2.1 Why was there dissatisfaction with the peace settlements of 1919-20?

Why was there dissatisfaction in terms of territorial losses? (Austria)

- The Austrians were deeply disappointed by article 80, which prevented an Anschluss with Germany. -Austria and Germany were allies, and the prevention of the union caused dissatisfaction as both countries helped each other economically and supported each other.

Problems in successor states in Czechoslovakia

-Although Czechoslovakia had an industrial base and a stable democratic government, it's frontiers were artificial and the state was composed of two very different states. The Czech Lands and Slovakia. The Sudetenland also contained a minority of ethnic Germans, which numbered 22.3 per cent by 1930. This in time gave Hitler an excuse to take over the Sudetenland as it progressively looked as if the German population required aid.

Reparations for Germany

-Although there was general agreement that Germany should pay reparations to the victors, there was considerable debate about the amount to be paid, the nature of the damage deserving compensation and how Germany could raise such large sums of money without rebuilding an export trade which might then harm the Allied industries. Essentially, the major issue behind the Allied demands was the compelling need to cover the costs of financing the war. -Britain had covered one-third of its war expenditure through taxation; France just one-sixth. At a time of severe social unrest, no Allied country could easily face the prospect of financing debt repayments by huge tax increases and savage cuts in expenditure. -Initially it was hoped that the USA could be persuaded to continue wartime inter-Allied economic co-operation and, above all, cancel the repayment of Allied war debts, but by the end of 1918 it was obvious that this was not going to happen, as Wilson had dissolved all the agencies for inter-Allied co-operation in Washington. -had to pay £6,600 million.

Allied and US concessions

-Although these demands were not accepted, Lloyd George, fearful that the Germans might reject the treaty, persuaded the French to agree to a plebiscite in Upper Silesia. -He failed to limit the Rhineland occupation to five years, but did manage to secure the vague assurance, which later became Article 431 of the treaty, 'that once Germany had given concrete evidence of her willingness to fulfil her obligations', the Allied and associated powers would consider 'an earlier termination of the period of occupation'.

Main problems with successor states

-Artificial frontiers -Existence of hostile ethnic minorities - racial tension -Threat from Bolshevism -Inflation -Economic links with neighbors -Political instability -Defeated powers saw successor states as punitive and economically destructive

(FRANCE)George Clemenceau aims

-Clemenceau wanted to destroy Germany economically and militarily. -He wanted to avenge France's humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), and gain revenge for the devastation that France had suffered as a result of German aggression in the First World War. -Moreover, he wanted to ensure that Germany could -never again threaten French borders. -In particular, Clemenceau wanted to secure a guarantee of British and American support in the event of any future German attack against France. -He therefore wanted to enforce maximum disarmament and reparation payments on the Germans,(he wanted to cripple germany) to set up strong independent Polish, Czechoslovak and Yugoslav states, and in addition an independent Rhineland state -In his determination to inflict a harsh settlement on the Germans, Clemenceau lived up to his nickname - 'The Tiger'. - to ensure the security of France as Germany had attacked France twice in the last 50 years .- to punish Germany severely, leaving it weak .- the permanent disarmament of Germany - the return of Alsace Lorraine to France - the saar basin to be transferred to France- the Rhineland to become an independent state so that France no longer shared a common border with Germany.

Italy reaction to the peace treaties

-Despite Italian gains in the South Tyrol, the peace treaties were regarded by many Italian nationalists as a 'mutilated victory'. -The Italians had suffered high casualties and not been awarded what they had been promised by the Treaty of London in 1915. -The Italian Prime Minister, Orlando, was desperate to prove to the Italian electorate that Italy was not a 'proletarian nation' which could be dictated to by the great powers. In the Adriatic, Italy had claimed Istria and Dalmatia and insisted also on its right to annex the port of Fiume in which there was a bare majority of ethnic Italians. -However, President Wilson, after compromising over the Saar and Shandong, was stubbornly determined to make a stand on the Fourteen Points in the Adriatic. Orlando and Sonnino, his Foreign Secretary, walked out of the Peace Conference in protest and did not return until 9 May 1919. -It was not until November 1920 that Yugoslavia and Italy agreed on a compromise and signed the Treaty of Rapallo. Istria was partitioned between the two powers, Fiume was to become a self-governing free city, while the rest of Dalmatia went to Yugoslavia.

