316., RNR 230, Insect Biology Exam 1, Insect Biology exam 2, Final Exam Insect biology, Conservation Biology Exam 1
What influences size and stability of populations?
-Top-Down Control (predation) -Bottom-up Control
What are the four main cell types of epidermis?
-Undifferentiated Columnar secretory cells -Oenocytes -dermal glands -Tricogen sensory cells
C4
a water efficient photosynthetic pathway common in crop plants
seedling
a young plant
sapling
a young tree
Density-dependent mortality
as an insect population goes up, so does mortality due t natural enemies
woody
full of trees.
Agriculture
cultivation of plants, animals, and other organisms to produce food, fiber, and other products use to sustain life
N
current population size at time t
endophyte
fungi produce chemicals that repel herbivores and provide drought resistance by increasing the concentration of minerals in plant tissue
mycorrhizae
fungi that surround plant roots and help plants obtain water and minerals
What are the types of avoidance's?
-escape in time -escape in space -chemical escape (repellent) -Morphological escape
Leopold
-land ethic -the goal of con is to live on the land without spoiling it -intrinsic
Chronic (quantitative) chemical resistance
-large/complex molecules reduce digestibility/nutrition
Trilobites
-three main body parts: head, thorax, tail -marine -curled up for protection -disappeared at the end of Permian 272 mya
Ecdysis phase
ecdysis: shedding old cuticle -two sterotyped ecdysis behaviors -pre-eclosion behaviors -eclosion behaviors Regulated by 3 hormones -EH -CCAP -ETH
Conservation biology uses
ecological principles
Mass exextinction events:
events in which at least 75% of existing species go extinct within a 2 million-year period
Synthesized defense compound
ex: blister beetles make canthardin -lady beetles make alkaloids and release them by reflex bleeding from leg joint is attacked
Mutualism
flowering plants/ pollinators -plants/ants (+,+)
What colors can insects see?
Insects usually have 3 visual pigments -maximal sensitivity in green, blue and UV -cant see orange, red, and infra but can see ultra violets and blues
Fedrick. E. Clements argued about what kind of communities?
Interdependent communities
Polyphagy are
generalists
Tradeoff in allocation:
how an organism invests its time and energy between growth, reproduction, and survival for maximum fitness • Driven by extrinsic and intrinsic factors
Mechanotransduction
mechanical signals ( hear, feel, touching)
What else can harden a cuticle?
metal, -zinc in mandibles and ovipositor of a wasp
acerose
needle-shaped as in the leaves of pines, firs, and spruces, and occasionally in the cupressaceae
Oenocytes
produce cuticular lipids of epicuticle
bark
outermost layers of a woody stem including all of the living and nonliving tissues external to the cambium
Insulin-like peptide
produced by midgut, fatbody, or malpighian tubules, regulate metabolism, reproduction, lifespan and stress resistance
How are insects different sizes?
product of growth rate * duration of growth period
Relative abundance:
proportion of individuals in a community represented by each species -typical community, only a few have low or high abundance;most species have intermediate abundance
Chemical defenses
poisons and stings
Systematic poison
polar insecticides are absorbed and translocated by plants. Enter insects through mouth and midgut along with plant juice
neurons are __
polarized
What is the value of conservation biology according to Soule'?
Intrinsic value
Iteroparity
When organisms reproduce multiple times during their life.
Semelparity
When organisms reproduce only once during their life.
subshrub
a suffrutescent perennial plant; a small shrub
How does the ingested prokaryote end endosymbiosis benefit the host?
provided crucial nutrients (in the case of the primitive chloroplast) or helped to exploit oxygen for extracting energy (in the case of the primitive mitochondrion)
How did eusocial behavior in insects evolve?
provides benefits: -increased capacity for foraging and defense -specializations for foraging and defense -protection of young -capacity to create complex nests: homeostasis
exponential growth (r)
rate at which new individuals are added to a population is the first derivative of the equation Nt=N0e^rt: dN/dt=rN expresses the rate of increase on a "per individual" (per capita) basis
exponential growth (r): density independent
rate at which new individuals are added to a population: dN/dt=rN expresses the rate of increase on a "per individual" (per capita) basis
Primary productivity
rate at which solar or chemical energy is captured and converted into chemical bonds by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
dN/dt
rate of change in population size
g
rate of recovery and development of immunity
Entognatha
small, wingless arthropods (Diplura)
Bigger is better than
smaller
stromatolite
some of the oldest fossils that shed light on the orirgin of photosynthesis
mutation
source of all genetic variation within genome
Population dispersion
spacing of individuals
homologous chromosomes
—one member of which is inherited from each parent—
Stream
A narrow channel of fast flowing fresh water. Also known as Creek.
