11. Memory in childhood

In a false belief test, a. young children will mistake cognition for metacognition. b. young children will employ memory strategies when they should rely on memory efficiency. c. infants replace actual objects with imagined objects. d. young children do not recognize that others do not know what they know.

d

In imitation, an infant must: a. kick in response to an absent mobile. b. demonstrate conservation of mass. c. recognize a familiar person. d. copy the physical actions of another.

d

In the conjugate reinforcement technique, memory is measured when: a. the infant pulls down the mobile. b. the infant starts crying. c. the infant kicks of a blanket keeping the infant warm. d. the infant kicks when the mobile is reattached to its foot.

d

Studies in event memory in children age 5 suggest that: a. childhood amnesia has already set in. b. children at this age are not yet capable of laying down long-term memories. c. 5-year-olds can remember events from prior to their first birthday. d. many 5-year-olds can remember events accurately from up to 2 years earlier.

d

Tessler and Nelson (1994) examined the memory of three and half-year old children's visit to a museum. Mothers and children attended a visit to a museum in New York City. One week later, the children were asked to describe the event. They found that: a. because of childhood amnesia, the children could not remember the event. b. the children remembered information that they had learned at the museum but could not remember details of the event. c. the children remember details only if the event had occurred with the mother present. d. the children could remember lots of details—even event-specific details.

d

The conjugate reinforcement technique is most useful to test memory in infants' age: a. over 1 year. b. under two weeks. c. from 8 months to 1 year. d. from 2 to 6 months.

d

Theory of mind refers to: a. the theory that animals other than humans have developed minds. b. the theory that young children use memory to make mental decisions. c. an attention to mental events that happens in the first two years of life. d. the awareness that other individuals have separate states of awareness, different from that of our own.

d

Which of the following summarizes the research on children's eyewitness memory? a. Young children are less prone to suggestibility than older children. b. Children should never be asked to be witnesses in actual criminal investigations. c. Relative to adults, children show less suggestibility. d. Younger children are more prone to suggestibility than older children.

d

Younger children show fewer ______ memory errors. This summarizes the research on false memory.

meaning-based

With respect to ______ control, second-graders are likely to spend more time studying items that they gave low JOLs to.

metacognitive

In one study, it was found that 4-month-old children looked ______ at upright photos of faces than upside-down photos of faces.

more

Researchers can examine memory early in infancy by examining if an infant looks more at ______ than familiar items.

novel

Explain the term "elaboration" as it relates to memory strategies

Connects the new to-be-learned material to well-learned material by looking for meaningful connections between the two.

Children between the ages of 3 and 6 do not use ______ encoding spontaneously.

elaborative

Howe, Toth, and Cicchetti (2012) also found that children could use directed forgetting to inhibit items that they were not supposed to remember. They also found that children were better able to inhibit ______ items than neutral items.

emotional

Describe mnemonic improvement relating to memory conversations

Memory conversations increase recall from episodic memory with young children and in adults, although they can induce false memories in the latter.

Explain the memory efficiency view.

Memory improves due to increased speed and efficiency in learning and storing information.

Describe how childhood amnesia relates to episodic memory

Most adults remember no events from the first three years of life. This leads researchers to believe that episodic memory does not develop until a child is around three years of age.

In Wimmer and Perner's (1983) experiment on ______ belief, it was found that 3-year-olds did not successfully predict where a confederate would think a hidden item was, but the 5-year-olds were successful.

false

Deloache, Cassidy, and Brown (1985) asked children between the ages of 18 and 24 months to watch as an experimenter hid a desirable stuffed animal (Big Bird) somewhere in the room. They found that: a. all of the children were scared of the stuffed bird. b. children that young do not show object permanence. c. children would remind themselves as to the location of the hidden object. d. children would imitate the actions of the experimenter.

c

Evidence suggests that working memory: a. does not change with age. b. is developmentally a sub-set of episodic memory. c. improves from early to later childhood. d. cannot be classified as something that benefits from either memory efficiency or memory strategies.

c

In a study by Otgaar et al (2012), it was found that: a. older children are more likely to show false memories based on suggestibility than younger children. b. older children are more likely to show overconfidence than younger children. c. older children are more likely to show false memories based on schema-driven errors than younger children. d. all of the above are true.