What did the winners want in terms of territorial losses for Germany?

-France wished to used every opportunity to weaken germany by taking territory away from it. -Britain sought to preserve a united, but democratic Germany as a counter to Bolshevik Russia. -The USA also hoped to achieve a fair settlement along the lines of the 14 points but supported ceding German territory to Poland, France and Belgium where majority of the population was Polish, French or Belgian.

The treaty of versailles: the settlement with Germany

-German war guilt -Reparations -German disarmament -The territorial settlement

why was there dissatisfaction in terms of the territorial clauses?

-Germans were dissatisfied because territory was taken from Germany - depriving it of valuable industrial and agricultural income considering that their economy was already severely weak because of the war. -The saar was a heavily industrialised region which was economically valuable due to the wealth of its coal deposits. With no saar, this made the country struggle economically and also people who did jobs such as coal mining were affected. -France was dissatisfied with the territorial losses as france wanted the rhineland to become an independent state which would weaken germany permanently, but the british feared this and instead came to the agreement of the rhineland to remain demilitarised to ensure france's security.

key terms and implications of the peace treaties (versailles, Trianon, Neuilly, Saint-Germain and Sevres.

-In January 1919 the statesmen of the victorious powers were confronted with a Europe in turmoil. -The sudden and complete defeat of the Central Powers had made Europe vulnerable to the spread of communism from Russia. For much of the winter of 1918-19, Germany seemed poised on the edge of revolution. -With the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and Russian empires there was no stable government anywhere east of the Rhine. Further problems were caused by the influenza pandemic which by the spring of 1919 had caused the deaths of millions of people, and by the near famine conditions in central and eastern Europe. -When the Paris Peace Conference opened the delegates of 27 states, which included China, attended, but in reality, power lay with the big four: Britain, France, Italy and the USA. Russia convulsed by civil war sent no delegates. - The defeated states sent no representatives, which in Germany later gave rise to the bitter accusation that the Treaty of Versailles was a 'dictated peace'.

Germany's colonies

-In May, agreement was reached on the division of the German colonies. -Germany, as a defeated power, judged to be guilty of starting the war, was no longer to be trusted as a colonial power. -In reality of course the victors wanted to keep their colonial conquests. Britain, France and the Dominion of South Africa were allocated most of the former German colonial empire in Africa, while Australia, New Zealand and Japan secured the scattered German possessions in the Pacific. Italy was awarded control of the Juba valley in East Africa, and a few minor territorial adjustments were made to its Libyan frontier with Algeria. -Essentially Britain, the Dominions and France had secured what they wanted, despite, on President Wilson's insistence, paying lip service to the League by agreeing to mandated status for the former German colonies.

what were the territorial clauses of the treaty?

-Initially Upper Silesia and most of the provinces of West Prussia and Posen were awarded to Poland and northern Schleswig was to be returned to Denmark. Thanks to pressure from Lloyd George there was to be a plebiscite in Marienwerder, and Danzig, a city surrounded by a Polish population, was to become a free city, under the protection of the League of Nations. -Along Germany's western borders there was a consensus among the victorious powers that Alsace-Lorraine, which Germany had annexed after the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, should revert to France, Eupen and Malmedy ceded to Belgium, and the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg declared neutral. -The future of the saarland.-the mines would become french for 15 years, while the actual government of the saar would be entrusted by the league then after the 15 years a plebiscite would be held to decide whether it would be returned to german rule. The future of the rhineland- Clemenceau agreed that the Rhineland, which was to be divided into three zones, was to be occupied for a period of fifteen years by Allied troops as a guarantee of the execution of the treaty. Each zone was in turn to be evacuated after five, ten and fifteen years and thereafter the Rhine was to remain demilitarized. Clemenceau was persuaded to agree to this by the offer of an Anglo-US military treaty guaranteeing France against any future German attack.

