western civ

How did Thomas Aquinas use scholastic logic to prove the existence of God? Your essay must include his specific proofs.

Aquinas's first demonstration of God's existence is the argument from motion. He drew from Aristotle's observation that each thing in the universe that moves is moved by something else. Aristotle reasoned that the series of movers must have begun with a first or prime mover that had not itself been moved or acted upon by any other agent. Aristotle sometimes called this prime mover "God." Aquinas understood it as the God of Christianity. The second of the Five Ways, the argument from causation, builds upon Aristotle's notion of an efficient cause, the entity or event responsible for a change in a particular thing. Aristotle gives as examples a person reaching a decision, a father begetting a child, and a sculptor carving a statue. Because every efficient cause must itself have an efficient cause and because there cannot be an infinite chain of efficient causes, there must be an immutable first cause of all the changes that occur in the world, and this first cause is God. Aquinas's third demonstration of God's existence is the argument from contingency, which he advances by distinguishing between possible and necessary beings. Possible beings are those that are capable of existing and not existing. Many natural beings, for example, are possible because they are subject to generation and corruption. If a being is capable of not existing, then there is a time at which it does not exist. If every being were possible, therefore, then there would be a time at which nothing existed. But then there would be nothing in existence now, because no being can come into existence except through a being that already exists. Therefore, there must be at least one necessary being—a being that is not capable of not existing. Furthermore, every necessary being is either necessary in itself or caused to be necessary by another necessary being. But just as there cannot be an infinite chain of efficient causes, so there cannot be an infinite chain of necessary beings whose necessity is caused by another necessary being. Rather, there must be a being that is necessary in itself, and this being is God. Aquinas's fourth argument is that from degrees of perfection. All things exhibit greater or lesser degrees of perfection. There must therefore exist a supreme perfection that all imperfect beings approach yet fall short of. In Aquinas's system, God is that paramount perfection. Aquinas's fifth and final way to demonstrate God's existence is an argument from final causes, or ends, in nature (see teleology). Again, he drew upon Aristotle, who held that each thing has its own natural purpose or end. Some things, however—such as natural bodies—lack intelligence and are thus incapable of directing themselves toward their ends. Therefore, they must be guided by some intelligent and knowledgeable being, which is God.

Discuss the environmental and social impact of the Black Death on 14th century Europe.

As a consequence of the beginning of blurring financial distinctions, social distinctions sharpened. The fashions of the nobility became more extravagant in order to emphasize the social standing of the person wearing the clothing. The peasants became slightly more empowered, and revolted when the aristocracy attempted to resist the changes brought about by the plague. In 1358, the peasantry of northern France rioted, and in 1378 disenfranchised guild members revolted. The social and economic structure of Europe was drastically and irretrievably changed. Black death caused european population to cut in half Workers were now valuable and could stand up to those that treated them unfair The statute of laborers was anb attempt to prohibit the movement of workers and their demands for higher wages Peasants vowed to kill representatives of both the church and the government and to destroy all documents The rebellion stregnethed the common people The 14th century was often seen as a time of crisis with famine and plague however workers gained the economic edfe and some even gained social and political power The balck death caused at least half of europe to die from fa,ine and diease Towns and villages became depopulated and disappeared, forested areas increased which established a healthy ecologicak balance replensihing nutrienbts and providing habitats for animals in danger Yersinia pestis became endemic in some locales, it spread fast The abudence of food meant the price of bread fell, labor became more valuable due to less workers and peasants could negotiate highr wages, europeans became better nourished Survivors of the black death had social and economic changes. Formally free workers became serfs because of labor shortages

Write an essay in which you explain Erasmus's ideas on Folly. Your essay must explain why Erasmus included in the camp of Folly not only government and religious luminaries, but also God, Christ, and the Christianity itself.