Ectoparasite
A parasite that lives on the outside of an organism
Damped oscillations
A pattern of population growth in which the population initially oscillates but the magnitude of the oscillations declines over time. -when .37 <rgreekt<1.57
Industrial melanism
A phenomenon in which industrial activities cause habitats to become darker due to pollution and, as a result, individuals possessing darker phenotypes are favored by selection.
Convergent evolution
A phenomenon in which two species descended from unrelated ancestors look similar because they have evolved under similar selective forces.
CAM
A photosynthetic pathway in which the initial assimilation of carbon into a four-carbon compound occurs at night.At night they uptake CO2 through open somata. During the day the stomata close to reduce water loss
Red Queen dilemma
A population of asexual females can grow twice as fast a population that reproduces sexually, yet most plants and animals procreate via sexual reprduction
Leaching
A process in which groundwater removes some substances by dissolving them and moving them down through the soil to lower layers.
Environmental sex determination
A process in which sex is determined largely by the environment.
Genetic drift
A process that occurs when genetic variation is lost because of random variation in mating, mortality, fecundity, and inheritance. -Loss of genetic variation due to random variation in ○ Mating ○ Fecundity ○ Mortality ○ Gene inheritance - more common in small populations because random events can have a disproportionately large effect on the frequencies of genes in the population.
Mutation
A random change in the sequence of nucleotides in regions of DNA that either comprise a gene or control the expression of a gene. Deletion, insertion, substitution. Can be -Silent(does not change coding region) -Deleterious/fatal -Benefit or costly
Fall bloom
A rapid increase in the population of phytoplankton in fall that occurs with the infusion of nutrients from fall overturn.
Bottleneck effect
A reduction of genetic diversity in a population due to a large reduction in population size.
Rain shadow
A region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side. -When winds carry warm moist air up over a mountain, the air cools and releases much of its moisture as precipitation. After crossing the mountain, the now dry air descends down the mountain, which causes the environment on this side of the mountain to be very dry.
Asexual reproduction
A reproduction mechanism in which progeny inherit DNA from a single parent
Sexual reproduction
A reproduction mechanism in which progeny inherit DNA from two parents.
Salt marsh
A saltwater biome that contains nonwoody emergent vegetation.
Phenotypic trade-off
A situation in which a given phenotype experiences higher fitness in one environment whereas other phenotypes experience higher fitness in other environments.
Polyploid
A species that contains three or more sets of chromosomes.
thorn
A stiff, woody, modified stem with a sharp point; sometimes applied to any structure resembling a true thorn
Habitat corridor
A strip of favorable habitat located between two large patches of habitat that facilitates dispersal.
Die-off
A substantial decline in density that typically goes well below the carrying capacity.
Diapause
A type of dormancy in insects that is associated with a period of unfavorable environmental conditions.
Hibernation
A type of dormancy that occurs in mammals in which individuals reduce the energetic costs of being active by lowering their heart rate and decreasing their body temperature. Long term from cold and food scarcity.
Tropical rainforest
A warm and rainy biome, characterized by multiple layers of lush vegetation.
River
A wide channel of slow flowing fresh water.
Which of the following groups of organisms includes a domain of prokaryotes that were discovered as recently as the 1970's? A) archaea B) fungi C) protists D) mollusks
A) archaea
The mechanism of evolution by natural selection Question options: A) operates at the population level. B) applies to traits that cannot be inherited. C) ensures that species are best adapted to their environment. D) does not apply to barnacles.
A) operates at the population level.