The Treaty of Trianon, 4 June 1920

-Most of the German-speaking area in the west of the former Hungarian state was ceded to Austria. - The Slovakian and Ruthenian regions in the north went to Czechoslovakia. - The east went to Romania. -The south went toYugoslavia.

The signature of the Treaty of Versailles and the German reaction

-On 16 June the Germans were handed the final version of the treaty incorporating these concessions. Not surprisingly, given the depth of opposition to it among the German people, it triggered a political crisis that split the cabinet and led to the resignation of the Chancellor. -Yet in view of its own military weakness and the continuing Allied blockade, the Berlin government had little option but to accept the treaty, although it made it very clear that it was acting under duress. On 28 June 1919 the treaty was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, where in 1871 the German Empire had been proclaimed

Presentation of the draft terms to Germany

-On 7 May the draft peace terms of the treaty were at last presented to the Germans, who were given a mere 15 days to draw up their reply. The German government bitterly criticised the treaty on the basis that it did not conform to the Fourteen Points and demanded significant concessions: -Immediate membership of the League of Nations from which Germany had been excluded. -A guarantee that Austria and the ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, which was a part of the new Czechoslovak state, should have the chance to decide whether they wished to join Germany (see the map on page 70). -The setting up of a neutral commission to examine the war guilt question.

Britain reparation demands

-The British delegation consistently maximized their country's reparation claims on Germany. Some historians explain this in terms of the pressure exerted on the government by the electorate. -On the other hand, Lloyd George himself claimed that 'the imposition of a high indemnity ... would prevent the Germans spending money on an army'. It was arguable that a high indemnity would also ensure that there would be money left over for Britain and the Dominions after France and Belgium had claimed their share. -To safeguard Britain's percentage of reparations, the Imperial War Cabinet urged that the cost of war pensions should be included in the reparation bill. -By threatening to walk out of the conference, Lloyd George then forced the Council of Four to support his arguments. -Later, as reparation debts appeared to paralyze the German economy and prevent a global economic recovery, Lloyd George was to have second thoughts about reparations

setting up the reparation commision

-The British pension claims made it even more difficult for the Allied financial experts to agree on an overall figure for reparations. -Consequently, at the end of April, it was agreed, much to the anger of the Germans, that the Reparation Commission should be set up to assess in detail by 1 May 1921 what the German economy could afford. -In the meantime, the Germans would make an interim payment of 20 milliard gold marks and raise a further 60 milliard through the sale of bonds. -It was not until December 1919 that Britain and France agreed that Britain should receive 25 per cent of the total amount of reparations to be paid by Germany, while France would have 55 per cent. -Belgium was the only power to be awarded full compensation for its losses and priority in payment of the first sums due from Germany, largely because it too had threatened to withdraw from the conference in May at a time when Italy had already walked out and the Japanese were also threatening to do so .

French demand for reparations

-The French Finance Minister, Louis Klotz, backed by the press and the Chamber of Deputies, urged a policy of maximum claims, and coined the slogan that 'Germany will pay' (for everything). -Behind the scenes, however, Loucheur, the Minister for Reconstruction, pursued a more subtle policy and informed the Germans that, such was the need of the French economy for an immediate injection of cash, his government would settle for a more moderate sum which the Germans would be able to raise quickly through the sale of bonds on the world's financial markets. -The German government, however, suspected that these overtures were merely a means of dividing Germany from the USA, which was seen in Berlin as the country potentially most sympathetic to the German cause. -The USA's reparation policy was certainly more moderate than either Britain's or France's as it recommended that a modest fixed sum should be written into the treaty.