Folly, pictured as a woman wearing a fool's costume, introduces herself at an assembly and declares that, although unappreciated and unrecognized, she is responsible for man's happiness. She will therefore deliver a "eulogy" to herself. She explains her family history and introduces her attendants and goes on to speak of the influence she has on the life of man. She says that marriages and childbirth would never exist without her, and old age becomes softened and mitigated by her. Even the gods are in her debt, as their behavior proves. Folly describes women as foolish because they constantly strive for beauty and to please men, while men are even more ridiculous because a woman's beauty causes them to engage in absurd acts. Folly is essential as public gatherings must include folly to be amusing. Friendships would never succeed without folly, because people tell themselves that their friends' quirks are their highest virtues. In fact, all relationships on earth—including marriage—need folly and flattery to proceed harmoniously. Folly argues that self-love is not a bad thing, and people must like themselves in order to accomplish anything of worth. According to Folly, projects would never come to fruition if not for her, and besides, people tend to like the fool better than the wise man; after all, the fool is entertaining and tells the truth without giving offense and, sometimes, a foolish illusion is preferable to the brutal truth. Folly criticizes various social and professional classes. She starts with lawyers and doctors, then touches on philosophers, gamblers, hunters, superstitious folk, authors of books, poets, businessmen, grammarians, people who obsess about their bloodline and ancestry, artists and even entire nations and cities. All of these people, Folly says, display a high level of folly Folly turns to the idea of the Christian fool. Scripture praises simplicity and ignorance, and Christ and St. Paul talked of meekness and humility. Christ was, Folly says, the greatest fool of all, because he became sin in order to redeem sinners. To Folly, these examples prove that the Christian religion more resembles folly than wisdom. As well, Folly points out that a Christian is supposed seek divine transformation, an aspiration that suggests madness, and become as close to God as possible. Folly finishes with a reminder to her listeners to enjoy life as much as possible as the most illustrious disciples of Folly. He feels that Christians should simply be concerned with making the life of Christ their example, and that the separation of Christians caused the focus to be shifted off of Christ and onto petty matters. Erasmus asserts the notion that most monks were forever self-glorifying, and their thirst for power was a shadow cast over many aspects of their lives.

Queen Elizabeth often disregarded the wishes of parliament and rarely called it into session during her long reign ending in 1603. Less than a hundred years later the Glorious Revolution between 1688 and 1701 established that Royal power would be permanently balanced by the will of the Parliament, and the parliament has met ever year since 1688. Explain how this great transformation came about. Please focus only on the key points in this story.

Glorious rev established england as a mixed monarchy governed by the king in parliament. After 1688 no english monarch attempted to govern without parliament. This became the development of a constitutional monarchy in britain. The revolution consolidated the position of large property holders whose control over local government had been threatened. The rev favored the growth and political power of the english commercial classes especially the urban populations whose livelihood depended on trade with the atlantic world and beyond. Locke established the fact that if gov exceed or abused power people had the right to create another

In the Mirandola's "Oration on the Dignity of Man," at what point in God's creation of the universe did God create humans, why did God create humans when God did, and what is the significance of God's timing?

God was ready to create human beings only after he had created the world and everything in it, which are the objects of human contemplation in the divine scheme of things. Everything, including the angels, had been given a fixed and immutable form, but human beings, created with no definite abode or form, were given both free will and the use of all of God's creatures. Pico claimed that human beings were neither heaven nor earth, mortal nor immortal, but free to choose between sinking to the level of animals or rising to the divine. That is why God created him after He had finished creating all the things in the universe. He felt a need of having a creature that would be like him. He created man in a unique way and he did not fashion him from any archetype on earth. God wanted to create a being that would contemplate about the universe and man was the answer to that need. God's great gift to humankind was free choice. Individuals can be what they will to be. If they choose to be vegetables, then they will act like plants; if they choose to be sensual, they will act like animals; if they choose to be rational, they will be saintlike; if they choose to be intellectual, they will appear like angels; and if they reject the lot of all created things, they will draw into the center of their own beings and thus unite their spirits with the divine. Human beings have this capability of becoming either an animal or more than an angel, and their inconstant nature is their greatest blessing. It is, therefore, their duty to seek out the highest level they can obtain, striving to rise above the angels who, fixed in form, cannot surpass themselves and reach the godhead.

Why did Thomas Hobbes believe that what he called a Leviathan was a necessary form of government? Second, how was Hobbes' Leviathan both democratic and dictatorial?

Hobbes argued any form of government capable of protecting its subjects lives and property might act as an all powerful sovergin he believed the state of nature before gov was war of all agiasnt all any man behaves as a wolf w out government to escape consequences people must follow government . this was democratic because he believe people deserved to have a government that protect the lives of the citizens however it was dictoral because he believed citizens shouldnt have any free will and couldnt be trusted

The Renaissance was characterized by zeal for lofty ideals and the desire for worldly goods, by both idealism and materialism. Briefly explain three lofty ideals of the Renaissance. Second, please discuss the materialistic side of the Renaissance, what caused it, and what were some of its expressions.

