2.2 How and why did international tensions remain high in the period between 1920 and 1923?

The impact of decisions taken by the USA (USA loans)

- during the war, the USA provided its European allies with sizable loans to be repaid with interest once the war was over - In 1919, Britain and France urged the USA to cancel these debts justifying their requests with the economic advantages the USA had benefitted from and that its post-war economy was in a better state than their own - the USA rejected these requests insisting the loan be paid in full, this posed further financial problems for their European allies already suffering from the economic hardships post-war

Factors that led to the increase in international tensions from 1920-23

-Enforcing the Tov (long term) -German hyperinflation -Ruhr crisis -Anglo-french differences(short term, able to come to a compromise) •over upper silesia •reparations(IMPORTANT) •poland •disarmament -corfu incident -Chanak crisis-Turkey rise of mustafa kemal

Why did Anglo-french differences over Germany cause tension: Poland and Germany

-For the French it was imperative to ensure that the new Polish state was strong enough to help contain a resurgent Germany. The French therefore worked to ensure that it secured as much territory as possible from Germany. -The British on the other hand were convinced that this would only store up problems for the future as it would embitter those Germans who would have to reside in the new Polish state and make Germany more determined to regain the territory it had lost to Poland.

Why did the Ruhr crisis increase tensions

-Germany's economic problems were heightened by the actions of France and Belgium. In 1923, angered by Germany's failure to make reparations payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr - one of Germany's most important industrial regions - with the aim of seizing coal and timber by way of payment. -The German government ordered a policy of passive resistance, which effectively paralysed industry in the Ruhr as miners and factory employees refused to work. Although the French and Belgians largely failed in their aim to seize goods from German factories and mines, the economic effect of the loss of output from such a vital industrial region was catastrophic for Germany, further fuelling its rising inflation. -Naturally, this made it even less likely that Germany would be able to meet its reparations requirements in the future. -Britain did not join in but adopted a policy of 'benevolent passivity' towards France. -Had Germany had the strength, French troops would have been repulsed by force, but Germany was virtually disarmed, and so for nine months the French occupation of the Ruhr was met by passive resistance and strikes by the German workers, which were financed by the German government

review of treaties

-If the treaties arising from the Washington Naval Conference had gone some way to relieving Western concerns caused by Japan's rise to power in the Far East, little had been achieved in terms of relieving tensions in Europe. -The French refusal to compromise at the Genoa Conference had undermined Britain's attempt to improve relations between France and Germany. -Failure to reach agreement on the issue of German reparations led to the subsequent French invasion of the Ruhr industrial area. -Moreover, the failure of the Genoa Conference led to closer relations between Germany and Russia, culminating in the Treaty of Rapallo, which was widely perceived as a threat to stability within Europe. -This stability was further threatened by the Treaty of Lausanne, the first international agreement to clearly demonstrate that, under certain circumstances, the Paris peace settlement could be successfully challenged and amended.

The corfu crisis

-In August 1923, four Italians were killed while engaged in a League of Nations attempt to resolve a border dispute between Greece and Albania. Believing that Greece was responsible for the deaths, Mussolini ordered Italian troops to bombard, and subsequently occupy, the Greek island of Corfu. -Greece appealed to the League of Nations, which instructed Italian troops to withdraw from Corfu. Mussolini refused to accept the League's authority, and the Italian occupation continued until Greece paid a substantial amount of compensation. -While Britain and France saw Mussolini as a useful ally against the threat of communism, his refusal to abide by the decisions made at the Paris Peace Conference was a cause of concern throughout Europe.

German Hyperinflation

-Passive resistance certainly hindered French operations in the Ruhr and raised international tensions still higher, but it also triggered hyperinflation in Germany. To subsidize the strikers and compensate for the lost tax revenues from the Ruhr, the government printed ever larger sums of money. -The value of the German mark continued to sink rapidly, and by August it was worthless. From 4.2 marks to the dollar in July 1914 it had risen to 4,200,000,000,000 by 15 November 1923. This completed the impoverishment of the large number of the middle classes who were dependent on fixed incomes, war bonds and pensions.