The settlement with Turkey, 1919-23: the Treaty of Sèvres

-The Treaty of Sèvres, which was signed in August 1920, was another Anglo-French compromise. Lloyd George hoped to weaken Turkey, not only by depriving it of Constantinople and of the control of the Straits, but also by forcing it to surrender all territories where there was no ethnic Turkish majority. He now envisaged Greece, which had entered the war on the Allied side in 1917, rather than Italy, filling the vacuum left by the collapse of Turkish power and, in effect, becoming the agent of the British Empire in the eastern Mediterranean. The French, on the other hand, concerned to protect their pre-war investments in Turkey, wished to preserve a viable Turkish state. Above all, they wanted the Turkish government to remain in Constantinople where it would be more vulnerable to French pressure. -The end product of this Anglo-French compromise was a harsh and humiliating treaty. Constantinople remained Turkish, but Thrace and most of the European coastline of the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles were to go to Greece. In the Smyrna region the Greeks were also given responsibility for internal administration and defence, while an Armenian state was to be set up with access across Turkish territory to the Black Sea. The Straits were to be controlled by an international commission, and an Allied financial committee was to have the right to inspect Turkey's finances. By a separate agreement zones were also awarded to France and Italy in southern Turkey

German war guilt

-There was universal agreement among the victorious powers that Germany was guilty of having started the war. It was this principle of war guilt which was to provide the moral justification for the reparations clauses of the treaty, as was stressed in Article 231

The Treaty of Saint-Germain, 10 September 1919

-Union with germany was forbidden (anschluss)Article 88 stated that only the council of the league was empowered to sanction a change in Austria's status as an independent state. This meant that france as a permanent member of the council, could veto any proposed change. -Italy was awarded south Tyrol, despite the existence there of some 230,00 ethnic German -Slovenia, bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia were handed over to yugoslavia. -Galicia and Bukovina were ceded to poland and romania respectively. -Had to accept the break up of the austro-hungarian empire.

The Turkish reaction

-When the Allies imposed the Treaty of Sèvres, they took little account of the profound changes in Turkey brought about by the rise of Mustafa Kemal, the leader of the new Turkish nationalism. Kemal had set up a rebel government in Ankara in March 1920 and was determined not to accept the treaty. -The long delay until August 1920 ensured that growing Turkish resentment, particularly at the Greek occupation of Smyrna in May 1919 and advance into the Anatolian interior (see page 71), which the Allies had encouraged, made its enforcement increasingly difficult.

German Disarmament

-army limited to 100,000 soldiers, no subs, no air force, 6 battleships, de-militarize the Rhineland -The Allies and the USA agreed on the necessity for German disarmament, but there were differences in emphasis. -The British and Americans wished to destroy in Germany the tradition of conscription, which they regarded as the cause of militarism. Instead they wanted a small professional army created along the lines of the British or US peacetime armies. -General Foch, more wisely as it turned out, feared that a professional German army would merely become a tightly organised nucleus of trained men which would be capable of quick expansion when the opportunity arose. -Foch was overruled and the Council of Ten accepted in March proposals for the creation of inter-Allied commissions to monitor the pace of German disarmament, the abolition of the general staff, the creation of a regular army with a maximum strength of 100,000 men, the dissolution of the German air force and the reduction of its navy to a handful of ships.

Japan and former German territory in Shandong

A serious clash arose between Japan and the USA over the former German concessions in China. The Japanese were determined to hold on to the ex-German leasehold territory in Shandong, which they had seized in 1914 (see page 38). The Chinese government, however, on the strength of its declaration of war against Germany in 1917, argued that all former German rights should automatically revert to the Chinese state, despite the fact that in 1915 it had agreed to recognise Japanese rights in Shandong. Wilson was anxious to block the growth of Japanese influence in the Pacific and supported China, but Lloyd George and Clemenceau, wanting to protect their own rights in China, backed Japan. A compromise was agreed whereby Japan promised - verbally only - that Chinese control would be restored by 1922. Wilson, already locked in conflict with the Italians over their claims to Fiume (see page 81) and facing Japanese threats to boycott the conference and sign a separate peace with Germany, had no option but to concede. It is arguable that this humiliating defeat did much to turn the US Senate against the Treaty of Versailles. The Shandong decision outraged China and triggered widespread riots and strikes. In June the Chinese government refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles.

why was there dissatisfaction (reparations)

Bulgaria- The Bulgarians were outraged as they were given the reparation fee of 100 million pounds as they played a major part in the war, siding with Germany immediately after war broke out. Additionally, the war damaged Bulgaria's economy significantly, making paying reparations difficult and further destroying their already damaged economy.