What factors explain why we observe similar biome patterns alone elevational and latitudinal gradients? a) temp and precip b) UV radiation and temperature C) Temp and soil fertility D) precip and topography
A) Temperature and precipitation
Optimal foraging theory involves tradeoffs in behavior because A) resources vary in space and time B) amino acids are essential to a blanced diet C) Only one foraging strategy is optimal for maximizing fitness
A. )resources vary in space and time
The major aquatic biomes A) are determined by salinity, water depth, and movement. B)do not influence terrestrial biome distributions C) Have constant photic zone depths D) all of the above
A. are determined by salinity, water depth, and movment
A population A) is the unit of evolution through natural selection. B) is all the interaction species in a given area C) cannot be defined by geographic boundaries D) all of the above
A. is the unit of evolution through natural selection
Density (D):
Abundance per unit area (5 deer per km^2)
Coriolis effect
Air at the equator moves faster than air at higher latitudes. -the deflection of an object's path due to the rotation of earth -different rotation speeds deflect the direction of surface air circulation in the hadley and polar cells -drives trade winds, westerlies, and gulf streams
Using the term albedo correctly, breifly describe how a climate change related mechanism could shot down the thermoline circulation pattern.
Albedo is the percentage of the sun rays reflected back. In areas that are lighter (like snow) it decreases average temperatures as head is reflected back. If the polar caps melted, albedo would not reflect as much and the water would not freeze, hence the water would not become denser and saltier.
Population
All members of a species in a given area at a given time (ex bighorn sheep in Santa Catalina Mountains). The unit of evolution through natural selection. -individuals adapt, populations evolve
Biological Disease Transmission by Arthropod Vectors
Almost exclusively associated with arthropod parasites that feed on vertebrate blood. Bloodfeeders: Diptera and hemiptera Ectoparasite: fleas, lice
Recessive
An allele whose expression is masked by the presence of another allele.
Freshwater wetland
An aquatic biome that contains standing fresh water, or soils saturated with fresh water for at least part of the year, and which is shallow enough to have emergent vegetation throughout all depths. -Water-saturated soil with low O2 adapted plants -Ecosystem services ○ Flood control ○ Coastline protection from storms ○ "soakup" toxins (detergents, sewage, heavy metals) -Threats: ○ Drained and filled for development
Lake
An aquatic biome that is larger than a pond and is characterized by nonflowing fresh water with some area of water that is too deep for plants to rise above the water's surface.
Pond
An aquatic biome that is smaller than a lake and is characterized by nonflowing fresh water with some area of water that is too deep for plants to rise above the water's surface.
Habitat:
An area with the combination of resources (food, cover, water) and environmental conditions (temperature, precipitation) where individuals of a a given species settle, survive, and reproduce
Acclimation
An environmentally induced change in an individual's physiology. ○ Individuals adjust to environment (short term, reversible) ○ Example acclimation to high elevation: faster heart rate, greater production of red blood cells make up for lower oxygen.
Rubisco
An enzyme involved in photosynthesis that catalyzes the reaction of RuBP and CO2 to form two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). .the most abundant enzyme on earth; responsible for carbon fixation -Not efficient. fixes 3 CO2 molecules per second when most enzymes process thousands of molecules per second
Vector
An organism that a parasite uses to disperse from one host to another.
Perennial
An organism that has a life span of more than one year.
Annual
An organism that has a life span of one year.
Homeostasis:
An organisms ability to maintain constant internal conditions in the face of a varying external environment
Upwelling .
An upward movement of ocean water
Insect vectors of plant diseases
Approximately 80% of plant diseases of economic importance, particularly viruses, are vectored by insects. For disease transmission to occur: There must be a source of pathogen inoculum — a crop or weed host for pathogen There must be a vector — e.g., aphids, leafhoppers, & whiteflies There must be a susceptible host — various crop/weed plants. The use of plant clones (vegetative propagation) creates particular vulnerability. Most vectors are hemipterans, particularly aphids and plant hoppers. Insect vectors of plant diseases cause economic damage at low population levels.
What is the exception to PTG destruction?