Why did Anglo-french differences over Germany cause tension

-Relations between Britain and France were strained as a result of their different attitudes towards German recovery, which were highlighted by the Ruhr crisis. Britain, keen to re-establish the lucrative trading partnership between the two countries, encouraged Germany's economic revival. France, on the other hand, was determined to keep Germany as weak as possible for as long as possible. Britain opposed French actions in the Ruhr, considering them effectively an act of war.

US isolationism

-Since the Republican Party held a majority in the Senate, the USA decided in favour of isolationism. In November 1919, the US Senate rejected the Paris peace settlement and refused to allow the USA to join the League of Nations. Determined not to become involved in another war, and believing that the terms of the peace settlement made future conflict inevitable, most Americans were convinced that the USA should return to its traditional isolationist policy. -The USA's decision not to ratify the Paris peace settlement and, instead, to make a separate peace with Germany in 1921, had a profound effect on relations between European countries. -In particular, it contributed to France's already significant feelings of insecurity. The French now had no guarantee of American support in the event of an attack by a resurgent Germany. -Furthermore, Britain was clearly seeking to withdraw from European affairs, focusing primarily on its relations with Australia, Canada and New Zealand. While Britain argued that disarmament was the key to future peace within Europe, France, fearful of a revival of German power, was totally opposed to it. -To the British, it appeared that France posed a greater threat to future peace than Germany. As a result, there seemed little likelihood that Britain would guarantee French security. This left France isolated and consequently even more determined to prevent Germany's post-war recovery.

The Rapallo pact

-The First World War and the Paris peace settlement had left both Germany and Bolshevik Russia isolated and vulnerable. -Representatives of both countries had attended the Genoa Conference, and they continued to hold joint discussions once the conference broke up in disarray. -These discussions led to a treaty in 1921 by which Germany recognised the Bolsheviks as the legitimate government of Russia - the first foreign government to do so. -Further negotiations, conducted by Georgi Chicherin and Walther Rathenau, foreign ministers of Russia and Germany respectively, led to the signing of the Treaty of Rapallo on 16 April 1922.

The five power treaty

-The Five Power Treaty (signed by the USA, Britain, France, Japan and Italy) - Japan agreed to withdraw from some of its recently acquired Chinese territory and to limit its navy to three-fifths the size of the British and US navies. In return, the Western powers agreed not to develop any new naval bases near Japan. All five countries agreed to limit their warship tonnage - Britain and the USA to 500 000 tons each, Japan to 300 000 tons, France and Italy to 175 000 tons each.

successes of the Washington conference

-The Five Power Treaty (signed by the USA, Britain, France, Japan and Italy) - Japan agreed to withdraw from some of its recently acquired Chinese territory and to limit its navy to three-fifths the size of the British and US navies. In return, the Western powers agreed not to develop any new naval bases near Japan. All five countries agreed to limit their warship tonnage - Britain and the USA to 500 000 tons each, Japan to 300 000 tons, France and Italy to 175 000 tons each. -The Four Power Treaty (signed by USA, Britain, France and Japan) - the four countries agreed to respect each other's rights in the Pacific and Far East, and to deal with any future disagreements by negotiation rather than military action. This treaty formally ended the 1902 alliance between Britain and Japan. Britain had become increasingly embarrassed by this alliance for two main reasons - first, because the reason for it (Britain's naval rivalry with Germany) no longer existed; second, because, in the event of any conflict between the USA and Japan, Britain would be obligated to side with Japan. -The Nine Power Treaty (signed by all nine countries attending the conference) - this treaty guaranteed protection for China against invasion and agreed to uphold the 'open door' policy, allowing equal opportunity for all countries seeking to trade with China.