c

In directed forgetting, participants are told to inhibit or ignore items that they have already studied; that is, to forget them. After they are instructed to forget certain materials, they are then asked to learn new materials. Research shows that: a. there are no differences as a function of age. b. paradoxically, the younger children (age 6) outperformed the older children (age 10). c. older children (age 10) were better at directed forgetting than younger children (age 6). d. children cannot control this aspect of forgetting until they have explicit training on the task.

c

Kisilevksy et al. (2003) showed that fetuses one to two weeks before birth recognized their mother's voice. This was accomplished by measuring differences in the infant's ______.

heart rate

Leichtman and Ceci (1995) investigated the suggestibility of child witnesses. They found that: a. paradoxically, the younger children were less prone to suggestibility. b. when the confederate asked the children about false events, all of the children rejected this possibility. c. the younger children showed more false memories. d. distinguishing features of the event structured retrieval.

c

Schneider et al. (2000) examined the ability of kindergartners, second-graders, and fourth graders to make JOLs (judgments of learning). They found that: a. none of the grade school children showed accurate predictions of memory performance. b. only the fourth-graders showed accurate judgments. c. all three grade levels were above-chance at predicting performance. d. the younger children made JOLs, but the older children preferred to make FOKs.

c

Some evidence suggests that tip-of-the-tongue states: a. do not occur in children at al. b. only emerge after theory of mind develops. c. may occur in children younger than three. d. are not accompanied by partial information in younger children.

c

Van Abbema and Bauer (2005) were able to get children to visit the lab at age 3 and then again around the age of 8 (varied from 7 to 9). They found that: a. the children remembered more words from a list when they were younger than when they were older. b. no older children could remember events that had taken place during the first visit. c. some children could accurately remember events that had taken place during the first visit. d. the older children did not show a metamemory advantage relative their earlier performance.

c

Which of the following statements is true about cultural differences and the development of autobiographical memory? a. American children have a later offset of childhood amnesia than do Chinese children. b. Chinese children are more likely to be required to memorize early life events than American children. c. American parents tend to discuss past events in a more elaborative style than do Chinese parents. d. Chinese parents are more likely to encourage open-ended family discussions of past events.

c

de Graaff, Verhoeven, Bosman, and Hasselman (2007) showed that kindergarten-age children who were taught visual mnemonics to help them learn the letters of the alphabet: a. were unable to apply the visual mnemonics to learning the alphabet. b. were more likely to have false memories later than children who did not use visual imager. c. had quicker acquisition of those letters than those not taught visual mnemonics. d. were more likely to benefit from the conjugate reinforcement technique.

c

In imitation, an infant must ______ the physical actions of another.

copy

According to the research on false memory in older children, plausibility: a. increases false memory in older children. b. decreases false memory in younger children. c. substitutes for suggestibility in many paradigms. d. decreases false memory in older children.

d

Children as young as 18 months have been shown to: a. allocate study time based on explicit judgments of learning. b. show childhood amnesia. c. pass the false belief test when it is really critical that they do so. d. give themselves verbal reminders when they need to find a hidden object.

d

Dora is 6-year-old. You would expect her to: a. know that the waiter at the restaurant does not know what she likes to eat. b. show more suggestibility than her 9-year-old sister. c. recall events that occurred 6 months earlier. d. all of the above.

d

Howe, Toth, and Cicchetti (2012) also found that children could use directed forgetting to inhibit items that they were not supposed to remember. They also found that: a. false memories increased dramatically when children used directed forgetting. b. directed forgetting also inhibited theory of mind performance. c. feeling-of-knowing judgments were highly predictive of directed forgetting. d. children were better able to inhibit emotional items than neutral items.

d

In a classic study on this topic, Leichtman and Ceci (1995) investigated the suggestibility of child witnesses. They used children aged 3-6 as participants. In the study, a man—a confederate of the researchers—named "Sam Stone" came to visit the children's pre-school class. Leichtman and Ceci found that: a. many children thought Sam Stone was a bad man. b. children's memory for the event was never accurate. c. most children were able to later distinguish Sam Stone's face from other faces. d. some children misremembered key details of Sam Stone's visit.

d

According to the memory efficiency view, memory improves in young children because: a. the children are learning to apply knowledge of how memory works. b. the processes of memory themselves improve as a child grow. c. episodic memory comes online in the fourth year of life. d. theory of mind drives the improvements in memory.

