Western Civilizations Baker Grove City

Edict of Milan (313)

This law reinforced a previous Edict of Toleration, which was made two years previously. Christians were exempted from making sacrifices to the emperors. As of 313 Christians in the Roman Empire were no longer criminals because of their faith

Alexander the Great (r. 336-323 BC)

Alexander III, one of the greatest generals who ever lived Conquered the Mediterranean world and Asia Minor Son of Philip II

Augustine of Hippo (d. 430 AD)

For the first time in 800 years barbarians' plundered the city of Rome. Non christain Romans thought the pagan gods were angry at the rise of christanity and as punishment removed their protection over Rome. Because of this christainity gained a bad image Wrote the book City of God to defend christianity

Arabization Battle of Tours (October 732)

(Might have been in Poitiers not Tours) In 710 the Muslim army attacked the Visigothic Kingdom and crushed them. Afterwards, in 732, they crossed the Pyrenees Mountains and attacked the Franks in The battle of Tours Frankish army, lead by Charles Martel, stopped and turned the Muslim invaders away. Muslims (aka Moors or Saracens) retreated into Iberian Peninsula. The Franks had stopped the Muslim advance into Europe for the time being.

Herod the Great (73-4 BC)

37 BCE - Herod "the Great" becomes the undisputed King of Judea Heavily persecuted Christians

Battle of Milvian Bridge (312)

A battle against Constantine and a rival who was a great persecutor of Christians (Maximus). Fighting over who would be Augustus of the west; resulted in a civil war The bridge was the only road across the Tiber river and the only escape route. Constantine had a vision of the Labarum in the sun and he had victory over the rival under this sign in a battle at the Milvian Bridge. Causes Constantine to make Christanity main religion. This victorious emperor then ordered all the empire to tolerate Christians by issuing the Edict of Milan (313)

Anglicanism

A distinctive church of England, that grew after King Henry's death. His son King Edward VI came to the throne as a child. His advisors began to push the Church of England away from the Church of Rome. Example: altered the significance of the sacraments and methods of worship More in line with Calvinism, Lutheranism, and Portostent reforms.

Tetrarchy

A form of government where the power is divided among 4 individuals instituted under Diocletian 2 in the East and 2 in the West Augustus is the higher power with a Caesar ruling under them. 1: Roman Empire split into 2: West/East and 4: Prefectures governed 12: Dioceses who ruled over 100: provinces 284: Diocletian becomes Emperor 286: Diocletian appoints Maximian co-emperor (Augustus) 293: Diocletian appoints Galerius and Constanius Junior co-emperors (Caesars) 305: Diocletian abdicates 306: Constantine claims title of Emperor when Constanius dies

Abelard and Heloise

Abelard: 1079-1142 "Scholastic adventurer" "Philosophical soldier of fortune" 1131: wrote "The Story of My Misfortunes" Heloise: 1090-1164 "Genius" Lover, wife, sister, student, brother, daughter, server of Abelard.

Capital of Roman Empire shifting from Rome to Constantinople (330)

After the completion of Constantinople, Constantine moved the capital from Rome to his new christian city. This new city gave a clean slate to build churches and a Christian society in a place that was more like home to Constantine and more strategic in terms of Ottoman Empire and loot surrounding Constantinople

Manorial Economics

Aka seigneurial economics The separate, private, and sociopolitical arrangements peasants participated in. As compared to the political relationships of knights Peasants paid for their armor, horses, and castles Term comes from the name for the medieval economic unit of a village and its fields, a manor, and the french name for the lord of the manor, seigneur.

Battle of Actium (31 BC)

Battle of Actium in 31 BC followed the Battle of Philippi Octavian & his general Agrippa v. Cleopatra & Marc Antony Octavian has incredibly powerful army and has been splintering from Marc Antony; Second Triumvirate is growing weaker Marc Antony with Cleopatra for her wealth, and Octavian is able to use this to manipulate the situation and make Antony look like a traitor to Rome After failed attempts at fighting, both Marc Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt committed suicide, so Octavian "wins" the battle Gave Octavian ultimate supremacy; he received the title of "Augustus" in 27 BC

Joan of Arc (1412 - 1431)

Believed that the voices of saints and angels told her to help the uncrowned French prince, the Dauphin 1429 → Dauphin Charles put her at the head of the French army and she led them to victory over the English; however, Joan was captured in battle Dauphin Charles was crowned King Charles VII (1429 - 1461) but did nothing to help Joan of Arc, so the English put her on trial as a heretic She was wearing men's clothes - a crime English burned Joan of Arc at the stake and scattered her ashes, rip

War of the Roses (1455-1487)

Civil wars between three aristocratic alliances: York, Lancaster and Tudor Lancaster dynasty lost to York dynasty who lost to Tudor dynasty (so Tudor dynasty is the one still around at the end of these wars) This led to Tudor dynasty (1485 - 1603) which provided England with a strong monarchy Henry VII was the first Tudor king; he sought to return to political stability in England He... Restricted the rights of aristocrats to maintain private armies Set special judges against lawbreakers Negotiated peace abroad Henry VII accomplished this all in alliance with the English Parliament and gave England a strong & flexible monarchy that could adapt Note: Henry VIII (the one with five wives and the father of Edward, Mary & Elizabeth) was also a part of the Tudor Dynasty

Chivalry

Code of the knights Nobility became an important part of knighthood

The Persian Wars (494-449 BC)

Concept: Freedom vs. Slavery Background: Persia's power covered most of Asia Minor where many Greeks lived Greeks rebelled and the War began lead by Emperor Darius 490 → First invasion under Darius Battle of Marathon Persain forces landed east of Athens (Village of Marathon) Allied forces with hoplites managed to push the Persains away 480 → Second Invasion; in face of the persian threat, the delian league was founded Lead by Xerxes, darius's son Xerxes assembled the largest army ever seen Avoiding sea-to-land battle he built a bridge across Dardanelles (separated Europe from Asia) 300 Spartans, joined by several hundred hoplites from other city-states BUT traitorous Greeks led Persians forces along a mountain behind Spartan line. Persian army was surrounded and slaughtered the Spartans Persians marched into abandoned Athens and set fire to it Greeks reconquering → Navy surprise attack, Persian captains panicked and retreated. Greeks had beaten the greatest empire in the world