Humanism. This is the most characteristic value of the Renaissance. It is a complex notion pulling together three interlocking elements: a belief in man as a proper focus of study (in literature, art, philosophy, politics, etc.); a revival of the classical learning of the Greeks and Romans (for whom man was the only and logical focus of study); and the concrete work on reviving and correcting classical texts and language and creating new works in the style of the classics. This contrasts greatly with the Medieval era when G-d was the only proper focus of study—thus the emphasis on theology and canon (church) law in the universities and the ignoring of (and in some cases the actual destruction of) works by Greco-Roman (pagan, non-Christian) writers. During the Renaissance, Plato moved to the center of study (which occurred outside the universities); Cicero, Livy, Virgil and others became the models for oration and style. The centrality of Humanism does not mean that this was a totally secular, irreligious or atheistic age; in fact, it means the opposite. Renaissance thinkers believed man to be a proper focus of study precisely because G-d had created him in His image and had endowed him with a "spark of the divine": the ability to create (intellectually and artistically). Individualism. In the Middle Ages, identity was "corporate," that is, it was defined by the group to which one belonged. To be an "individual" was frightening and to be avoided for fear of being made an outcast in a heavily conformist society. During the Renaissance, individual expression and thought, separating oneself from the crowd in terms of ideas and creations were highly prized. Secularism. In contrast to the medieval world when the goal and focus of life were the attainment of salvation in the next life, Renaissance man was firmly planted in this world and strove to enjoy the things that this world had to offer. They saw that this world could be made comfortable and satisfying and that a sense of contentment and well-being did not have to be delayed until the after-life. Again, this does not mean the Renaissance was anti-religious or even areligious; the men of the Renaissance were devout Christian believers. Materialism in the Renaissance was defined as the accumulation of wealth and the goods that wealth could buy, especially goods of historical, intellectual, cultural, and/or aesthetic value. It was caused by the new spread of knowledge and the trading between countries. It could be expressed by art and architecture

Italy led the way in so much of the Renaissance. Why didn't Italy lead the way in the Renaissance discovery and exploration of new lands and oceans? Which nations did? Discuss two major exploratory voyages during the Renaissance, making sure to explain why they were important.

Italy was not a country and had limited access to the open seas of the atlantic. With their Atlantic coastlines, Spain, Portugal and England (and later, Britain) enjoyed unencumbered access to the New World, whereas the ships of Italian city-states like Venice and Genoa would have had to first exit the Mediterranean with Spanish and Portuguese forces to the north Neither the Spanish nor the Portuguese would have been likely to look kindly on Italian rivals sailing right past their shores the Venetians weren't motivated to go west because they already had a massive revenue stream from the east, Genoa didn't really need to go west because they simply piggybacked on Spain's colonization, Portugal, Spain, France and England took part in the exploration of new lands and oceans Marco Polo's voyage began in 1271 when he traveled to Kublai Khan's court in China with his father and uncle. Marco was 17 years old. They were only able to get two of the one hundred priests Kublai Khan wanted. They sailed the Mediterranean to the Middle East, then traveled over land, all the way through Persia (modern day Iran), the Gobi Desert, Mongolia, along the Silk Road, and into China. The voyage took about three and a half years until they finally reached Kublai Khan's palace.6 The Khan noticed Marco's interest in Mongol customs and culture. Marco already knew four languages prior to his journey, and he quickly picked up the Asian language. He also learned their writing, and even their style of war.7 Kublai Khan was very impressed with Marco Polo. So he made Marco one of his ambassadors. This gave Marco special permission to travel freely throughout the Mongol Empire. Polo's uncle and father traveled from Europe to China and reached the court of the Mongol Khan, Kublai. Kublai asked the two to return to Europe and bring more educated Christians who knew writing, science, math, and music to the Mongol Empire. He also asked them to bring holy oil from the lamp that burns above the Sepulchre of God in Jerusalem. When they returned, they did not bring back the Christians that Kublai wanted, but they brought Marco Polo. The land journey to China lasted four years, but they finally reached the Mongol Chinese capital, Xanadu, in 1271. The young Polo became a favorite of Kublai Khan, and after Polo mastered the Chinese language and learned more about Chinese culture, Kublai used him as a special envoy to Burma and Tibet. Kublai Khan often sent messengers, or envoys as they were called, on missions to different places. When they returned, they would report of their mission, but never about the people and customs of the places they went.8 So the Khan began asking Marco to travel on missions. On these trips, Marco took great note of the lands and peoples he encountered, and the spices and jewels he saw. He told the Khan about all these things on his return. And Marco himself became very familiar with many aspects of Asian culture. He served the Khan for seventeen years before deciding to head back home to Venice. After all his years of traveling on the Khan's behalf, Marco Polo had knowledge of, or had actually visited, a greater number of different countries of the world than anyone else known Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, traveled to Portugal in 1476. Based on an inaccurate understanding of the distances involved, he had a theory that one could easily reach Asia by sailing west. This would provide enormous benefits because the Muslims (i.e., the Ottoman Empire) controlled trade routes to the east and taxed Christians heavily. The Portuguese monarchs, however, rejected Columbus's proposal to sail west. Eventually, Columbus received support for his plan from Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. In 1492, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean and reached a small island in October 1492. He named it San Salvador and then traveled along the coast of the present-day Dominican Republic and Haiti. He then returned to Spain and announced that he was successful in finding Asia due to his mistaken belief that the islands were part of India instead of a new continent.