The four power treaty

-The Four Power Treaty (signed by USA, Britain, France and Japan) - the four countries agreed to respect each other's rights in the Pacific and Far East, and to deal with any future disagreements by negotiation rather than military action. This treaty formally ended the 1902 alliance between Britain and Japan. Britain had become increasingly embarrassed by this alliance for two main reasons - first, because the reason for it (Britain's naval rivalry with Germany) no longer existed; second, because, in the event of any conflict between the USA and Japan, Britain would be obligated to side with Japan.

weaknesses of the Genoa conference (1922)

-The Genoa Conference achieved nothing. The USA, still pursuing its isolationist policy and determined to avoid involvement in European affairs, declined to attend. In the face of France's unwillingness to compromise, Germany quickly withdrew from the conference. Feeling increasingly isolated and sensing an opportunity to develop their relationship with Germany, the Russians also backed out.

The nine power treaty

-The Nine Power Treaty (signed by all nine countries attending the conference) - this treaty guaranteed protection for China against invasion and agreed to uphold the 'open door' policy, allowing equal opportunity for all countries seeking to trade with China.

The Lausanne conference 1923

-The Treaty of Sèvres had never been formally ratified. While the Ottoman (Turkish) government had signed the Treaty, Greece refused to do so because of its claims to more former Ottoman Empire territory. This issue was further complicated when the Turkish National Movement, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, gained control over Turkey. Kemal's government rejected the Treaty of Sèvres, claiming some of the territory that the treaty had taken from the former Ottoman Empire. -With the aim of preventing this situation leading to further border disputes, representatives of all the countries involved met in Lausanne, Switzerland. Discussions were tense, and there were constant protests from the Turkish representatives. Nevertheless, agreement was finally reached, and the Treaty of Lausanne was signed on 24 July 1923. weakness: aided other countries to think they can challenge their treaties

Fear of communism/USSR

-The threat of revolution was heightened by events in Russia (USSR). The Bolsheviks' rise to power in October 1917 caused alarm across Europe. France and Britain were especially concerned, as they lost a vital ally when the new Russian government withdrew from the First World War by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. It soon became clear that Lenin intended to spread revolution as far as possible. Russian agents and propaganda appeared in all the major European cities. -In March 1921, Britain was prepared to sign a trade treaty with Russia, in effect recognising the Bolsheviks as the legitimate Russian government. France, however, remained deeply resentful of Bolshevik success in Russia. Not only had it robbed France of a potential ally in the event of any future attack by Germany, but it also increased the threat of revolution in France itself. Moreover, the Bolshevik government's refusal to repay Russian debts to France resulted in great anger. It was largely at French insistence that Russia was not represented at the Paris Peace Conference. -French concerns regarding Bolshevik Russia were heightened when the Treaty of Rapallo was signed in 1922, restoring full diplomatic relations between Russia and Germany, and ending the political and economic isolation of both. The treaty caused great concern across Europe, but particularly in France and Poland.

The Washington Conference (1921-22)

-There was a clear need to reduce growing tensions in East Asia arising from Japanese expansion in the region, tensions that threatened to cause a naval arms race and, possibly, lead to war. -In 1921, therefore, the USA invited nine nations to Washington DC to discuss naval reductions and the situation in East Asia. Britain, Japan, France and Italy were invited to join the USA in talks on reducing naval capacity. Belgium, China, Portugal and the Netherlands were invited to join in discussions on the situation in East Asia.

Britain

-Together with France responsible for enforcing Treaty of Versailles, but increasing differences with France over reparations. Does not occupy Ruhr with France. -Benevolent passivity, britain stood aside powerless.

Germany

-Tries to divide Britain and France and seeks US support to revise Treaty of Versailles. -Negotiates surprise treaty with USSR to prevent its cooperation with Western forces against Germany (Rapallo)

Other disputes and tensions

-Turkey defied the peace settlement completely when its troops retook some of the land in 1922, including Smyrna and parts of Anatolia, awarded to Greece by the Treaty of Sèvres (see Chapter 2.1). -In doing so, Turkey became the first country to successfully challenge the post-war settlement, and in 1923 a revised treaty - the Treaty of Lausanne - replaced the original agreement. -As a result, Turkey regained some land it had lost, including Smyrna, Thrace and the Aegean islands of Imbros and Tenedos. This went some way to restoring Turkish national pride, which had been badly damaged by the Treaty of Sèvres. Turkey's success set a precedent for challenging the Paris peace settlement.

terms of the rapallo pact

-Under the terms of the treaty, referred to as the Rapallo Pact, Russia and Germany agreed to renounce all territorial claims against each other, and to 'cooperate in a spirit of mutual goodwill in meeting the economic needs of both countries'.