Philip II of Macedon

Conquers the Greek

Destruction of the Second Temple and its impact of Judaism and Christianity (70 AD)

Emperor Vespasien sends his son Titus to finish the job of destroying the temple. Religion was centered around the temple, so the destruction of the temple building allowed the Christians to understand that they did not need a physical building in order to have faith and see Jesus Jerusalem was no longer the home of the church, it was moved to the Gentile church. Christians had to make their way independently in the Gentile world. Impact on Judaism: Jews realized that God was not merely limited to a physical building, but was an omniscient being Expanded understanding of true God and true faith

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Ended the Thirty Years' War Negotiations lasted for five years, from 1643 - 1648 Forced Europe into new international political relationships, which led to a completely shattered idea of a unified Christian kingdom that existed in the medieval times Religious Effects: Made "whose rule, his reign" a rule for all of Europe recognized valid denominations beyond Catholics and Lutherans People can no longer fight wars for religion, but the ruler does have control over what religion their country is Legal Effects: Withdrew political borders to restore balance of power Established each state as a sovereign state that was free from the influence of higher authorities However, they could get together to agree on international principles

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Essentially, Spain and Portugal divided up the world [prior to Vasco de Gama's arrival in the Indies, prior to Thirty Years' War, etc] Pope even blessed the proceedings Demonstration of great pride in Spain & Portugal They claimed global domination but couldn't encapsulate the existing powerful nations in African and Asia Spain & Portugal ruled the oceans, but couldn't beat Africa/Asia Other countries fought against Spain & Portugal rule → plundering along Spanish Main coastline Raids by Sir Francis Drake helped provoke Spanish Armada, for example By 1600, the Dutch, English & French took over Portugese bases in South Africa & East Indies and everything was redistributed

Erasmus (1466-1536)

Famous for producing the Greek New Testament in 1516 Colloquies in 1518 Decided that the vulgate was teaching incorrect things due to translation errors, so decided to make his own translated copy Famous as the best example of Christian humanism; sought to promote the best and most pure form of Christianity as he understood it from his readings of early church fathers His humanist outlook gave him mocking attitude towards authority though: he satirized all the problems of his contemporaries in the Western Latin Church

Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556)

First protestant archbishop of Canterbury who was an advisor to Henry VIII and Edward VI ... he was commissioned by king who used his theological standing against Catholicism to justify his divorce from Catherine of Aragon Part of both the Henrician Reformation (1532-1547) involving divorce (conservative), and the Edwardian Reformation (1547-1553) involving the book of common prayer (radical) Put the English Bible in parishes Drew up the Book of Prayer, still used today He was denounced for promoting protestantism under Cath Queen Mary I, and he was convicted of heresy and was burned at the stake

Alcibiades (~415?)

Following Peace of Nicias in 421, he is leader of Athens in 415 during Athenian Invasion of Sicily (his idea) Proposes plan to conquer Syracuse (aligned with Sparta) Accused of dismembering all Athenian Hermes statues & is sentenced to death To escape death, he switches sides to Sparta, tells Sparta of his plan, and they attack Athens Sparta overthrows Athens in 405, and the Peloponnesian League wins Peloponnesian War Pericles' nephew and Socrates' student in love with Socrates' student

Protestant Reformation (1517-1648)

Fractured the medieval unity of the christain church in the west beyond recovery. No longer was it only the Cathoic Church in Rome New denominations were created with the new idea of individual interpretation of scriptures. It addressed the role of the church in salvation The idea of the reformation had been around since the great western schism had divided the papacy. However, the reformation truly started with Martin Luther and his 95 theses. When Luther called out the church for buying indulgences.

Henry IV of Navarre

Henry IV of Navarre (a Protestant at the time) survived the St Bartholomew Day Massacre, gained military dominance, and founded the Bourbon dynasty in 1589 after death of final Valois Also known as "Henry of Bourbon" Temperate leader and politically savvy, he converted to Catholicism in 1593 saying "Paris is worth a mass" Known for protecting Protestants in France with the Edict of Nantes (1598); this allowed Protestants to worship freely and demanded religious tolerance Brought diversity also

Iconoclasm

Icons represent Bible stories to illiterate Icons were originally used in Catholic churches as visual aids in a society where a high percent of the population could not read- so pictures became a way of telling Bible stories without words Icons confusing to non-believers and unchurched Christian communities were surrounded on all sides by paganism and its idolatry. It was natural that many Christians, Jewish and Gentile, should strive to protect Christianity from the infection of idolatry When people were seen praying around icons, or keeping them in their homes, it was seen as praying to and worshipping the icon/shrine People then began confusing the role of icons, praying to them and kissing them, acting as if they are or brought that which is holy. Controversy Hated by monophysistics (The belief that the Son's nature is altogether DIVINE and not human despite birth, life, and death in a human body. Jesus has one nature: divine In 451, Monophysitism declared a heresy at the Council of Chalcedon Byzantines wanted to crush icons Verse used in defense John 1:18 "No one has ever seen God, but the one and only Son, who is himself God and is in closest relationship with the Father, has made him known." Catholics wanted to keep icons, and because of this, they became more independent overall from the Eastern church Timeline 726: Emperor Leo III bans "worship" of icons Byzantine who thought that his military failures were a result of a form of idolatry through icons 787: Emperor Irene condemns iconoclasm, icons re-established This improved relationship with papacy but did not prevent war with Franks (Irene declared herself empress after her son died) 815: Icons again forbidden under Leo V 843: Icons restored Widow of Theophilus restored and began the celebration of the Feast of Orthodoxy

Pericles (495-429)

Important author "The first citizen of Athens" The age of Perciles = 'Athens' Golden Age Better than Sparta because Athens had both military and culture Athenians had huge political pride Fierce defender of democracy in Athens. He believed: Do what you want privately, publicly follow laws Good citizens get involved in government, honorable to be in war

Saladin (1138-1193)

Muslim military and political leader Led the Islamic forces during the 2nd and 3rd crusades Filled with piety and violence Jerusalem fall in 1187

Clovis (r. 481-511)

King of the Franks, and a part of the Merovingians dynasty. Merovingian dynasty was believed to be blessed by God because they supported orthedox catholic christainity and political unity. Won support from local Roman population by converting to orthodox catholic christianity. Used blessing from clergy to conquer many neighboring Germans. Established an ethnically diverse kingdom Combined german tribes with Roman Gauls