USA

By January 1920 the treaty had been ratified by all the signatory powers with the important exception of the USA. In Washington, crucial amendments had been put forward by a coalition of isolationists, led by Senator Lodge, rejecting the Shandong settlement with Japan and seriously modifying the Covenant of the League. In essence the isolationists feared that, if the USA joined the League, it could be committed to defend the independence of other League members from aggression, even if this meant going to war. They therefore proposed that Congress should be empowered to veto US participation in any League initiative that clashed with the USA's traditional policy of isolationism and independence. Wilson felt that these amendments would paralyse the League and so refused to accept them. He failed twice to secure the necessary two-thirds majority in the Senate. The consequences of this defeat for Europe were serious. Without US ratification, the Anglo-American military guarantee of France lapsed and the burden of carrying out the Treaty of Versailles fell on Britain and France.

The Treaty of Neuilly, 27 November 1919

Essentially Britain and France regarded Bulgaria as the 'Balkan Prussia' which needed to be restrained, and were determined, despite reservations from Italy and the USA, to reward their allies, Romania, Greece and Serbia (by then part of Yugoslavia), at its expense. Thus, southern Dobruja, with a mere 7000 Romanians out of a total population of 250,000, was ceded to Romania and western Thrace, which had provided Bulgaria access to the Aegean, was given to Greece.

Why were the winning powers unhappy with the restrictions?

France still felt as though they were not fully secured against another German invasion, and so they were not overall happy with the military restrictions of the TOV. They feared that Germany might be able to become an aggressive power again. Amongst the British public, there was a mutual feeling of hatred towards Germany and wanting them to pay. They thought that the military terms could have been harsher. However, Lloyd George was not the biggest fan of the treaty; while he did like that the small German navy helped British sea power, he knew that the severity of the restrictions would inevitably lead to another war in the future. Woodrow Wilson felt that the treaty was more brutal than David Lloyd did, and was also sure that another war would develop. The American public felt as though Britain and France had become too powerful, and so resented all aspects of the treaty as well.

Reaction to war guilt and reparations

Germans viewed this clause as a national humiliation, forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war. They believed they bore no more guilt and responsibility than any other European power, and this had basis as several other factors, such as the assasination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, contributed to the war's beginning. Germany had to pay reparations of €6.6 billion because of the clause.

Dissatisfaction within defeated powers

Germany : Germany had territory taken from it, depriving it of valuable industrial and agricultural income. A large percentage of ethnic Germans were also living in the taken territories . Hungary : Hungary lost most of its territory. More than 2 million ethnic Hungarians living in Slovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia as mistreated minorities Austria : Austria experienced enormous economic problems. It became more reliant on foreign loans and inflation ran through in the 1920s, leading to political instability. Bulgaria : The country was reduced greatly in size and the economy was very damaged Turkey : Turkey no longer controlled the Ottoman Empire and remained under the authority of an Allied army of occupation

Why were the defeated powers unhappy with the restrictions?

Germany hated the military terms of the Treaty,army of 100,000, only 6 battleships, no submarines or aeroplanes. The Germans said it left them powerless against even the tiny new nation-states. It was incredibly humiliating, going from a major European power to a vulnerable nation. The Kapp Putsch of 1920 came about as a reaction to the military terms of the TOV, angering the Freikorps who then attempted to overthrow the Weimar Republic. Hungary was incredibly angered by their military restrictions; the Hungarians felt as though the ideas that the west promoted, of liberty and of self-determination, were only applicable to the Western powers. The Bulgarians were outraged as well, but couldn't do anything about it. Austria was severely weakened militarily and was a country that represented chronic instability in Europe in the period of time between the two world wars. For example, Anschluss in 1938. The Turkish hated the restrictions placed on their military in the treaty of Sevres so much that the Ottoman army fought against the foreign armies seeking to implement the treaty's terms. This is what lead to the creation of the Treaty of Lausanne. Additional points: hurt national pride, unemployment, felt unhappy at how Britain and France had gotten stronger while they were weakened