Successes of the Rapallo pact

-the treaty was of great economic benefit to both. -The treaty also led to industrial and military collaboration that enabled Germany to evade many of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles

weaknesses of the Washington conference

.However, the treaties were far from perfect. For example, although the Five Power Treaty limited the tonnage of each nation's warships, it did not include all types of shipping. As a result, there was a race to build cruiser ships that could be deployed in the event of war. Moreover, the treaties lacked a means of enforcement - they did not specify what action would be taken if a country violated the agreements it had made.

French attitudes towards Germany

France had been invaded by Germany twice in the space of less than 50 years. After the humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) and the devastating effects of German aggression between 1914 and 1918, it is hardly surprising that France's main priority was to ensure that Germany could never again become a threat. At the Paris Peace Conference, Clemenceau had demanded that a harsh settlement be imposed on Germany, and, to some extent, his demands had been met in the Treaty of Versailles. However, the USA's decision not to ratify the treaty meant that France no longer had the guarantee of American and British assistance in the event of any future aggression by Germany.

Crises and tensions

If drawing up the terms of the peace settlement had been difficult, implementing them proved even more so. International tensions remained high in the post-war years for a number of reasons. The tensions between the USA, Britain and France, which had characterised negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference, increased when the US Senate rejected the peace settlement. Russia, whose Bolshevik government had not been invited to the Paris peace talks, remained isolated as fears of communist-style revolution spread across Europe. These fears led to the appointment of an anti-communist government in Italy under the leadership of Benito Mussolini, whose territorial campaigns in defiance of the Paris peace settlement added to the tensions caused by various border disputes.

The fiume crisis

In line with the aggressive nationalism which characterised fascism, Mussolini made it clear that his aim was to make Italy 'great, respected and feared'. 'The Twentieth Century', he declared, 'will be a century of Italian power.' His early actions certainly seemed to reflect these grand statements. In March 1923, Italian troops took possession of the Adriatic port of Fiume. This action was in defiance of the Paris peace settlement, which had declared Fiume a 'Free City', to be used jointly by Italy and Yugoslavia.

France

Increasingly diverges from Britain over German policy. In 1923 acts independently of Britain to occupy Ruhr

Role of Great Powers and their changing relations/Increased tensions

KEY REASON ; self interest

USA

Played no role in carrying out peace treaties but negotiates Washington Naval Convention and Four-Power Treaty, as well as proposing the Dawes Plan -Usa ignored the problems of countries such as britain and france as well as undermined.

Attitudes towards Russia

Russia, now under communist rule, was viewed with suspicion and fear by its former allies and enemies alike. In a European-wide climate of social and economic hardship, many governments feared revolution in their countries in the post-war years. Concern over the potential spread of communism was so great that many Western European nations, together with Japan, became involved in the Russian Civil War in an attempt to prevent Lenin's Bolsheviks winning control of the country. For France, this situation meant the loss of another potential ally against a revitalised Germany. For Russia, it meant isolation and vulnerability.

USSR

Still aiming in the long term for world revolution. In the short term ready to normalize relations with European states, but in 1923 unsuccessfully tries to exploit Ruhr crisis to encourage revolution in Germany

Why did enforcing the treaty of versailles increase post war tensions

The Tov, was imposed on Germany, entailed of harsh military restrictions, territorial clauses and the war guilt. -Balance of power, if France was to gain all the things it wanted it would affect Britains position in Europe as a major power. -Germany's opposition to the treaty. unpopular opinion & treaty openly opposed. -Tension between Germany's opposition to the treaty & creators of the treaty. -Tension between creators of the treaty themselves because they a divided on how to enforce the treaty which meant they lacked the means of enforcing it.