Mercantilism (~1485)

Linked the growing early modern nation-states to their new colonial empires Theory that accumulation of wealth in precious metals within a country's own borders was the best measure of economic success Favored government innovation in the economy; thought that governments' interests in economic success would help Idea that a regime should have a favorable trade balance as a sign of economic success (that is, equally valuable imports and exports This did lead to governments intervening & trying to ensure that exports were higher than imports in terms of purchasing power

Second Triumvirate (43 BCE)

Made up of: Mark Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus (not super important) - they all had the common enemy of Caesar's assassins Mark Antony- known for brute force One of the most powerful generals under Caesar Read Caesar's will out loud awkwardly announcing Octavian as heir Forced Cassius and Brutus to leave Rome hunted down Brutus through entire Roman Empire... He and Octavian fight Brutus and Cassius in the Battle of Phillipi Called the Eastern leaders who supported Brutus and Cassius together to make sure they would be loyal to Rome and him...including Cleopatra Married Octavian's sister Octavia (known as "virtuous wife"), but went back east to hang out with Cleopatra...bad idea bc Octavian gets Romans to believe that Mark Antony has fallen to this woman who is going to take over and make Egypt the center of the empire

The Black Death (1347)

Mass spread of disease affecting and wiping out both the urban and rural Christendom Mortality rates rose Dissatisfaction with the government Labor shortages lead to peasant rebellions Speculation about the origin of the plague Beginning of the end for the High Middle Ages

Serfs

Peasants who worked on medieval manors for manorial lords were known as Serfs. They has servile status but not as low as slaves They were legally connected and bound to the land of their lords. They owed obedience, some work, and dues (in the form of portions from their crops)

Martin Luther (b. 1483 - d. 1546)

Son of prosperous Saxon peasants Became a professor at the university, and served as a pastor. Dedicated himself to monastic discipline He disapproved of indulgences This lead him to leave the Catholic church and create his own denomination.

Justinian Code

Reorganization of the old Roman laws into a Book of Civil Laws. The legal handbook secured the authority of the Byzantine emperors for centuries to come and helped the west rebuild its governments after the twelfth century Justinian's Code also placed regulations on Jews in the Byzantine Empire and began to take away the Jews' ability to practice what was formerly a legal religion. The code allowed the state to intervene in religious Jewish questions

The Trial of Socrates (399)

Socrates (470-399) Socratic method - A form of teaching that uses a question & answer format to enable students to reach conclusions by using their own reasoning Traditionalist put hm on trail

Cicero (106-63 BC)

Strong believer in Roman republic; served in the army & then started a career as a lawyer Wrote On Duties to his son, Cicero Jr, and discussed what the traits of a good soldier were Intended it as a manual of instruction for ethics & virtue His thoughts transferred into real rules for conduct

Socrates and Euthyphro's Debate

Takes place in Plato's 'Trial & Death of Socrates' in 'The Apology' Debate over piety The two men argue over piety and its definition Euthyphro says that piety is what is loved by the gods Socrates says this is impossible, for the gods disagree amongst themselves Euthyphro finally leaves the conversation

Caesaropapism

The exercise of supreme authority over ecclesiastical matters by a secular ruler (This problem was in the East) Should the emperor or the bishops of Constantinople have more power?

Monophysitism (451)

The belief that the Son's nature is altogether DIVINE and NOT human despite birth, life, and death in a human body. Jesus has one nature: divine Monothelitism declared a heresy at the council of Chalcedon

Nicene Creed (325 AD)

The creed was written in the Councils of Nicaea which were called to settle the issue of Jesus's divinity. Questions were raised by Gnostics about the combined humanity and divinity of Jesus. The Nicene Creed is a statement of belief in God and the Trinity. It was established at the first Council of Nicaea in 325

Hellenization (338 - 146 BC)

The process by which the conquered people adapted to Greek civilization Hellenistic Age was from 338 - 146 BC Occurred under Alexander the Great (Alexander III)'s reign Alexander allowed for non-Greeks (conquered) to integrate into the Greek army, allowed intermarriage, etc. Following his death, Greek culture gave way to the Hellenistic period, where pure Greek culture was no longer present and instead was a mix of other cultures

Vasco de Gama (1460 - 1524)

Traveled around the Cape of Good Hope 30 years after DiazHelped Portugal beat Spain to the Indies In 1498 he sailed up the east coast of Africa and across the Arabian Sea to reach India He had little value to trade with the Indians, but he brought back spices which profited him. On his second trip out there the Portuguese military technology of guns overpowered the natives. He plundered foregin merchant cargos, blew Arab ships out of the water, shelled cities, exploited rivalries between states, and intimidated princes

The Liberal Arts

Trivium: "The Foundations" Grammar (write and speak) Logic (think) Rhetoric (argue) Quadrivium: "The Subjects" Arithmetic (pure numbers) Geometry (numbers in space) Music (numbers in time) Astronomy (numbers in space and time) All citizens had to learn this in order to be considered a "good person" in society "Liberalis" - Worthy of a free person

Tribunes

Two kinds of tribunes: military tribunes and plebeian tribunes Office created by the Patricians; tribunes protected plebeian citizens from aristocratic magistrates who unjustly intimidated plebeians Tribunes created in response to the citizens seeking a more democratic government in spite of government's aggression Tribunician authority → one of the broadest and most powerful positions in state This paved the way for Patricians allowing plebeians to have the Assembly of Tribes, which was the major plebeian government body that could make laws, declare, war, elect judges Tribunes led to greater checks & balances in the Roman republic system

Octavian-

adopted son of Caesar who was 18 when Caesar was killed Helped Antony take down Brutus and Cassius at Battle of Philippi Declares war on Cleopatra with Mark Antony on her side

Monastic Learning/Tradition

contemplative and literary learning (not argumentative) Lecto Divina - close reading of scripture "The Gloss" a scholar went through text line by line and commented on the words and phrases, talking about underlying scriptural significance