Losing powers reactions to reparations

Germany- The Germans were humiliated by the reparations Fee of 6,600 million pounds. On top of their economy weakened significantly by the war, they believed it was too high of a price which they wouldn't be able to pay. Bulgaria- The Bulgarians were outraged as they were given the reparation fee of 100 million pounds as they played a major part in the war, siding with Germany immediately after war broke out. Additionally, the war damaged Bulgaria's economy significantly, making paying reparations difficult and further destroying their already damaged economy. Austria- The Austrians, although weren't made to pay reparations (they went bankrupt),, still lost land to Yugoslavia, Italy and Czechoslovakia. The Austrian officials protested the placement of so many ethnic Germans in Italy, Czechoslovakia, and the forbidding of anschluss with Germany. Hungary- Hungarians were very unhappy with the dissolution of the Austrian- Hungarian empire, along with losing countries like Slovakia, Croatia and parts of Slovenia to new independent countries Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and even Austria. Furthermore, their population was reduced from 18.2 million to 7.6 million (more than half their original population), which they were very insecure about as they felt less able to defend their country from potential threats in the future. Hungarian people regarded this treaty as a destroyer of their national pride.

Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan Good things

Good things Each state gained independence. Azerbaijani was the worlds first Muslim parliamentary republic. When they were in self-rule.

Successor states in Poland good things

Good things Poland owned a considerable amount of Belorussian and western Ukraine. They were promised the Curzon line and they did get it, though some Germans were living there.

why was there dissatisfaction with the treaty of Trianon

Hungary- Hungarians were very unhappy with the dissolution of the Austrian- Hungarian empire, along with losing countries like Slovakia, Croatia and parts of Slovenia to new independent countries Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and even Austria. Furthermore, their population was reduced from 18.2 million to 7.6 million (more than half their original population), which they were very insecure about as they felt less able to defend their country from potential threats in the future. Hungarian people regarded this treaty as a destroyer of their national pride.

The division of Turkey's Arabian territories

In May 1916 Britain and France signed the Sykes-Picot agreement. By this they committed themselves to dividing up Mesopotamia, Syria and the Lebanon into Anglo-French spheres of interest once the war against Turkey had been won. Britain, however, was the only power with a large army in the Middle East, and consequently was able to revise the agreement unilaterally. In 1917 Britain insisted on claiming the whole of Palestine, which was quite contrary to the agreement. By announcing support for the Zionists' ambition to establish a national home for the Jews in Palestine through the Balfour Declaration, Britain cleverly managed to secure the USA's backing for its aims.

Successor states to Austro-Hungary (Economic Problems)

Integration was made harder by disruption of Eastern Europe as an economic unit Peace treaties broke old commercial routes, tested economic relations and left Austria and Hungary as small, landlocked nations = economic barriers Inflation and post-war economic chaos 1922, Austria and Hungary on the verge of economic collapse so - League of Nations arranged international loans and programmes for financial reform. -Dissatisfaction in defeated powers due to economic links being cut, inflation and economic barriers arising from new borders.

Japan

Japan Although the Japanese gained much of what they had wanted in the Versailles Treaty, it was viewed with mixed feelings in Japan. Their failure to gain a clause in the Covenant of the League of Nations guaranteeing racial equality, which was blocked by Britain and the USA, was seen as a great humiliation by all political parties in Japan and contributed to the suspicion that Britain and the USA were in reality intent on controlling Japanese power in east Asia (see page 206).

(JAPAN)

Japan's aims were limited to securing recognition of the territorial gains made in the war (see page 38) and having a racial equality clause inserted in the Covenant of the League of Nations.