Why did Martin Luther think that the Roman Catholic Church was a grand theft? Make sure to explain what he thought was stolen, from whom it was stolen, and who were the principal thieves.

It seemed unfair for god to issue commandments he knew humans could not observe and punish them with eternal damnation He concluded that gods justice does not demand emd;ess religious rituals because humans can never obtain salvation through their own weak efforts rather humans are saved by gods grace The sale of indulegences was scandolous and the sin of exchanging gods grace for cash was a heresy known as simony He believed tetzel, a dominican friar was tricking people into thinking an indulgence was an immediate ticket to heaven for oneself and this tricked people into thinking they no longer need to confess their sins to a priest which put innocent souls at risk

Mark Twain once wrote that of all the novels he had written, his novel about Joan of Arc was his best. What do you think was memorable and important about the life and death of Joan?

Joan received little education beyond her mother's instructions on domestic tasks and prayers. When she was 13 years old, Joan experienced her first vision of a saint. From then on, she also heard voices, identifying them to be from St. Michael the Archangel, St. Margaret of Antioch, and St. Catherine of Alexandria. These voices told her that she was destined to save France and to go on mission to find the Dauphin and have him crowned as king. After meeting with the local lord and traveling through hostile territory, Joan made it to the Dauphin. Joan had to prove that her visions and voices were actually from God. During intense questioning from the Dauphin's theologians, Joan remained poised and determined to accomplish her mission. She declared, "God has sent me, I know what I need to do. Let me go and do it." Joan set off to the Siege of Orléans, which was the test of her mission. The siege had been going on for months, but 17-year-old Joan led the soldiers to victory in just a few days. After this victory, Joan persisted in her quest to crown the Dauphin and to unite France under his rule. In July of 1429, the Dauphin was crowned King Charles VII. France eventually reclaimed Paris and Joan's mission was fully accomplished. About twenty years after her death, Joan's mother and others petitioned the Pope to re-open her trial, and Joan was declared innocent. St. Joan of Arc inspired the transformation of heart and the pursuit of courage and holiness among the most hardened of military leaders, soldiers, and observers. Despite her youth, lack of military training, and the fact that she was a female, she commanded respect and impressed others with her purity and goodness.

Why is Leonardo da Vinci a potent symbol of Renaissance mobility and curiosity?

Leonardo is a genius and a potent symbol of the "universal man" because of the breadth of his interests in the arts, science and technology, spanning disciplines from chemistry (he discovered acetone) to astronomy (he discovered the lumen cinereum of the moon) to math (he discovered the center of gravity of a pyramid) to working with plastics. Among the qualities that make da Vinci's work unique are the innovative techniques that he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition Although da Vinci is best known for his artistic works, he considered himself more of a scientist than an artist. Mathematics - in particular, perspective, symmetry, proportions and geometry - had a significant influence over his drawings and paintings, and he was most certainly ahead of his time in making use of it. He studied human bodies from birth-death His notebooks show his future

What were the major principles of Martin Luther's Protestant theology? Please make sure you explain them, not simply list them

Luther founded his theology on the Bible and more specifically on the Epistle of Paul to the Romans, as far as salvation through God's grace and not through one's deeds was concerned. His theology was the basis of the protestant Reformation. Lutheran Churches, but other protestant Churches also embraced it and its principles. Entirely based on the Bible, Luther's theology rejected what was not in the Bible. Based on the Epistle of Paul to the Romans it distanced itself from catholic theology, mainly on the themes of God's grace and of deeds. Jesus-Christ is the image of God's love for us Jesus-Christ is the only Saviour God's Word brought by the Scriptures, i.e. the Bible, precedes all declarations of the Church, Man is radically a sinner and cannot save himself through his own strength, through praiseworthy deeds, or through mortification. He is pardoned, thus saved through God's grace, because Christ was crucified Faith is a gift of God. It is the acceptance of God's love, and it gives access to God. --- Jesus-Christ is the image of God's love for us. Calling upon the saints or begging for their help must not be done "Because there is only one peacemaker and intermediary between God and man: Jesus-Christ is the only Saviour, the only Sovereign-Sacrificer, Propitiatory and Intercessor with God." god's Word brought by the Scriptures, i.e. the Bible, precedes all declarations of the Church, be it proclaimed by a Pope or a council, which means that the Bible alone should be followed and listened to. T Man is radically a sinner and cannot save himself through his own strength, through praiseworthy deeds, or through mortification. He is pardoned, thus saved through God's grace, because Christ was crucified Faith is a gift of God. It is the acceptance of God's love, and it gives access to God. It justifies man and leads him to doing good

