids - employment interruptions reduce seniority and accumulation of job experiences leading to promotions and violating organization norms regarding career advancement

lack of fit model

perceived lack of fit between the stereotypically based, nurturing and communal attributes and behaviors associated with women, "male" attributes, behaviors associated with success in powerful organizations

maternity protections

policies and laws that ensure that expectant and nursing woman will not face employment discrimination or be exposed to health hazards, includes time off for children, return to their job without discrimination and be given breastfeeding breaks - note few countries have adequate support - governm. policies on this issue reflects a societies views about 'proper' role of women in society and whether their participation in labor force is desired

agentically deficient

presumed lacking in the qualities necessary for effective leadership - women seen as this bc men believe women interfere with leadership attainment - women negatively judged when they act agentically (or act with the skills needed to be efficient in leadership positions)

time use surveys

research participants use 24hr diaries to record how they allocate their time over diff. activities - how we collect data for unpaid care work

Women's micro- and small-scale enterprises (WMSEs)

small-scale business run by women in the informal labor sector - motivated by divorce and poverty, tend to return their profits to the family in the form of better food and living conditions - many business = informal economy due to barriers in formalization - difficulty with loans, lack of collateral, no clear title to land or property due to widespread use of property given/inherited by men, lack literacy to complete forms

horizontal occupation segregation

tendency for occupation mainly held by woman - men more likley to be in core of salaried positions, women in less-valued positions - "feminine" occupations associated with lower pay - persists bc society believe women and men are suited for different types of jobs - affects how people pursue jobs and a barrier to women's entry into better-pay, trad. male occupations

how do we reduce the gender gap in unpaid care labor?

the 3Rs - recognize, redistribute, reduce - all are interconnected, goal to promote gender equality - measure UCW and value to well-being is important increasing visibility and to monitor the effects of programs/policies to promote gender equality in family labor

sex role spillover theory

traditional expectations and relationships between the genders overflow into the workplace even when irrelevant

Marxist Feminism

type of feminism that focuses on challenging capitalism as a route to freeing women from oppression and inequality - dependency on men is the primary bases of patriarchy

family care labor

unpaid meaning unrecognized, unvalued, and unsupported contributing to gender inequality

the glass ceiling

various barriers preventing qualified woman from advancing into powerful decision making positions in organization and politics

motherhood wage gap

wage gap associated with motherhood, measured wage different between mothers and women without kids and different between mothers and fathers

family responsibility discrimination

when an employer makes employment decisions about employees or prospec. employees based on their real/assumed caregiving responsibilities

gendered leader stereotypes

with less woman in positions of power make it harder for woman to become managers and leaders - men usually are in the higher up jobs, leadership associated with males - glass ceiling stereotypes suggest woman are too "inappropriate" for leadership positions

vertical occupation segregation

within occupations, there is a hierarchy of jobs, and women tend to be more highly represented in lower-ranked, lower paying positions than men are within the same occupation - women's view responsibilities and undersupply of health, child and elder care services contribute - leads to part time work reducing experience and seniority (especially in developed regions) - care labor increases with children, mothers usually make less money

employed women making less than men explanation: women are segregated and concentrated in lower paying, female dominated jobs

women = overrepresented in lowest paid occupations - higher % of women in occupation means lower pay - 2 types: vertical and horizontal segregation

gender inequalities: time availability perspective on unpaid care work

women spend less time in paid workforce, more time for household tasks - incomplete theory bc in industrialized nations, view has shrunk bc women reduced in home labor by lowering standards - employed women still do more household labor than men