(BRITAIN)Lloyd George aims

Lloyd George wanted a less severe settlement. It was in British interests that Germany, a potentially important consumer of British exports, be allowed to recover quickly. However, British public opinion was strongly anti-German, and Lloyd George had just won an election on the promise that he would 'make Germany pay'. - a 'just and firm' peace which avoided Germany seeking revenge but satisfied the British people .- a share of Germany's colonies. - the economic revival of Europe and the german economy so trade would be re-established. - to reduce the threat of the spread of communism from Russia.- to maintain strength and power of the British navy to protect Britains colonies. - to persuade Clemenceau to make key concessions to ensure France did not become the dominant power in Europe.

britain and france reaction

Neither power received all it had hoped for. French public opinion was convinced that France, particularly in the agreements covering the Rhineland, disarmament and eastern Europe (see pages 61-65), had not secured the necessary terms to guarantee its future safety. For this the French blamed the 'naïve' idealism of Britain and the USA. The British on the other hand believed that French stubbornness had prevented the negotiation of a moderate and lasting peace. Over the next five years both countries would attempt to bend the treaty to their wishes.

Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan Problems

Problems -They had a fragile independence, and after the Bolshevik revolution. This was when there was a Bolshevik regime in Moscow which established their leadership over the region. And the revolt of Mustafa Kemal in Turkey, 1923, the states lost their independence. -Russia, Turkey and Iran were their neighbours which is way they were able to take the independence from Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan easily.

Successor states in Poland problems

Problems Soviet Russia invaded Poland till the Battle of Warsaw in August 1920. Poland was only granted eastern frontiers after the war, with the Treaty of Riga . 700,000 German continued to live within the Polish frontiers. The western frontiers with Germany were defined by plebiscite of 1921. ( Upper Silesia was divided between Germany and Poland though Poland got the best area in terms of industry.)

Successor states to Austro-Hungary (Social and Political Problems)

Social and Political Problems Hungary : temporary seizure of control by communists but Romanian troops intervened - dissatisfaction arising from placement of 3 million Hungarians suddenly found in Romania, Yugoslavia or Slovakia Yugoslavia : clashes between Serbs and Croats, Romania : Hungarians discriminated despite Minorities Treaty e.g. in Cluj, Hungarian university closed down. -Dissatisfaction in defeated powers due to displacement of ethnic minorities who were mistreated in new countries or felt deep loyalties to old homelands.

Successor states

The states created from former Austro-Hungarian and Russian territory.

The resentment of the German people

They particularly resented in what they perceived to be a dictated peace: -The war guilt clause. -The burden of reparations, which were considered 'punitive' and savage and would burden the German economy for generations to come. -The loss of land in east Germany to the Poles was also deeply resented, as the Poles were seen by German nationalists as people of a lower civilisation. -The occupation of the Rhineland, particularly in the French zone, by French colonial troops from West Africa and Indo-China, which was regarded as a deep humiliation.

Dissatisfaction within victorious powers

USA : In Wilson's 14 points, he talks about self-determination but this wasn't applied consistently regarding successor states - 3 million Sudeten Germans became a part of Czechoslovakia. France : France felt that they had not secured the necessary terms to guarantee future safety due to 'naïve' idealism of Britain and the US - wanted new independent states to form agreements as a buffer to communism and threaten eastern German borders. Britain : Although happy that the Russian empire lost territory, Britain saw the successor states to the Austro-Hungarian empire as economically destructive and very harsh.

(ITALY) Vittorio Orlando aims

was anxious to convince the voters that Italy had done well out of the war, and concentrated initially on attempting to hold the Entente to their promises made -in 1915 in the Treaty of London to give Italy the Austrian territories of South Tyrol and those along the Dalmatian coastline -demanding the port of Fiume in the Adriatic.

(USA)Woodrow wilson aims

● The USA had not suffered much during the war as they had joined late and there was no fighting in their own country. ● He agreed with Lloyd George that Germany should NOT be treated too harshly ● He wanted Germany to become a Democracy so that the German public would never let their leaders start another war ● At the Treaty of Versailles Wilson proposed the ​fourteen Points,​which he believed would end the war fairly and prevent another war in the future - his key point was about setting up the League of Nations ● His other key point was s​elf-determination (independence/the right to choose their own future) for the countries of eastern Europe -President Wilson of the USA was determined to ensure that the Fourteen Points should be the basis for the coming peace negotiations and to anchor the Covenant of the League of Nations in the text of the peace treaties.