Apterygota which keeps on molting during adulthood -signal for destruction: absence of juvenile hormone
Ecosystem:
Assemblage of communities of organisms (biotic) along with their (abiotic) physical and chemical environment such as lakes, deserts or forests
What advantage does asynchronous flight muscles have over synchronous flight muscles?
Asynchronous flight muscles produce multiple wingbeats for each action potential. This enables increased flight velocity to overcome viscous forces acting on smaller insects.
Signal transmission: synaptic transmission
At the synaptic gap the action potential ends -in most cases futher transmission of the signal requires a chemical transmitter. Only a few electrical synapses -synapses delay the signal: chemical transmission is slower than electrical transmission
Synaptic transmission: Axon hillock
Axon hillock: locate at the beginning of axons and is the site for postsynaptic AP generation -has no synapses of its own and thus is able to evaluate the total picture of EPSPs and IPSPs created in the dendrites -It has a lower Na+ gate threshold than elsewhere on the cell. -Only if ∑EPSPs -∑IPSPs ≥ Na+ gate threshold will an action potential be generated.
Weak trade winds, a flattened thermocline, and warm waters off the western coast of South America are indicative of ___ conditions A) ENSO neutral B) El Nino C) La Nina D) Coriolis
B El Nino
Which of the following is not an example of a biological system in a dynamic steady state? Question options: A) The population size of ground squirrels living in my neighborhood has ranged from 20-28 individuals over the past 5 years. B) Fire return frequencies are increasing in western U.S. forests over the past few decades, changing the productivity of these forests. C) Over the past 100 years, five herbaceous plant species have gone locally extinct in a grassland, while seven herbaceous plant species have successfully invaded. D) All of the above.
B) Fire return frequencies are increasing in western U.S. forests over the past few decades, changing the productivity of these forests.
What is science? Question options: A) Immutable fact. B) The knowledge gained through the scientific method. C) An untestable hypothesis. D) It cannot be defined.
B) The knowledge gained through the scientific method.
The endosymbiotic theory of the origins of eukaryotes Question options: A) was quickly accepted and adopted by the greater scientific community. B) describes a phenomenon that occurred randomly and was selected for over time. C) is a relationship that benefits the host cell but not the englufed cell. D) explains the origin of mitochondrion but not chloroplast organelles.
B) describes a phenomenon that occurred randomly and was selected for over time.
The Red Queen hypotheses proposes that A) parasites have the upper hand in the evolutionary arms race B)coevolution of hosts and parasites selects for sexual reproduction C) hosts have the upper hand in the evolutionary arms race D)coevolution of hosts and parasites selects for asexual reproduction
B) coevolution of hosts and parasites selects for sexual reproduction
Global climate models have difficulty constraining water, temperature, and energy variables within biomes because A) animal populations are not explicitly included B) current and historic biome distributions do not always match. C) modelers are notoriously bad at math D) net primary productivity cannont be measured within biomes
B) current and historic biome distributions do not always match
Continous polygenic traits such as human hight exhibit bell-shaped distributions in part because of the low of A) browninan motion B) independent assortment C) thermodynamics D) natural seleciton
B) independent assortment
Hadley circulation is based on which of these principles? A) equilibrium water vapor pressure is constant B) warm air has higher water vapor potential than cold air C) Warm air is denser than cold air
B) warm air has higher water vapor potential than cold air
the difference between the fundamental and realized niche of a species is A) largely driven by physiological constraints b) largely driven by inter specific interactions C) an n-dimensional hypervolume D) largely driven by intraspecific interactions
B)largely driven by inter specific interactions
Photosynthesis is restricted to surface waters (the photic zone) because A) the rubisco enzyme cannot fix carbon in cold benthic waters B) PAR wavelengths of light do not penetrate to the benthic zone C) Oxygen availability is higher in the benthic than in the photic zone D) nutrient limitation is higher in the benthic than in the photic zone
B.) PAR wavelengths of light do not penetrate the benthic zone
Why do plants close their stomata?
Because they release water when they uptake CO2. Tendency of water to leave a leaf far exceeds tendency of CO2 to enter. CO2 uptake must be balanced with water release. This is a problem when water is limited.
