19th Century Europe

Which of the following changes described in both sources had the most significant political effect on late nineteenth-century Europe?

Political tensions increased between the European powers as imperial conflicts strained alliances. (European competition for overseas territory was driven by the economic considerations of securing export markets and access to raw materials, as well as by questions of national prestige. The heightened competition led to increased political tensions among European states.)

The "unstable equilibrium" referred to by Bismarck in the first paragraph is best explained by which of the following developments in European politics?

The unification of the German Empire under Prussian leadership (The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership upset the diplomatic balance of Europe. In the Concert of Europe established at the Congress of Vienna, Prussia had been the weakest of the five Great Powers of Europe, whereas the unified Germany was clearly stronger than France or Austria-Hungary and possibly stronger than either Russia or Britain alone. This new configuration created the situation of unstable equilibrium that Bismarck refers to in the first paragraph.)

Which of the following best explains why the Habsburgs created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867 ?

They sought to prevent nationalist fragmentation by recognizing the political rights of one of the empire's major ethnic groups. (Hungary had been ruled by the German-speaking Austrian Habsburgs since they took it from the Ottoman Empire in the late 1600s. Hungarian nationalist sentiment grew rapidly in the 1800s, and during the Revolutions of 1848, a major Hungarian nationalist uprising broke out against Habsburg rule. Although the uprising was put down, Austria's humiliating defeat by Prussia in 1866 provided Hungarian nationalists with another opportunity to press their demands. Fearful for the stability of their multiethnic state, the Habsburgs agreed to grant Hungary significant autonomy within the empire.)

Which of the following best describes the shift to modernism in late-nineteenth-century European cultural and intellectual life?

A new relativism in values together with a loss of confidence in objective knowledge (Cultural modernism was a response to the rapid term-12scientific and technological changes of the late nineteenth century. The mental dislocations caused by new capabilities such as rapid communication and transportation as well as the social dislocations connected with urbanization led many intellectuals to question the fixed values of earlier generations and to undermine the notion of objective truth.)

Which of the following best explains why some members of the British public may have been sympathetic to Bismarck's foreign policy?

Bismarck's alliance system was designed to isolate France, which was also Britain's longtime rival. (Although the cartoonist is satirizing what some observers saw as Bismarck's opportunistic foreign policy, one of the German leader's main aims in creating a network of alliances was to prevent France from gaining any powerful allies. France had been humiliated in the Franco-Prussian War, which ended with France's surrender of the eastern provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and the formal creation of the German Empire. Bismarck was aware of the hostility with which France regarded Germany and sought to isolate France diplomatically. At the same time, relations between Britain and France were often tense, and this tension, combined with the long history of Anglo-French wars, may have led people in Britain to be somewhat sympathetic to Bismarck's efforts.)

Which of the following contributed most significantly to the late-nineteenth-century European philosophical belief that conflict and struggle led to progress?

Darwinism (Darwin's theory that species adapted and progressed through individuals' never-ending struggle for existence was formulated to explain the vast variety of life-forms found in nature. For many intellectuals of the late nineteenth century, it became a powerful explanatory mechanism in such fields as history, economics, and anthropology.)

Which of the following developments most directly undermined the Newtonian view of the universe?

Einstein's theory of relativity (Newton's formulation of a series of mathematical laws that describe the motions and interactions of objects and the actions of light offered a picture of the world as a predictable mechanism. Einstein's research established that neither space nor time are fixed properties and that at extreme velocities or levels of energy, Newton's formulas could not accurately predict the results of physical interactions.)

Which of the following best explains the cartoonist's apparent skepticism of Bismarck's diplomacy?

German unification created a military and economic power that was capable of challenging Great Britain's dominance. (The unification of Germany in 1871 under Prussian leadership created a populous, economically dynamic state with a strong military. Although Bismarck sought to avoid overt challenges to Great Britain, British commentators were aware that Germany had become a potential threat.)

Which of the following is another major limitation of Bagehot's argument?

His assertion that military progress equates with overall progress (Bagehot makes the claim that military progress is synonymous with overall progress, but this assertion does not explain certain examples of progress that have occurred regardless of military strength. These examples include robust economies based on production of manufactured goods, medical improvements, communication technology, and other, non-military, advances.)

Which of the following is a major limitation of Bagehot's argument?

His assumption that non-European nations are incapable of progress (Bagehot's argument is limited by his view of European supremacy as an inevitable development, rather than a temporary occurrence resulting from industrialization. The argument that non-European countries cannot advance is incorrect, as demonstrated by the historical development of powers such as the Ottoman Empire, China, or others that at various times were technologically and militarily superior to Europe. Bagehot also criticizes ancient civilizations, saying they did not progress, but European advances, starting with the Renaissance, were based on engagement with sources and ideas from the Roman Empire and classical Greece. Bagehot did not use any evidence to support his claim of progress except that of military might, which is a distinctly limited view of a civilization's progress.)

Which of the following best explains how Zionism emerged as a response to nationalism in the late nineteenth century?

Increasing anti-Semitism convinced some European Jews that the creation of their own nation was the logical response. (Zionism was the movement to create a Jewish homeland that began in the late nineteenth century. Zionism arose in response to various forms of anti-Semitism ranging from economic and social discrimination to outright physical attacks that occurred in nineteenth-century Europe. Theodor Herzl founded the Zionist Organization to encourage European Jews to emigrate to Palestine and create a Jewish homeland there. Herzl and others argued that the difficulties faced by Jews would be solved only when they had their own nation-state in a land historically associated with them.)

Which of the following best explains how racialist ideology influenced nationalism in the late nineteenth century?