Battle of Philippi (42 BCE)

one of the largest of the Roman civil wars in modern day Greece both Cassius and Brutus committed suicide here In the South, Antony fought Cassius- Antony kinda won but it was really a draw, and Cassius committed suicide, thinking Brutus had lost In the North, Octavian fought Brutus, and then regathered with remaining of Cassius' troops, fought hard, but lost... leaving 2nd Triumvirate in control

Puritanism

the beliefs or principles of a group of English Protestants of the late 16th and 17th centuries who regarded the Reformation of the Church under Elizabeth I as incomplete and sought to simplify and regulate forms of worship. Focus on the preached Word & the pulpit, instead of pre-Reformation focus on the altar and ceremony Sought to purify the church from what they believed was incorrect

Maccabean Revolt (167-160 BCE)

A Jewish revolt that rejected forced Hellenism the Seleucids empire. It was lead by the Maccabean family Hellenism was the culture of Greece The Seleucid Kingdom was the largest of the Hellenistic kingdoms and spreads from the Persian Empire to India, it was in competition with the Ptolemaic Kingdom for Judea. The Seleucids gained control of Judea in 198 BCE It established the Hasmonean Dynasty who expanded in the region thanks to the weaknesses of the Seleucids

Arianism (Around 325)

A large group of heretics, the Arians. They remained unconvinced about Jesus's complete combination of divinity and humanity. They denied the divinity of Jesus Christ. They did not believe God the Son and God the Father were the same, they caused division in the Church They spread their version of the faith and tried to convince the majority to change its mind. They convinced emperors to switch sides and even Germans outside of the Roman Empire. For a long time, heretical Arianism looked as if it would become the orthodox faith. But Christian leadership persecuted, exiled, and executed the heretics and by the sixth century only a few Arian Christians survived in the empire. Many called Nestorians spread their version of Christ throughout Asia

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

A main event in the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation which recognized, if only in varying degrees, the need for some level of reform of Catholicism What it said and did Insisted on justification through faith that is supported by good works which is combined with the mediating role of priests and sacraments Limited some abuses and corruption Established seminary schools for a better- educated priesthood Affirmed that their true church through the papacy has the only final authority to define belief and interpret scripture, not conscience or scholarship

Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

A war that involved the entire continent, very destructive to central Europe, involving fractured remains from the Holy Roman Empire, France, Sweden, Denmark and England (Germany was not yet its own country, but was the battleground for this war) Immediate cause of war started in Bohemia Ferndinand II, Habsburg Catholic King of Bohemia sent representatives to inform powerful protestants that Prague and the rest of Bohemia would be Catholic Defenestration of Prague Ferdinand was then chosen as Holy Roman Emperor, was rejected by the Czechs (Bohemians), who were crushed and all land left to Catholics and Protestants were banned in these conquered places Protestant King of Denmark (very wealthy) got involved to preserve Protestantism, then the King of Sweden France aligned with Sweden, not for religious reasons (France was Catholic), but because politically, they did not want the surrounding Habsburg empire to encroach on France Ended because devastation became too horrible with high rates of mortality 1 million soldiers were deployed, ⅓ of them died Even more civilians died, with 15-20% of the German population dying (3 million conservatively)

William the Conqueror (r. 1066-1087)

Also known as William "the Bastard" Norman duke → King of England The Normans were Vikings (Norsemen) who had seized and settled a province of France, naming it Normandy Death of Edward the Confessor (died without an heir) leaves England throne open to three people: Harold of Wessex, William the Conqueror, and Harold, King of Denmark William the Conqueror fought in the Battle of Hastings (14 October 1066) and defeated Harold of Wessex This became known as the Norman Conquest of England and changed the course of history French/Viking culture erased Anglo-Saxon people: William wipes out Anglo-Saxon Lords/Leaders and replaces them Norman leaders Christmas 1066: William the Conqueror is crowned King of England (Norman Ascendency)

Delian League (480 BC)

An alliance of poleis dedicated to defeating Persia and liberating Ionian Greeks i.e formed in response to the Persian War When poleis attempted to withdraw from the League, the League took over their city Believed they were the rightful leaders of Hellenes Originally headquartered on island of Delos; formed by Athens

Commercial Revolution (1350-1600)

Capitalism becomes an engine for economic progress The European economy grew better over the long term Capitalism helped make Western civilization the most powerful culture the world has ever known, this time period has been labeled as the Commercial Revolution by historians consisted of the creation of a European economy based on trade Direct effects: banks were established, but it led to public debt, good for the rich and bad for the poor The Hundred Years War (1338-1453) between France and England illustrated transition from medieval to modern Follows the Black Death

The Desert Fathers and Mothers (313ish and beyond)

Christianity under Constantine was too worldly and comfortable for them Christians were accepting a wealth and privilege unfathomable to previous generations with throne and altar become inseparable These christians fled this new Christianity and went to live an ascetic lifestyle, becoming a model for monasticism They did not believe in letting themselves be passively guided, they rejected comforts and pleasure, gave all they had to the poor and spent their time in prayer and hymns Some examples Abba Anthony, Abba Daniel, Symeon the Stylite (spent 37 years on the top of a pole in Syria)

Apostolic Succession Dominate

Christians accepted the belief that those whom Jesus had charged with His mission could pass on that authority to others, one to the next, and they, in turn, to still others. This began the distinction between the laity (normal Christians) and the secular clergy (church officials). Overseers (later evolving into bishops) began to manage elders (priests) and servers (deacons). Soon each bishop had a special church called a cathedral from which he administered a territory called a diocese. Church councils, starting with the first major one described in the Acts of the Apostles, brought the Christian leaders together to debate and resolve important controversies

Constantine (r. 306-337)

Christians attained safety and security through him After his father's death in 306 the troops proclaimed him imperial successor. He successfully defeated other claimants, seizing the imperial supremacy for himself Constantine continued the strong imperial government revitalized by Diocletian adding 3 improvements He solved the question of succession by creating an old-fashioned dynasty. (A son would inherit from the father Constantine built a new capital for the eastern half of the administratively divided empire. It was close to key trade routes, in the heart of the Greek population, and easily defensible. He named it Constantinople Constantine reversed Diocletian's religious policy of exterminating all Christians instead he decided to help them. He had a vision of the Christian symbol of the labarum and won victory over the imperial rival. Instituted the Edict of Milan (see below) Brought about church and state can't be separate in one emperor

Calvinism

Created by Jean Calvin (b. 1509- d. 1564) Inspired by Martin Luther Was solidified after Clavin became the leading preacher in Geneva and brought his ideas with him Geneva became the center of theocracy, a government based on divine commands. How Calvinism was different from Lutheranism Calvinism focused on predestination (aka determinism) The belief that God determines everything in advance, no free will. Different democratic tendency Lead by ministers or preachers instead of a pope or prince

Indulgences

Developed out of western latin church's sacramental system of penance. When one committed a sin the church taught one had to do pence. Later in the middle ages some clever clerics suggested a person could pay cash to the church for their pence. Making the western latin church gain a considerable amount of money. Martin Luther did not like the idea of indulgences and decided to leave the western atin church and start his own denomination.