How did Machiavelli's view human nature, and how did these views shape his ideas on politics and government? Your essay must include a discussion of Machiavelli's thoughts on virtue.

Machiavelli had discussed this in the beginning of 'The Prince' about the human nature. Machiavelli had assumed and had given the human nature a dark picture to an extreme that some think that he had considered humans to that of animals. According to Machiavelli human nature is completely selfish and full of ego and that they always think about their own self interest like the masses desire safety and security and the ruler wants power, and that they are very selfish to gain and conquer their motives. Machiavelli has described humans as bad, evil, selfish, egoistic and depraved. Human wants has no particular limit, they are greedy, sensual creature, mean, bad and depraved and he even goes on to saying that a human being only cares for himself, their family and their property and to conquer this they are ready to do anything even to the extent of forgiving their enemy, he even says that in order to safeguard their priorities they can even forgive the murder of their father or any kin for that matter than the seizure of his property or any harm to himself. Humans love themselves first and then think about other things and that they are not law abiding citizens. As long as the ruler is providing the m the safety and the security that they desire that is the safety and security of them, their family and that of their property they are sated and to also protect from any foreign invaders, and if the ruler is able to do this the masses are easy to rule and the state is well governed. Machiavelli states several times that when it is in the interests of the state, a prince must strive to act virtuously. But virtue should never take precedence over the state. Thus, generosity, which might be admired by others, is actually detrimental to the future prosperity of the state. It is for this reason alone that a prince should avoid it. Machiavelli settles for a much more simplistic definition: that which receives the praise of others. Thus, generosity is a virtue, in the Machiavellian sense, only because other people praise it. in order to win honor, Machiavelli suggests that a prince must be readily willing to deceive the citizens. One way is to "...show his esteem for talent actively encouraging the table and honoring those who excel in their professions...so that they can go peaceably about their business."10 By encouraging citizens to excel at their professions he would also be encouraging them to "...increase the prosperity of the their state."11 These measures, though carried out in deception, would bring the prince honor and trust amongst the citizens, especially those who were in the best positions to oppose him. Machiavelli postulates that a prince must also deceive those who attempt to flatter him. [In] choosing wise men for his government and allowing those the freedom to speak the truth to him, and then only concerning matters on which he asks their opinion, and nothing else. But he should also question them toughly and listen to what they say; then he should make up his own mind. Since each person will only advice the prince in accord to his own interests, the prince must act on his own accord. Machiavelli discourages action to be taken otherwise "...since men will always do badly by [the prince] unless they are forced to be virtuous. Machiavelli actively promoted a secular form of politics. He laid aside the medieval conception "of the state as a necessary creation for humankind's spiritual, material, and social well-being." In such a state,"[a] ruler was justified in his exercise of political power only if it contributed to the common good of the people he served, [and] the ethical side of a princes activity...ought to [be] based on Christian moral principles...."15 Machiavelli believed a secular form of government to be a more realistic type. His views were to the benefit of the prince, in helping him maintain power rather than to serve to the well being of the citizens. Machiavelli defines virtues as qualities that are praised by others, such as generosity, compassion, and piety. He argues that a prince should always try to appear virtuous, but that acting virtuously for virtue's sake can prove detrimental to the principality.

What was the artisitc sleight-of-hand that was the basis of Renaissance painting? How did Renaissance painters pull off this artistic trick?

Painted art is two-dimensional; chiaroscuro visually tricks the eye into seeing three dimensions and a more realistic depiction of life. Chiaroscuro, Italian for "light" and "dark," is exactly that -- the use of highlights and shadow to simulate the fall of light on a three-dimensional object. A painter imagines light shining on his subject, then highlights the hot spot where the light hits most intensely with the lightest pigment, usually white. Shadows extend and deepen from the painted forms according to their relationship to the light source.