The impact of decisions taken by the USA (not ratifying the Paris peace settlement and French isolation)

The impact of decisions taken by the USA -The USA's decision not to ratify the Paris peace settlement had major implications for international relations. It undermined the legitimacy of the various treaties that emerged from the Paris Peace Conference, and seriously damaged the credibility of the proposed League of Nations. - In particular, it was a cause of great concern in France. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, both Britain and the USA guaranteed to help France in the event of any future German invasion. When the USA refused to ratify the treaty, Britain used this as an excuse to cancel its own commitment. With no guarantee of American or British help, France was left feeling betrayed and vulnerable.

what did the period of 1919-23 represent?

The period from 1919 to 1923 was, therefore, characterised by international tension. Germany was weakened and resentful. France and Russia, albeit for different reasons, felt isolated and vulnerable. The USA had returned to a policy of isolationism, while Britain was focusing more on its imperial connections than on its relations with Europe. Italy, now under Mussolini's leadership, was seeking to overcome its humiliation at the Paris Peace Conference by territorial expansion. Border disputes were commonplace, and Turkey had become the first country to successfully challenge the Paris peace settlement. At the same time, countries were trying to come to terms with the economic consequences of the First World War.

weaknesses of the Rapallo pact

The signing of the Treaty of Rapallo caused great concern elsewhere in Europe, particularly in France and Poland. The French, fearful of communism spreading from Bolshevik Russia and determined to keep Germany weak and isolated, felt threatened by the increasingly friendly relations between these two countries. The Poles were well aware that both Germany and Russia claimed parts of the territory that comprised post-First World War Poland. Flanked by Germany to the west and Russia to the east, Poland's security was clearly under threat. Moreover, Poland's own hopes of territorial expansion at the expense of both Germany and Russia were curtailed.

French policy against Germany

Throughout the period from 1919-1923 the French policy towards Germany aimed to ensure Germany remained too weak both military and economically to pose a threat to French security. France insisted Germany repay its reparations in full clearly demonstrated by the French's refusal to compromise at the Genoa conference. since the reparations were to be paid over 66 years, France felt reassured Germany would remain too weak to pose any threat to them. when Germany fell behind its reparation payments France was prepared to adopt drastic measures to make the Germans pay this led to the occupation of the Ruhr

The Genoa Conference (1922)

aim was to discuss ways of easing their post war economic problems. At the suggestion of David Lloyd George, the British prime minister, representatives of 30 European countries met in Genoa, Italy, to discuss ways of easing their post-war economic problems. France was represented by its prime minister, Raymond Poincaré. Despite their political and diplomatic isolation, both Germany and Soviet Russia were invited to the conference, Lloyd George believing that their inclusion was vital to achieving the aim of 'the economic reconstruction of Europe, devastated and broken into fragments by the agency of war'. The conference, which ran from 10 April to 19 May 1922, focused largely on the issue of German reparations. Facing its own massive economic problems, Germany was struggling to keep up with the schedule of payments. Britain, with a vested interest in restoring its German trading links, argued that the massive reparations imposed on Germany would undermine European economic recovery and should therefore be reduced. France, fearing a revival of German power and opposing anything that seemed to weaken the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, insisted that reparation payments should be made in full.

The impact of decisions taken by the USA (German Reparations)

in order to repay their USA debts, Britain and France grew reliant on German war reparations. However, with its currency collapsing and hyperinflation, Germany was in no position to meet these payments. Britain was prepared to compromise with the German government but France insisted the reparations be repaid in full

French occupation of the Ruhr 1923 counterproductive

this was counterproductive for two reasons: - it increased the problem of inflation, undermining the German economy making it even more difficult for Germany to meet its reparations requirements - it severely damaged France's relations with Britain who had its own reasons for pushing the German economy recovering, this left France feeling further isolated and vulnerable