b

Children between the ages of 3 and 6 do not: a. remember events from their lives. b. use elaborative encoding spontaneously. c. engage in any strategic behavior with respect to memory. d. show any evidence of having developed a theory of mind.

b

Fivush et al. (2004) examined the memories of children who had experienced Hurricane Andrew in 1992. They found that: a. ten years later, children could not remember the storm. b. level of damage predicted memory for the storm when memory was first tested. c. older children remembered more when the storm had only affected them mildly, whereas younger children showed better memory if they had been more strongly affected. d. suggestibility was stronger for the children in the most damaged areas caused by the storm.

b

Holliday, Reyna and Brainerd (2008) examined the DRM (Deese-Roediger-McDermott) effect in children age 7-13. They found that: a. all children recalled the words poorly. b. older children recalled more items correctly, but also showed more false memories. c. younger children recalled fewer items correctly, and also showed more false memories. d. younger children recalled more items overall, despite the older adults better recall accuracy.

b

In Wimmer and Perner's (1983) experiment on false belief, it was found that: a. 3-year-olds were able to recall all of the items on the false memory list. b. 3-year-olds did not successfully predict where a confederate would think a hidden item was, but the 5-year-olds were successful. c. 3-year-olds successfully predicted where a confederate would think a hidden item was, but the 5-year-olds were unsuccessful because of the critical nature of meaning. d. 5-year-olds lack the metacognition necessary for avoiding suggestibility.

b

Malajandra was just 5-year-old when a hurricane damaged houses in her neighborhood. Which of the following statements is likely to be true concerning her memory? a. She will not remember the storm. b. She will remember more details if there was moderate damage to her house, rather than severe damage or no damage. c. No predictions can be made because no research is relevant. d. She will remember in great detail, if asked with the right questions

b

Otgaar, Smeets, and Peters (2012) repeatedly asked children age 7 to 9 about a true event (their first day of school) and a false event ( a visit to a burn center). In one condition, the children were given script knowledge about each of these events and in a control condition, they were not given such generalized information. They found that: a. children were more likely to have false memories of events other than the visit to the burn center. b. giving such information in the form of semantic memory scripts increased the likelihood of false memories. c. The younger children were frightened by the story about the burn center. d. only the highly suggestible children had false memories based on script knowledge.

b

Research on nonnutritive sucking shows that: a. nonnutritive sucking is not a good measure of memory in infants. b. infants will suck more in response to novel stimuli. c. infants will suck more regardless of whether a stimulus is novel or familiar. d. conjugate reinforcement cannot measure implicit memory responses.

b

The talk that goes back and forth between a parent and a child concerning past events is referred to as: a. memory interactions. b. memory conversations. c. childhood amnesia. d. reduplicative paramnesia.

b

Which of the following summarizes the research on false memory in children? a. Younger children show more meaning-based memory errors. b. Younger children show fewer meaning-based memory errors. c. Younger children do not show meaning-based memory errors. d. There are no developmental differences in false memories.

b

Young children's metacognition tends to show which of these phenomena? a. JOLs do not predict performance b. overconfident judgments c. suggestible metacognition d. strategic usage of false belief

b

Children who engage in elaborative discussions of events with their parents are: a. likely to suffer from trauma about those events later in life. b. no more or less likely to recall those events later. c. more likely to recall those events later. d. generally more prone to childhood amnesia than those children who have less elaborative discussions.

c

Coffman et al. (2008) compared two groups of first-grade students based on whether their teachers focused on content versus process. They found that: a. focusing on content led to more knowledge for the children at the end of the year. b. focusing on content led to stronger theory of mind for the children. c. the children in the process-oriented classrooms acquired new information more quickly. d. there were no major differences between the two groups of children.

c

Corey is 6-year-old. He is studying with his mother for his first spelling test in first grade. He looks at the words and tells his mother he is prepared for the test. Relative to his actual performance, Corey is likely to show: a. unmitigated retrieval. b. plausibility. c. overconfidence. d. regressive learning.

c

Malajandra was just 5-year-old when a hurricane damaged houses in her neighborhood. She ______ remember more details if there was moderate damage to her house, rather than severe damage or no damage.

will

Describe the false-belief test.