What lessons did Plato and Aristotle teach the Renaissance about human nature and human behavior?

Plato is a dualist; there is both immaterial mind (soul) and material body, and it is the soul that knows the forms. Plato believed the soul exists before birth and after death. Thus he believed that the soul or mind attains knowledge of the forms, as opposed to the senses. Needless to say, we should care about our soul rather than our body. Plato viewed human beings as inherently rational, social souls burdened by imprisonment within their physical bodies. According to him, the soul or mind attains knowledge of the forms, as opposed to the senses. "...the gods made the soul prior to be the body and more venerable in birth and excellence to be the body's mistress and governor." Man is a soul using a body. The soul (mind) itself is divided into 3 parts: reason; appetite (physical urges); and will (emotion, passion, spirit.) The will is the source of love, anger, indignation, ambition, aggression, etc. When these aspects are not in harmony, we experience mental conflict. The will can be on the side of either reason or the appetites. We might be pulled by lustful appetite, or the rational desire to find a good partner. To explain the interaction of these 3 parts of the self, Plato uses the image is of the charioteer (reason) who tries to control horses representing will and appetites. [Elsewhere he says that reason uses the will to control the appetites. Plato also emphasized the social aspect of human nature. We are not self-sufficient, we need others, and we benefit from our social interactions, from other person's talents, aptitudes, and friendship. Aristotle recognized that living things include plants as well as human and non-human animals. [He says that plants have a vegetative structure (a way of functioning) which is primarily about taking in nutrients, reproducing, and the like. Non-human animals have this structure plus a sensitive structure that uses senses to interact with the environment and initiates desires. Human animals add to this a rational structure which makes them unique.] Each different thing then has a different structure or form. This is its formal cause in his language. Thus some things have a richer or more complex form than other things. Thus the form of something does not exist independently; it is not an entity in itself. Rather it is the specific pattern or structure or form of a thing which defines how it exists and functions. [It is different to be structured like a rock, tree, dog, or human.] Thus for Aristotle, it makes no sense to talk of a soul or mind without a body, for the essence of a person is embedded and intertwined with their matter. You can't take it out of the body. [And to think Roman Catholic natural law theory is Aristotelian through and through.] The only exception is that divine intellectual functioning may take place without a body. Yet it is hard to see how this could be the case. For example, even if computers think without bodies their thought still depends on material components. A disembodied thought is conceptually problematic, although many Christians and Islamists who followed Aristotle welcomed the possibility. As for ordinary embodied human beings, Aristotle's major distinction is between their rational component and their emotions and desires. He also distinguished between theoretical and practical reasoning. human nature is hedonistic[9]; again the notion that man is amoral by nature is repeated but then this notion is extended to provide a reason as to why man is immoral. The reason is thus, we follow our natural impulses to seek pleasure, hence we are hedonistic, but we are ill-educated in where we seek pleasure eudemonia theory since it is based on man having an end goal; this end goal is to seek happiness. This happiness is a specific type of happiness rooted within our function in society (be it doctor, teacher, scholar, bard or soldier), not pleasure. By performing well, sometimes called flourishing in some translations, within our function we are able to receive happiness from it man is born without knowledge hence morality cannot be part of human nature as man has yet to acquire knowledge of moralit

How did the Protestant Reformation fuel the rise of capitalism and the expansion of business in Europe?

Protestantism gave the spirit of capitalism its duty to profit and thus helped to legitimate capitalism. Its religious asceticism also produced personalities well-suited for work discipline. Its religious asceticism also produced personalities well-suited for work discipline. Finally, the new turn in Christian doctrine contributed to the quest to prove one's salvation, because God's favor could be shown through business success the Protestant ethic was an important factor in the economic success of Protestant groups in the early stages of European capitalism; because worldly success could be interpreted as a sign of eternal salvation, it was vigorously pursued. Calvinism'santipathy to the worship of the flesh, its emphasis on the religious duty to make fruitful use of the God-given resources at each individual's disposal, and its orderliness and systemization of ways of life were also regarded by Weber as economically significant aspects of the ethic. Protestantism offers a concept of the worldly "calling," and gives worldly activity a religious character. While important, this alone cannot explain the need to pursue profit. One branch of Protestantism, Calvinism, does provide this explanation. Calvinists believe in predestination--that God has already determined who is saved and damned. As Calvinism developed, a deep psychological need for clues about whether one was actually saved arose, and Calvinists looked to their success in worldly activity for those clues. Thus, they came to value profit and material success as signs of God's fav

What does the phrase "Renaissance Humanism" mean? Please enrich your answer with specific facts and examples from the textbook discussion of the topic.