Peloponnesian War (460-404 BC)

Each polis pursue their own aims without thinking of what would be best for all greeks. Sparta/Peloponnesians and Athens/Delian League Sparta (Elephant) vs Athens (Whale): Heart of the fight was about ideology differences. Sparta: Oligarchic, gazed inward and worked on discipline Athens: Democratic, looked outward and reveled in culture Both sides would also attack neutral states 421 BC truce was called, however the Athens became addicted to power. Decided to outflank Syracusans by sea, they landed in 415 BC. Instead of attacking both sides built a wall This left Athens really weak, So when Sparta counter attacked they cut off athens by land and sea. Athens surrendered in 404 BC None of this lead to peace or prosperity

Julius Caesar's Death (44 BCE)

Feb 14 BCE, Julius Caesar was named dictator for life by the Senate Many senators (of the Optimates) including Marcus Junius Brutus, Cassius Longinus, and Decimus Brutus, feared that Caesar wanted to overthrow the Republic and establish a monarchy, so they thus decided to kill him to save the Republic. March 15, BCE → Stabbed him 23 times on the floor of the Roman Senate Despite the death of Caesar, the conspirators were unable to restore the institutions of the Republic, and ended up in more unrest Mark Antony proposed amnesty was given to assassins and gave the dramatic and political Funeral Oration for Caesar, bringing up Caesar's bloody robe and wax replica of the stabbed body

John Calvin

Frenchman who was inspired by Lutheranism to create his own religious framework of Calvinism, that differed from Lutheranism in two main ways: Predestination- the idea that God knows and has determined in advance the final destination in heaven or hell of all people before they are even born Democratic tendency- members of the church should be involved in running it and should choose their pastors instead of some distant priest or pope He solidified his ideas in Geneva, Switzerland- which became a theocracy (gov based on divine commands) and the epicenter for Protestants, the "Protestant Rome"

Hoplite Revolution (600BC)

Greek warriors lightly protected by helmet and round shield. They were armed with a long spear and a short sword. Key to battle success was phalanx [phalanx: four hundred men in lines; defended one another with shields and helmets] Gave more freedom to the people, but had to supply their own armor "Revolution" - they wanted land reform, and hoplites successfully overthrew aristocracy in combat Military change → political change Significance: brought forth citizenship, which led to...

Justinian (r. 527-565)

His reign marked the transition from the ancient Roman Empire to the medieval Byzantine Empire Justinian has been considered both the last emperor of Rome and the first Byzantine emperor. He aimed to restore Rome to its former Glory. Conquest Truce with Persian Empire to ease pressure on Eastern border Reconquered Northern Africa and Italy (533-564) Relied upon mercenaries and paying tribute Re-organization Cultivated economic growth through trade and agriculture to create a larger tax base (unsuccessfully) Organized a more efficient tax system Codified Roman law; known as Justinian Code (529-534) Adornment Built up fortifications of Constantinople Sponsored the arts, sciences, and architecture Christianization Hagia Sophia - largest building in the known world Staunch defender of the Nicene Church Recognized the primacy of Rome (528) Tried to Enforce Chalcedon Brutally suppressed pagans and Jews However his attempt to restore the Imperium Romanum in the west was less successful. The eastern empire also lacked the resources and power to hold onto the old western provinces of Rome and after his death, most of Italy fell back under the control of squabbling German kings.

Christian Humanism (~1466)

Humanism bent to a more Christian view It still emphasized classics (using the critical mind, taking action in the world) but added an interest of Christian writings & learning Hebrew Christian humanism the result of Renaissance ideas spreading to Europe from Italy Most famous Christian humanist: Erasmus

Textual Criticism

Inspired by Petrarch & created by Florentines during the Renaissance Intellectuals began to scour old monastic libraries for manuscripts and edited what they found This created textual criticism as an intellectual tool; in layman's terms, it's rereading old texts and comparing different versions of an author's writings to find the best and most accurate text Famous example: Lorenzo Valla's discourse disproving the Donation of Constantine and showed it was a forgery

Angevin Empire/Dynasty (r. 1154 to 1485 the rest of the Middle Ages)

King Henry I died (1135), leaving no direct heir (sired over 20 children) to the throne This caused a civil war Henry's daughter Matilda and current husband Geoffrey (Count of Anjou) vs. her cousin Stephen of Blois Matilda and Geofrrey won in battle, but they still negotiated a truce: after Stephen's death the English throne would go to Matilda and Goeffrey's son, King Henry II (r. 1154-1189) Angevin Dynasty founded by young King Henry II Also known as Plantagenets (after a flower adopted as a symbol) Henry II inherited Normandy and Anjou from his mother and father, and Aquitaine through marriage its duchess Eleanor So, King Henry II reigned over an empire that stretched from the Scottish border to the Mediterranean Sea

Magna Carta (1215)

Latin for "great charter" King John was seen as weak and unfit to be King by the people He lost ALL of France during his reign and did not know how to fight in the war He was arrogant, and didn't care that the people did not respect him This called for a treaty to smooth things over Magna Carta: treaty between the king, clergy, barons, and the townspeople of England accepted royal authority but limited its abuses Made the king subject to law, not above it Set rules for taxation and scutage (shield tax) Set limits on king's control of wardship and over noble widows Essentially, this was the people saying what they needed from King John to not revolt King John had no intention of following the Magna Carta, and Pope supported him Henry II (King John's son) does follow the Magna Carta when he becomes king, and people pledge fidelity to English Monarch (Henry II) once again

Spanish Armada (1587-1588)