How do bedbugs pierce the skin?
Bedbug (Fam. Cimicidae): like all hemiptera, mandibles and other mouthpart structures are modified into a beak or rostrum.
Pollinator syndrome: Cantharophily
Beetle pollination: beetles are pollen chewers, not very specialized for pollination; flowers are not very specialized for pollinators--large, open, dish and bowl type, no nectar guide, easy access.
Avoidance-Escape
Behavioral responses to avoid attack by natural enemy -locomotion: run -Thanatosis: playing dead -Color flashing: cryptic insect shows flash of color, then becomes cryptic again -Startle response -Protean Display -time
Why would the endosymbiosis theory be selected for over time?
Benefits from engulfed prokaryote because it provided nutrints and exploited oxygen for energy.
Mycorrhizae: Fungus-plant mutualism
Benefits to plant -increase nutrient uptake by providing greater root surface area-P.N,Ca and K and amino acids -increase root longevity -Increase soil aggregate stability -protect against pathogen infection Benefits to fungus -Photosynthate from plants provides carbon to fungus -Plant root dampens environmental fluctuation and stress
What does bloodfeeding require?
Bloodfeeding requires: -Sensory apparatus to locate vertebrate host -Specialized piercing-sucking mouthparts -Saliva components to prevent blood coagulation and host immune response. -Capacity to deal with dramatic increase in gut volume
Outcrossing
Breeding of unrelated animals
metapopulation dynamics example
Butterfly on island of finland -only 12 to 39 habitats out of 1,600 suitable meadows were occupied in any year. -over a 9-year period -100 patches experienced extinction and 100 patches experienced colonization. The metapopulation persisted because extinctions were offset by colonization. -introduced butterflies to 10 meadows on island with 20 total meadows -occupied patches varied over time -all original patched extinct, but 11 newly colonized
Types of neurons: Two ways of classification
By the number of extensions -unipolar -bipolar -multipolar By function (the direction of information that they send) - afferent neurons -Efferent (motor) neurons -Interneuron (association neuron) -
Organisms with smaller body size tend to experience greater fluctuation in population size. Why? A) only smaller organism experience homeostatic feedbacks that influence survival probability B) larger organisms have stronger homeostatic feedbacks C) Body size influences an organisms population growth rate and ability to tolerate environmental change
C) Body size influences an organisms population growth rate and ability to tolerate environmental change
Parasitoids A) do not influence the fitness of their hosts B) do not kill their host C) Kill their host, but only after full parasitoid development D) form short-term interactions with their host
C) Kill their host, but only after full parasitoid development
Genetic mutations are A) reversible. B) always selected for. C) a cause of genetic varation in populations D) all of the above
C) a cause of genetic variation in populations
The photosynthetic enzyme Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase A) is a highly efficient enzyme B) requires a significant investment of nitrogen C) developed under high atmospheric O2 concentrations D) all of the above
C) developed under high atmospheric O2 concentrations
All ecological studies faced tradeoffs between realism, precision, and generality. Which type of ecological inquiry maximized precision? A) theoretical B) observational C) experimental D) all of the above
C) experimental
Which of the following is not an example of a resource A) yucca flowers for yucca moths B) silica for diatoms C) pH for plants D) domatia for ants
C) pH for plants
what is the source of JH?
CA
What are hormones produced by CC?
CC stores and releases brain hormones -produces its own peptide hormones -AKH -HTH -DH
NSC in brain is linked to __, __ and or ___ in gangalia
CC, CA, NSC CC is the release site for PTTH
Release of EH causes release of ____
CCAP
____ switches on enclosion behavior, switches off pre-eclosion behavior
CCAP
NSC in ganglia is regulated by
CCAP-crustacean cardioactive peptide, involved in triggering the motor activity that allows the animal to crawl out of its old cuticle -Bursicon and CCAP are produced by the same neurons
What is the equation for photosynthesis?