Renaissance Humanism means an intellectual movement of the 15th century when there was a new interest in the classical world and studies which focussed less on religion and more on what it is to be human. A new renaissance idea was born, the ideal of the courtier personified by the diplomat and nobleman Baldassare Castiglione it stands in sharp contrast to treaties on public virtue from the previous century The most enduring legacy of the Italian renaissance has been the contributions of its artists particularly those who embraced new media and new attitudes toward the human body The creative and economic opportunities occurred Three dimensoial space in paintings Leonardo davinci - painter, mathmatician, engineer Michelangelo buonarroriti - spent many decades in the service of the papacy he was a painter Renassaice architecture had gothic style paintings Artists and intellectuals were relied upin in italy Homage to antiquity: Humanist artists drew inspiration from Classical Greece and Rome. 2. Educated artists: The artists of the Renaissance were often trained in studia humanitatis, an education program that emphasized Greek and Latin poetry, mathematics, and science alongside art. 3. Innovation: The philosophy of humanism encouraged artists to push boundaries in painting, sculpture, and architecture. 4. Continued Christian themes: Although the Renaissance turned to Classical Greece and Rome for inspiration, its artworks remained faithful to Christian dogma. 5. Exaltation of the human form: Humanist art tends to present the human body in a state of heightened realism. Muscles, curves, and genitalia are emphasized as creations in God's image. Petrarch was known as the "Father of Humanism" because of his contribution to this new way of perceiving man in relation to God. Although he was a Catholic and religious man, he also believed in man's inherent abilities and greatness. He believed that God gave humans these abilities to live a virtuous life. This may have gone against what the church believed of man, who was said to be in need of God's mercy. Dante wrote the Divine Comedy (1308 to 1320), a text about the afterlife reflective of Medieval beliefs. It is an influential text known for setting the foundations of Italian literature. It also contributed to the humanist movement - a slight shift away from solely religious sources - by including inspiration from Classical writers and philosophers like Virgil and Ovid. Boccaccio was another famous literary catalyst, and friend of Petrarch, within the humanist movement. He wrote various short stories titled, The Decameron (1353), which many people related to because it pertained to relevant everyday experiences. Erasmus was a devout Christian, although his work utilized humanist ideals, and he strongly believed that education should be made available to everyone and not only a select few. Other agents of change within this movement were scientists and mathematicians like Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed that the Sun was at the center of our universe and not the earth

Why do you think the Renaissance began in Italy? Your answer must discuss the impact of the Black Death on the wealth of Italy and the wealth of the rest of Europe?

Rome was the first city to receive a population of 1 million, papacy. Renaissance first urban movement - tax base of italy was greater than all of england, italian banks were the greatest in the world. Silk roads - 4,000 mile route, this trade was dominated by Italy One main reason was the geography - the city states were positioned on the meditaren sea it was perfect for trade to flourish One important reason why the Renaissance began in Italy is because it was such a wealthy and prosperous nation. Throughout the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, Italy, particularly Florence, developed successful trade deals with much of Asia and Eastern Europe, vastly increasing its capital. Wealthy Florentine merchant families, such as the famous Medici family, made the most of their acquired financial freedom by commissioning the country's finest artists to create a series of public and private commissions. During the dark ages, the plague had a catastrophic impact across Italy, wiping out much of the nation's population. Those who did survive were few and far between. But there was a silver lining - when the economy bounced back, there were less people competing for jobs and employment opportunities, so it was easier for them to get rich. different cultures came through Italy's ports every day as merchants from around the world interacted with those in the marketplace and inns they stayed in. Trade routes as far as China and the Middle East terminated in Venice and Genoa, while routes from England and Scandinavia also operated frequently. Not only did this create a melting pot of cultures, it also made the city-states and their merchant class very wealthy, with access to a vast array of commodities.

What was the Columbian Exchange and why was it important?

The Columbian exchange was the exchange of goods and people between the Old World and the New World during the Age of Exploration. It is important because it led to increased trade and food production across the globe. However, it also had a negative impact with disease and slavery. The spread of disease. Possibly the most dramatic, immediate impact of the Columbian Exchange was the spread of diseases. In places where the local population had no or little resistance, especially the Americas, the effect was horrific. Prior to contact, indigenous populations thrived across North and South America. the result of that exchange amounted to an environmental revolution in human history. One of the first consequences was the sweeping through Native American populations of epidemics, diseases that Europeans had acquired immunities to, devastated the populations of the Americas with typhus, diphtheria, malaria, influenza, cholera, and especially smallpox. As Europeans traveled in lands new to them, epidemics preceded them, wiping out more than half the people.