Led by Phillip II of Spain, 130 ships were sent with the excuse of his wife Bloody Mary being beheaded in 1587 and the plan to invade England Plans crushed by bad weather and the famous English sea dog Sir Frances Drake, who destroyed most of the fleet in harbor, and the second fleet was not much better Spanish commanding officer had never been to sea Underestimated the strategic advantage the English had in the channel Turning point of Spain's fall and England's rise as the power in Europe Seen to the Protestants as God's favor being shown to them by the "sending of storms to stop the Catholics"

Pax Romana (27 BC - 180 AD)

Means "the Roman peace," brought in by Augustus (Octavian) Provided political and social stability Trade prospered; Roman empire provided one currency and stable conditions for trade expansion, creation of roads, etc Pax Romana was not compete peace, though → "peace with a price" There were still wars, revolts, etc. but there was peace between Roman nations generally Started with reign of Augustus, ended with Emperor Commodus

The Medici Family (dynasty r. 1434 - 1737)

Most prominent family in Florence; played a key role in supporting the intellectual revival of the Renaissance after they took over leadership in Florence Rose to power initially in local government financed by family banking business Medici family founded their own aristocratic dynasty survived rebellions, assassination plots, invasions, banishments Aspired to be "patrons of the arts" and to foster creative interaction w/ Greece and Rome

Lutheranism

New denomination of christanity started by Martin Luther The first of the Reformation He believed in allowing people to interpret scripture for themselves. If it is not in the scriptures you don't have to follow it. For example, Luther closed monasteries.

Principate (27 BC - 284 AD)

Octavian's government system; he refused the title of king and instead took the rank of "first citizen" (princeps) He collected other titles: consul, tribune, pontifex maximus (head priest, a position previously chosen through election) 27 BC → Octavian given title of "Augustus" and is granted maius imperium in 23 BC Principate preserved old forms of the republic but in name only; Senate was under princeps control Senate no longer has advisors or legislates Also the term for the first period of the Roman Empire, from Augustus' reign to end of Crisis of the Third Century

Charlemagne/ Charles the Great (742-814 AD)

On Christmas of 800, Charlemagne was declared Holy Roman Emperor of what became known as the Holy Roman Empire- the varying complex of lands in western and central Europe ruled over first by Frankish and then by German kings for 10 centuries (800-1806) 53 military campaigns in 46 years By empowering courtiers and nobles and holding yearly assemblies, he created the impression of consensus.. He was great at delegating and making people feel like they had power while he held most of the power himself Education and Religion Created more uniformity in the canon, law, liturgy, and monastic practices Clergy became more educated Reinstated the Roman education system (with 7 liberal arts) and reintegrated Roman writing and philosophy

The First Crusade

Only successful one of seven November 27, 1095: Urban II's speech at Clermont August 1096: Official Crusaders leave for Holy land June 7, 1099: Crusaders arrive in Jerusalem Most people died on the way July 15, 1099: Crusaders enter Jerusalem High point Fulfillment and Finally took back the holy city Low point Horrific, killed all jewish people, rape and slaugther Created the Crusader States

Roman Conquest of Judea (198 BC)

Originally Alexander the Great's kingdom Part of Selucid kingdom founded by General Selucidus who received it after Alex's death Seleucid Kingdom was the largest Hellenitstic kingdom and spread from old persian Empire to India Competition with other kingdoms for Judea; Seleucids gained control in 198 BC Led into Maccabean Revolt (167 - 160 BC), which rejected former Hellenistic principles and established the Hasmonean Dynasty (expanded the region due to Seleucid's weakness)66 AD → first Jewish revolt in Caesara

Balance of Power (1648)

Part of the Peace of Westphalia, most important part Ensured that the countries that had split into sovereign states would still league together against any single state that tried to dominate Europe Kept the great powers in check and left the middle-ranked and smaller states free to prosper Similar to checks & balances system for USA Made it so that one state could not grow too strong and take over the rest

Patricians vs. Plebeians (Roman Republic, c.a 500 BC - 27 BC)

Patricians → the aristocrats, landowners who could be a part of the state and controlled all political positions Plebeians → free-born peasants; they sought out a larger say in their government Plebeian v. Patrician 'battle' for power in state: 494 BC: Plebs withdrew from State & army; tribunes created 471 BC: Council of Plebeians created Council of Plebs was only binding to Plebeians; laws called plebiscite Gave the Plebs the illusion of power, but Patricians were still very much in power 445 BC: Plebeians and Patricians allowed to intermarry (this was the only way for Plebs to move up the social ladder) 367 BC: A Plebeian could be elected as Consul Consul: Senate position of chief magistrate, one of two 287 BC: Hortensian Law ensured that all plebiscite was binding on everyone Change came about in similar structure to Greeks & Hoplite Revolution: military change → political change

Frankish-Papal Alliance

Pepin or Pippin "The Short" (r. 741-768), son and heir of Charles Martel. Frankish Mayor of the Palace Was unhappy with ruling as mayor in the name of the crowned king Childeric III (of the Merovingian Dynasty). So Pepin went to the Bishop of Rome (aka the Pope). Pepin's best connection to the divine. The Papacy (Institution of popes), needed a new ally in the west. They got the letter from Pepin asking the question "Should the one with power to be king, actually be king?" They needed Pepin's army so they agreed with him. So Childeric III was was shaved and sent to a monastery. The Papacy crowned Pepin King of the Franks, twice. To thank the pope, Pepin donated a chunk of central Italy to the pope. Called the Donation of Pippin, and became the Papal States This event created a profitable relationship between pope and Pippin. Called the Frankish-Papal Alliance

Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377)

Philip IV wanted to grab hold of the papacy for himself and his dynasty. Philip IV helped elect a Frenchman as pope, Clement V (r. 1305- 1314), who was on Philip IV side (they were tight, like this *crosses fingers*). Clement packed up and moved the Curia (an official body that governs a particular Church in the Catholic Church.) out of ROME to the city AVIGNON. Named for actual captivity of Jews, but this time the popes were not actually captive Popes were able to expand their administration of Western Latin Church Paid for power by collecting tithes, annates, and even took over the right to name people to the church offices Essentially, popes were thriving, but people wanted to have their bishop reside in Rome Pope Gregory XI first pope to return after Babylonian Captivity in 1377