CO2+photon+H20------------>C6H12O6 + O2
Storage (hide)
Cache food supplies
Crypsis
Camouflage that either allows an individual to match its environment or breaks up the outline of an individual to blend in better with the background
Parasitoid Biology
Can be solitary (one parasitoid per host) or gregarious. -Gregarious parasitoids can come from multiple eggs, or a single polyembryonic egg. -Hosts often continue development for extended periods after initial egg-laying by mother parasitoid.
Body size of insects changes over time
Carboniferous: era of land plants ≈300 mya -fossil arthropods were huge -during carboniferous oxygen levels were higher -size differs among species
Define K
Carrying Capacity: Maximum size of population that the envronment can support
meiosis
Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms
myriapoda-Class chilopada-Cent
Centipedes -1 pair of appendages per segment -predatory with venom
Evolution
Change in the genetic composition of a population over time
Population growth
Changes in abundance reflect changes in population processes over time (birth, death, immigration, emigration) -A population's "intrinsic capacity for increase" depends on rates of birth and death -Darwin estimated that 2 elephants could give rise to 19 million elephants in 750 years -Observed growth rates rarely reflect full reproduction potential
Lotic
Characterized by flowing fresh water. • Riffles-O2 • Pools-High organic matter
What are two ways insects ingest food?
Chewing-mandibulate primitive (grasshopper): solid food Sucking: liquid food
What is the procuticle made of?
Chitin fibers-makes up as much as half of the exoskeleton protein matrix
Why are plants green?
Chlorophyll absorb every color but green
What are major determinants of soil characteristics?
Climate, parent material, time
What are the 3 types of population dispersion?
Clustered dispersion, evenly spaced dispersion, random dispersion
Diffuse co-evolution:
Co-adaptation of two groups of species. This sort of diffuse co-evolution, by guilds of interacting species, has produced a range of so-called pollination syndrome, or collection of traits characterizing plants sharing similar pollinators. 1. cantharophily: beetle pollination 2. myophily: fly pollination 3. phalaenophily: moth pollination 4. psychophily: butterfly pollination 5. melittophily: bee pollination
Pairwise co-evolution:
Co-adaptation of two species. The adaptive responses between two species lead to evolutionary changes in each other. Also called "specific co-evolution" 1. figs-fig wasps 2. yucca-yucca moths
Blattodea order
Cockroaches and Termites -hemimetabolous -flattened body -head tucked under thorax -wings: 2 pairs, leathery Juveniles like adults but wingless
Chromosomes
Compact structures consisting of long strands of DNA that are wound around proteins.
interspecific
Competition among individuals of different species.
Intraspecific competition .
Competition among individuals of the same species.
intraspecific
Competition among individuals of the same species.
Procuticle
Comprised of exocutilce and endocuticle Provides mechanical properties such as stiffnes and elasticity
There is less acid rain now than the 1960's. Yet effects linger. 2/3 rivers in North easy USA are more alkaline. How can acid rain legacy make rivers more alkaline?
Concrete-limestone-basic. Leeching on concrete from acid rain
Nerve cells
Conduction cels that transduce, transmit or process signals or information
Predation
Consumes and kills prey, removes prey from population
Examples of reaction norms
Continuous traits -body size -development time -fecundity -metabolic rate -Size / age maturity Add chart Adjustments in existing developmental program
Lokta-Volterra
Continuous-time model that calculates rate of change in pradator and prey populations as each is influenced by the abundance of the other
Survey
Counting a subset of the population.
Census
Counting every individual in a population.
Coexistence between two competition species is likely to occur when A) intraspecific competition is greater than interspecific competition B) competition coefficients are less than 1 C) two species are limited by different resources D) All of the above
D All of the above intraspecific competition is greater than interspecific competition, competition coefficients are less than 1, two species are limited by different resources
What are some possible explanations for the latitudinal gradient in plant diversity? Question options: A) Greater climate stability (e.g., fewer periods of dormancy) in tropical latitudes. B) Smaller impact of major climate-driven disturbance (e.g., ice age) in lower latitudes near the equator. C) Stronger biotic interactions among predators and competitors in tropical biomes. D) All of the above might contribute.
D) All of the above might contribute.