A child learns something that another person does not have the opportunity to learn. The child must decide whether the other person knows what he or she knows

Explain the theory of the mind.

An awareness that others have separate states of awareness different from our own.

With respect to metacognitive control, second-graders are likely to: a. spend more time studying items that they gave low JOLs to. b. fail at false-belief tests. c. use tip-of-the-tongue states to help retrieve eyewitness information. d. regard studying as unnecessary because they have already mastered the material.

a

How does directed forgetting affect children?

Howe, Toth, and Cicchetti (2012) also found that children could use directed forgetting to inhibit items that they were not supposed to remember. They also found that children were better able to inhibit emotional items than neutral items.

Describe semantic memory in children.

In early stages, children begin to group objects and start to understand categorization.

Explain Wimmer and Perner's (1983) experiment on false belief.

It was found that 3-year-olds did not successfully predict where a confederate would think a hidden item was, but the 5-year-olds were successful.

. Rosalia is a 4-year-old child. She watches a stuffed animal get placed in a McDonald's hamburger bag. Rosalia will: a. think that everyone knows the stuffed animal is in the bag. b. refuse to eat from the bag. c. immediately forget that the animal was placed in the bag. d. make a judgment of learning.

a

According to the memory strategies view, memory improves in young children because: a. the children are learning to apply knowledge of how memory works. b. the processes of memory themselves improve as a child grow. c. episodic memory comes online in the fourth year of life. d. theory of mind drives the improvements in memory.

a

Babies as young as 1 month habituated to a particular phoneme, that is, their sucking rate decreased after hearing the phoneme over and over. When a new phoneme was played, a. their rate of sucking increased. b. their rate of sucking decreased then increased. c. their rate of sucking remained constant. d. their gaze was directed at the correct phoneme.

a

Fazio and Marsh (2006) looked at memory for false facts embedded in stories given to children varying from age 5 to age 7. They found that: a. older children were more likely to make mistakes on a general-information test based on the errors they heard in the story. b. younger children were more likely to make mistakes because of suggestibility effects. c. there were fewer errors for the older children when they attended to meaning. d. the younger children had faster reaction times to verify facts than did the older children.

a

In most studies, it would be considered unethical to: a. put young children in a highly stressful situation. b. study suggestibility in very young children. c. ask children to serve as participants in memory experiments. d. mislead children about events that had occurred earlier.

a

In one study, it was found that 4-month-old children: a. looked more at upright photos of faces than upside-down photos of faces. b. preferentially looked at writing in the system that their languages uses than other systems. c. correctly picked up objects they had heard described earlier. d. none of the above.

a

Kisilevksy et al. (2003) showed that fetuses one to two weeks before birth recognized their mother's voice. This was accomplished by: a. measuring differences in the infant's heart rate. b. observing differences in motor behavior when the infant is in the presence of his or her mother or when the infant is in the presence of another woman. c. training the infant in a conjugate reinforcement task. d. retrospectively asking children about such experiences when they are much older.

a

Lucas is three years old. Based on what you know about memory strategies, you would expect him to: a. keep his eyes on the location of a hidden toy if he can later point to the location of the toy. b. know that a research assistant who just entered the room does not know where the hidden toy is. c. describe his theory of mind to the researcher. d. use eidetic imagery to solve the missing problem.

a

Most infants can recognize the sound and meaning of familiar words: a. before their first birthday. b. at birth. c. within the first month of life. d. not until they are 2 years of age.

a

Research shows that teachers who emphasize metamemory skills in young grade-schoolers find that: a. metamemory training results in quicker learning. b. metamemory training results in less accurate learning. c. metamemory training is not useful until children are in high school. d. metamemory is not related to theory of mind.

a

Researchers can examine memory early in infancy by: a. examining if an infant looks more at novel than familiar items. b. asking the infant to engage in verbal recall. c. observing whether or not the infant appears to be engaging in memory behavior. d. training the infant to cry when an unfamiliar stimulus is presented.

a

Which of the following is true about early infant development of language? a. By 6 months of age, infants distinguish between phonemes of their native language and similar sounds that are not present in their native language. b. By 6 months of age, infants distinguish between the orthography (writing system) of their native language and similar sounds that are not present in their native language c. By 6 months of age, infants are capable of verbal recall. d. both b and c are true.

a