The Allegory of the Cave/Platonic Forms (~360 BC)

Plato's Forms: special set of entities that lie beyond ordinary existence, and we live among inferior copies of these forms Each form is what explains those particular things at the phenomenal level that shares its name or resembles it (ex: what is a chair?) Forms exist independently of minds and particular things Forms are those things that the philosopher aims to grasp when she attempts to understand anything important Allegory of the Cave: there cannot be good in the cave, only a shadow of it We are the people chained, and what we see on earth is not all there is (abstract view of knowledge) Platonic idea of the soul: soul has mind, soul has courage, soul has appetites\ Divided the republic into realms by this principle: 1) farmers (appetites), 2) soldiers (courage), and 3) philosophers (mind)

polis (800 BC)

Poleis created the first tension within democracy, democracy is difficult polis - city state (ex. Athens, Sparta; several hundred total) where all the citizens participate in government, religion, etcetera Greater loyalty to polis than to actual state Form of government varied among polis: oligarchy, democracy, etc. Geographic determinism → people were limited by city-states literally

Romanization

Policy offered by Romans to survivors of their conquests Part of new "inclusiveness" idea to success, different from Greeks The vanquished were allowed to become more like Romans instead of beaten prisoners They could keep local government, keep their traditions and religions All they had to do was... Accept Roman control of foreign affairs Contribute taxes Provide military service Through this, the people slowly became more like Romans, and willingly - they adopted Latin and the Roman laws, even took up Roman virtues

Oracles (Socrates 469-d. 399 BC)

Provided guidance for everyday things and Political decisions. Young women who were given the gift of prophecy Delphic Oracle said Socrates was the wisest man alive. Made Socrates realize that genuine wisdom is self-knowledge

Citizenship in Athens (Greece settled on some sort of Democracy 500 BC)

Resident "foreigners" could not participate Foreigner [anyone not descended from the founders of the particular polis, ethic Greek or not] Adult women → no legitimate political role, excluded, children, large numbers of slaves, and poor (b/c of property requirements) were excluded Greeks limited democracy to adult male citizens who held a defined amount of wealth. % of people engaging in democracy ranged from 30-3 in city-state's population. This is an improvement to early Greek/ middle eastern civilization at the time

Conquistadors (~1492)

Spanish adventurers who conquered much of the Americas Had three things to aid them: A firm conviction that God was blessing their cause Financial backing A strong military with horses, guns Followed in the footsteps of Christopher Columbus Overtake by Spanish conquistadors called the Columbian Exchange

The Medieval University

Term university comes from Anglo-Norma "community" - a body of masters and scholars engaged in giving and receiving instruction Abelard: said to be the founder of the University of Paris Evolved from cathedral and monastic schools, no formal campus, (classes were taught in the cathedral, homes, and monasteries), teachers were paid by the Catholic church (so teachers taught under the church), and teaching of theology was restricted by the Catholic church, but it was still a Catholic education Holy Order: students did not have to follow holy orders, but scholars were required to follow minor holy orders Students were under the jurisdiction of the church Not bound to secular law, only the church could discipline them

The Founding Myths of Rome

Three founding myths: Romulus and Remus (753 BC) Two brothers Romulus and Remus, sons of Mars, washed ashore in Italy and raised by a she-wolf; both brothers founded Rome initially However, Romulus killed his brother Remus and named Rome after himself This makes Rome founded on fratricide Rape of Lucritia (509 BC) Sextus, son of Etruscan king, and Lucretia, wife of Roman aristocrat Sextus forced Lucretia to have sex with him; she went to her husband and father and told them what happened, then killed herself They told Brutus, and he organized a rebellion and threw Etruscans out of city, made SPQR swear off monarchy This makes Rome's political freedom founded on rape & suicide Aenas (600 BC) Around 600 BC Rome fell under Etruscan influence From AD 70 onward the divergence of the paths of Jewish Christianity and orthodox Judaism was decisive. Henceforth the main stream of Christianity must make its independent way in the Gentile worldAenas was based on Homeric myth and considered a son of Aphrodite He left Troy and ended up in Italy, became king and founder of Rome The point : Romans were proud of violence as start of country, made them feel empowered Regardless of myth, evidence shows Rome had definitely won freedom from the Etruscan dominion by 500 BC

First Triumvirate (62 BC)

Three-man coalition formed by Julius Caesar with Crassus and Pompey Julius Caesar was the youngest member, from Patrician lineage and part of the conquest of Spain Pompey was Sulla's successor and also a brilliant general; he created fame for himself through helping with the conquest of Spain and in the East Considered "hero of the Republic," had incredible following, but not well-liked by Senate Crassus was least famous, and he was wealthy, but not much battle glory; famous for ending a slave revolt All wanted different things: Caesar wanted to be council, Pompey wanted Senate to agree with his Eastern treaties, and Crassus wanted to get a generalship, so the three joined forces to all get what they wanted Caesar was elected, but he did an awful job: just wanted to pass his own laws and had no interest in the other council He did fulfill his promises to Pompey & Crassus However, Caesar was such a bad ruler that he feared what would happen when he left office Since you can't be convicted while in office, he decided to start the Gallic Wars Eventually Caesar turns on his colleagues and defeats them; he kills Pompey in Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC

Death of the Gracchi Brothers (133 BC)

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, two Patrician brothers who tried to help the Plebians They used extralegal violence to their advantage Gracchi brothers were part of populares party; their enemies, the optimates, rose up against them and killed them in 133 BC [don't know if this will matter, but populares → advocated for democracy, broader political base, land reform; optimates → advocated for oligarchy with as little reform as possible] Their deaths essentially meant that Rome's previous democracy, with checks and balances that compensated for class balances, had fallen to violence & tyranny

Scholasticism

Took the contradictions found in monastic and traditional texts Disputation ("disputio") - resolve the discrepancy through philosophical analysis and application of logic rules, and above all ARGUMENTATION Determination ("determinio") - attempt to reconcile the apparent contradictions... AGGRESSIVE way of learning

Proscription (late 100s BC)

Tool used by Romans to remove overly powerful politicians from Senate Was a posted notice (rostrum) listing Roman citizens who had been declared outlaws and whose goods were confiscated Anyone could kill those listed on proscription without penalty Further example of Rome's swing towards violent tendencies