It provided a supposedly scientific way of defining national cultures. (Racialism refers to a set of beliefs that assigns supposedly fixed and essential characteristics to different ethnic groups, allegedly connected to biological differences. Racialists typically imagine a hierarchy of races, with some superior and others inferior. Some nineteenth-century scientists became convinced that superficial differences among human beings could be connected to differences in behavior and culture. Such beliefs became popularized and provided a pseudo-scientific basis for nationalist ideas.)

Van Gogh's choice of subject matter in this painting provides most effective evidence for which of the following

Realist artists' concern with calling attention to social issues (Artists in the late nineteenth century began to focus more on the depiction of the conditions of the poor and other outcast members of society. By portraying a group of convicts, as van Gogh does here, or other marginalized people, artists could draw attention to social issues of the time.)

Salisbury's expression of Britain's concern for the stability of the Chinese Empire is best explained by which of the following features of late-nineteenth-century European diplomacy?

Rivalries among European powers seeking to expand their overseas empires (European leaders feared that a collapse of China's central government would trigger a scramble for Chinese territory similar to the Scramble for Africa, leading to conflict between European states. Britain was concerned that its existing economic and political influence within China would be challenged by French, German, Russian, and other rivals, possibly triggering a broader European war.)

Which of the following describes a limitation of Pearson's argument?

Social conduct is a concept that is difficult to measure or describe in precise terms. (Pearson's argument that groups with a more developed instinct to engage in social conduct are more likely to survive rests on the ability to reliably distinguish more and less social behavior. But social behavior can be defined in a number of ways, ranging from altruism to rational self-interest, making it difficult to establish a causal relationship between a group's behavior and its likelihood to survive.)

Van Gogh's painting technique in this picture best provides evidence for which of the following tendencies in late-nineteenth-century European art?

The abandonment of strictly representational forms in favor of more expressive styles (The layer of abstraction shown in the image demonstrates the artistic trend away from realist depiction in favor of more expressive styles that showed the emotional state of the artist and/or the subject.)

Which of the following is the most likely explanation for the cartoonist's choosing to portray Bismarck in a military uniform?

The cartoonist was commenting on the fact that while Bismarck presented himself as a diplomat, he used military force to achieve his aims. (Prussia, under Bismarck's leadership, had achieved German unification largely through warfare and military pressure. Commentators outside of Germany, such as the cartoonist who created this image, often saw Bismarck's postunification efforts at diplomacy as little more than a cover for an aggressive, militaristic posture. The soldier's uniform, the sword, and the distinctive Prussian spiked helmet were likely chosen by the cartoonist to signal his distrust of Germany's and Bismarck's supposedly peaceful intentions.)

Bismarck's conclusion regarding the feasibility of an alliance between Britain and Russia in the second paragraph is best explained by which of the following?

The growing imperial rivalries among European states (The rivalry between Russia and Britain in Asia, known as the "Great Game," was a source of military and diplomatic tensions between the two nations prior to the First World War. These tensions prevented Great Britain and Russia from forming an alliance until after Bismarck had been forced from office in 1890 and German foreign policy became more aggressive under Kaiser Wilhelm II.)

Which of the following best explains the "symptoms of much deeper changes" described by the author of Source 1 ?

The growing industrial and military power of rival European states (The expansion of navies described by Marshall was enabled by the industrial and economic development of European countries on the Continent. The increased naval and military capabilities of European states fueled greater rivalries and international tensions both within Europe and beyond.)

The fact that, when first introduced, paintings in the Impressionist style like this image sold poorly and were harshly attacked by critics is evidence of the continued influence of which of the following ideas?

The idea that art should convey shared ideals such as beauty and patriotism (Impressionism marked a break from the tradition of realistic depictions of landscapes and people that emphasized beauty or a shared national aesthetic. The early Impressionist exhibitions were harshly condemned in the press, and the paintings of van Gogh and other Impressionists sold poorly until the time period closer to the First World War.)

Which of the following best explains the economic interest in China that Salisbury expresses in the passage?

The need for industrialized countries to secure export markets for their products (Britain's primary interest in China was as a market for exports, both manufactured in Britain and exported from colonies. British financial interests also invested heavily in China during this period and were concerned about losses resulting from political instability.)

Which of the following British actions is most consistent with Salisbury's stated position regarding the Chinese Empire?

The sending of an expeditionary force to fight the Boxer Rebellion, which sought to end foreign influence in China (To maintain the integrity of the Chinese government and its economic interests in China, Britain was one of the powers that sent an expeditionary force to put down the rebellion by the Boxers. The rebels sought to remove foreign influence from China and had besieged the European embassies in Beijing, prompting a combined force of European, Japanese, and American troops to intervene.)

Which of the following best explains how European education systems in colonial areas began to facilitate the resistance alluded to at the end of Source 2 ?

Western-educated colonial subjects began to question colonial powers' supposed commitment to economic uplift and social reform in the colonies. (European colonial powers generally claimed to be acting in the best interests of the colonized populations by bringing economic improvements and social reforms. As some members of the colonial populations acquired European education and a broader outlook, some of them began to critique this claim, noting that the benefits of colonialism went mostly to Europeans and that European principles of liberalism conflicted with many colonial practices.)

Bismarck's approach to power politics as seen in the passage is best explained by his adoption of

a realist and materialist worldview (Bismarck practiced what came to be known as "realpolitik," which based decisions on strictly material and realist interests. This is shown in the passage by Bismarck's willingness to abandon his alliance with Austria for one that he sees as more beneficial to Germany, despite the cultural and language ties between Austria and Germany.)