How does the Reformation in Luther's Germany differ from the Reformation in Henry VIII's England?

The German Reformation began with Martin Luther, a slightly discontented clergyman who, in 1517, posted 95 points that he wanted to debate. Gradually his ideas expanded from that point onward, gaining momentum from, among other things, the invention of the printing press. He truly believed in his cause, and was motivated by the fact that he thought the Catholic Church was corrupt. He simply wanted to do away with many aspects of the Church instead of trying to alter or change them. Luther attested the church was buying and selling indulegences and making itself wealthy The English Reformation began with Henry VIII, . Henry VIII, incensed by Pope Clement VII's refusal to grant him an annulment of his marriage, repudiated papal authority and in 1534 established the Anglican church with the king as the supreme head. In spite of its political implications, the reorganization of the church permitted the beginning of religious change in England

What did Renaissance thinkers admire about ancient Greece and ancient Rome?

The feeling among most Renaissance thinkers and artists was that the ancient Greeks and Romans had achieved truly incredible things, things that had not been, and possibly could never be, surpassed. During the Renaissance, artists began to appreciate the Greek and classical Roman ideals. These classical ideals included things such as realism, symmetry, and harmony. Renaissance architects turned their back on medieval styles of building and copied Roman styles instead. Medieval gothic architecture was so-called because the aficionados of the "new" (actually, old) style considered it barbaric, despite the fact that it was not only innovative but also technically superior to anything the Greeks and Romans built. The very terms medieval and Middle Ages were coined by Renaissance writers to belittle the period in between the glories of the classical world and their supposed revival in the Renaissance. Ancient Greek sculptures emphasized balance,proportion, and the "perfect" human form. Ancient Greeks built strong buildings supported by mighty pillars and columns. They gave us the ideas of great philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle. They gave us lasting works of literature, including Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. From ancient Greece we have inherited important ideas about government, including the idea of democracy—rule by the people. Even the word democracy comes from the Greeks. The Greek word demos means "people." Later, the ancient Romans built upon the ideas and achievements of the Greeks. Like the Greeks, Romans prized sculpture with mythological themes.The Romans also built great structures, such as the Colosseum, and perfected the use of the arch and dome. They left us powerful literature such as the Aeneid by Virgil. The mighty Roman armies conquered lands and established a vast empire. -- greek and roman art styles were studied and changed

Explain the major principles of the economic theory of mercantilism How did King Louis 14 of France try to implement these principles.

an economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought. A nation's strength depends on its wealth, nations have to compete for their share of wealth, a balance of trade is important in gaining and keeping wealth, limit exports maximize exports, country should have raw materials so they dont depend on others, colonies exist so the home country can make money, a countries colonies should not trade with other countries Louis' domestic policy was to centralize the economy by taxing the peasants and the middle class, run key industries and make more exports than imports. Imposed tariffs on forgein goods, used state money to promote the domestic manufacture of imports like silk, lace etc.. Encouraged trade by improving frances roads, bridges and waterways

Why did Oliver Cromwell become so hated that the English people exhumed his body after his burial, dismembered it, and placed his head on top of a pole in London

he executed King Charles I, and established a republic. Oliver Cromwell turned his greedy gaze to Ireland, which teemed with the Catholics he despised, and which he wanted to bring to heel. And so he set off with his army, cutting a bloody swathe through the country, ruthlessly slaughtering soldiers and innocent civilians alike. Take the bloody siege of Drogheda, for example. After a stand-off with the commander in charge of enemy forces there, Cromwell ordered the town to be stormed. Thousands were killed in the attack, including an unknown number of civilians. In one particularly gruesome moment, soldiers seeking refuge in a church steeple were burnt alive when the building was set alight stealing their land (Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652), denying them legal rights and outlawing their religion (Penal Laws), or good old fashioned slaughter and enslavement Cromwell, in fact, distrusted the whole hierarchy of the Church of England, though he was never opposed to a state church. He therefore advocated abolishing the institution of the episcopate and the banning of a set ritual as prescribed in The Book of Common Prayer. He believed that Christian congregations ought to be allowed to choose their own ministers, who should serve them by preaching and extemporaneous prayer. His aim was to reform the law, to set up a Puritan Church, to permit toleration outside it, to promote education, and to decentralize administration. The resistance of the lawyers somewhat dampened his enthusiasm for law reform, but he was able to appoint good judges