Marius vs. Sulla

Two people: Gaius Marius (r. 107 - 86 BC on and off) and Lucius Sulla (c. 138 - 78 BC) Gaius Marius was a Roman general who professionalized the army - used to be farmers, now it was full-time career to fight People were loyal to Rome AND their general Marius hated by Patricians, although he rallied army behind him Lucius Sulla was a Roman general who opposed Marius; he was a brilliant general disliked by Plebeians Conflict: when war arose, Sulla was sent to be the general, not Marius Sulla won the war, but returns to find that people hate him Why? Marius is dead now, but before he died, he spread rumors about Sulla Sulla goes and slaughters Marius' followers in response, then retires in 79 BC

"Divide and Rule"

Utilized by the Roman emperor Julius Caesar, Hadsburgs, others Roman government divided their reign up; very dependent on local government Client kingdoms; Romans supported the power of local elites in return for help ruling, so Rome had to work less to have their empire For Judea, divided into four groups: Sadducees: favored adherence to Hebrew Law and cooperation with Romans Pharisees: strict adherence to Jewish ritual and wanted to be free of Roman rule, but didn't use violence Essenes: Jewish sect that lived in religion and waited for Messiah to save them Zealots: military extremists who wanted to overthrow Rome

Rule of Benedict Guilds (c. 540), Benedict of Nursia c. 480-550

Vow of Obedience: emphasis on obedience to God through obedience to the abbot and their rule (faith, humility, and silence) Vow of Stability: living in one community until death (coenobites not hermits, and single-gendered community) Conversion of Life: simplicity not aestheticism, no personal property "A monk shall call nothing at all his own" Work and prayer are main parts of this rule as well Vow of Humility: waking with heads down, practicing extreme repentance with God and their brothers, and observing strict silence except during the performance of liturgy These were guidelines for how to structure a monastery No hard age limits Abelard fails all these rules (reason for his conflict with the monastery)

The Sophists (~450 & beyond)

Wandering scholars and teachers in ancient Greece stressed the importance of rhetoric and tended towards skepticism/relativism Hated Socrates, and he likewise; the "anti-Socrates" Viewed as amoral, expensive, exploitative Sophists offered Greek men an education in aretē, and taught skills like... How to reach conclusions; how to produce clear transitions between two points; how to frame analogies; how to split a subject into multiple points; how to tailor speeches to specific audiences Sophists' beliefs focused on differences between law & nature; they did NOT believe in natural law, believed law is just convention Believed MAN is the measure of all things, and thus, the aim is to prevail

Punic Wars (264 BC - 146 BC)

War fought between the Phoenecians and the Romans over Carthage, the Phoenecians' major city, and their control over Sicily and the central Mediterranean Most remarkable stage of Wars: Hannibal's invasion of Italy in 218 BC Marched from Carthaginian territories to the Alps to enter Italy from the North (with elephants!) Hannibal rampaged and caused damage but failed to defeat Rome itself Rome's counterattack in Africa in 203 BC, then another battle in 204 at Zama Battle at Zama → Romans finally defeated Phoenicians in battle In 146 BC, Rome finally destroyed Carthage and wiped out all traces of Phoenician culture Rome's takeaway: if we're kind to those who conquer, they won't rise up End of Rome's benevolence

The Fourth Crusade

Was a very low point Called in 1198 by Innocent III 1198: Venice would exchange ships needed to transport crusader army for 85,000 silver marks and ½ of the plunder in form the crusade. 1202: Venetian ships ready but crusaders don't have the money. Venetian gave them the ships anyway and expected the pay later, if the crusaders conquered Zadar for them. 1202: Crusader army set sail for Zadar, and conquers it for Venice. Wait for winter to end before traveling to the Middle East. Going on in Constantinople 1182: Alexius III took his brother's (Isaac II) place as king after Byzantine Coup overthrew Isaac II. 1202: Alexius IV (Son of Isaac II) asks crusaders to restore him to the throne, for more troops, money and the healing of the rift between churches in the east and west. 1203: Crusaders go to Constantinople, Alexius III flees, and Isaac II is restored as king. Isaac gives the throne to Alexius IV 1204: Sacking of Constantinople

95 Theses

Written by Martin Luther They were a list of arguments about his developing theological point of view October 31, 1517: He posted them on the door of the Wittenberg church Because of the new printing press Luther's 95 Theses spread very far and very quickly. This was not his intention to become such a big deal

The Gallic Wars (58-51 BCE)

campaigns in which the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar conquered Gaul. The point: bring glory to Caesar- minimal gains for Roman Empire, major gains for Caesar Mostly a propaganda mission, most all of the land conquered was unurban and without wealth... but it did make Julius Caesar look good Caesar wrote "Gallic Wars" to send back to Rome as the ultimate propaganda puff piece First to cross the Rhine River and English Channel and built a bridge over the Rhine 1 million Gallic dead and 1 million enslaved (side note) Crossing of the Rubicon Seen as the start of the Roman Civil War ultimately led to Caesar becoming dictator and the rise of the imperial era of Rome.Caesar had been appointed to a governorship over a region that ranged from southern Gaul to Illyricum (but not Italy). As his term of governorship ended, the Roman Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army and march on Rome. He was explicitly ordered not to bring his army across the Rubicon river, which was at that time a northern boundary of Italy. In winter of 49 BC, Caesar brought the 13th legion across the river, which the Roman government considered insurrection, treason, and a declaration of war on the Roman Senate. Famous quote "The die is cast" said by Caesar, meaning this is the reality, there is no going back now

Edict of Nantes (1598)

granted a large measure of religious liberty to his Protestant subjects, the Huguenots. The edict was accompanied by Henry IV's own conversion from Huguenot Calvinism to Roman Catholicism and brought an end to the violent Wars of Religion that began in 1562 It allowed Protestants to worship freely and to fortify 51 cities for their own self defense Background for French Religious Conflict Crisis of power in the Velois dynasty bc of unexpected death of King Henry II, which left Catherine de Medici with three sons and trapped between two aristocratic families: the Huguenot Bourbons and the Roman Catholic de Guises Violence begets violence- The St Bartholomew Day Massacre in 1572 brought the death of thousands of Huguenots (French calvinists) and Protestants, in the streets at the hands of Catholics