Assemblages of communities of organisms together with their physical and chemical environments constitute which level of hierarchy in the ecological system? A) biosphere B) community C) population D) ecosystem
D) ecosystem
From the following list, choose the word that comes closest in meaning to the Greek root of the word "ecology":Question options: A) currency B) matter C) root D) house
D) house
What determines species distributions? A) Species interactions B)Physiological tolerance tradeoffs C) History and chance D) all of the above
D) All of the above. Species interactions. physiological tolerance tradeoffs, history and chance
Fluctuations in the population growth curves of rodents in the Chihuahan desert results from A) seasonal changes in resource availability B)interspecific and intraspecific competition D) interannual variation in preception D) All of the above
D) Seasonal changes in resource availability, interspecific and intraspecific competion, interannual variation in precipitation
What is an s shape distribution? A) recovery rate in an SIR model B)population growth in a logistic growth model C)predator consumption rate in Type III functional response curve D) all of the above
D) all of the above Recovery rate in an SIR model, population growth in a logistic growth model, predator consumption rate in Type III functional response curve
Natural selection requires A) genetic mutation B) competition C) non-random survival D) all of the above
D. ) all of the above. Genetic mutation. competition, non-random survival
Similar environmental conditions can lead to taxonomically unrelated organisms with similar form and function. This is an example of a) divergent evolution B) polygenic traits C) homeostasis D) converget evolution
D.convergent evolution
Paris climate conference 2015
December 2015: 195 countries adopted the first ever universal legally binding global climate deal. -Agreement sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid dangers climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2 c
La Nina in desert
Decreases in winter precipitation associated with intensified La nina conditions are stressing Southwest urban water systems.
Why can populations sometimes overshoot K?
Delayed density dependence can cause population "booms" due to an event in the past
Alleles
Different forms of a particular gene.
Examples of polyphenism
Discrete morphs -winged-wingless aphids -locust phases -beetle horns -seasonal morphs -castes in social insect Add chart Different developmental programs
Odonata order
Dragonflies and damselfies hemimetabolus -aquatic during juvenile stages -males have 2 sets of genitalia Toothed flies', enormous eyes 'Avoiding light', head under thorax Wings: 2 pairs: do not fold over back Wings: 2 pairs, leathery Juveniles - aquatic Juveniles - like adults but wingless
Define dynamic steady state and provie one example
Dynamic steady state is when the gains and loses balance each other. An example is fire tolerant shrubs. In places of rapid fires these shrubs are tolerant to fire.
ETH causes release of _ by ___ in the brain
EH, NSC
What are hormones produced by Inka cells?
ETH
Insects that do not have EGs have?
ETH (ecdysis triggering hormone) producing Inka cells scattered as a diffuse network throughout the tracheal surface
What are the 3 peptide hormones that interact to trigger molting behavior? Both release of these hormones and the ability of tissues to respond to these hormones is controlled by ___ and __
ETH, EH, CCAP MH and JH
Evenly spaced dispersion:
Each individual maintains a uniform distance between itself and its neighbors (e.g defended territories, croplands)
What stages do parasitoids attack?
Each parasitoid species attacks particular host life stages: -Egg parasitoids - complete development within host egg. -Egg-larval - parasitoid larva completes development and kills host prior to pupation. -Larval -Larval-pupal - attacks larva but parasitoid doesn't emerge until host pupates.
Modeling invasive species
Ecological niche modeling can predict the expansive of pest species Example: Chinese bushclover was brought to the US to control erosion, provide cattle feed, and reclaim mined land. Had data on the environmental conditions under which bushcover lived in its native eastern Asia. Used this date to quantify the ecological envelope of bushclover and predicted all locations to which it subsequently spread. Since bushclover has not spread to all predicted locations, other ecological facts may limit its distribution.
What are the practical implications for knowing all the range of conditions a species could tolerate?
Ecological niche modeling=Species distribution modeling=predictive habitat distribution modeling=climate envelope medeling -species become invasive and predict where they will invade -estimate current vegetation cover
Batesian mimicry
Edible insect mimics chemically-defended insect (model) -Model species can suffer if predator gets confused -Only works if mimic is rare relative to the model
What is Batesian mimicry? What happens if the mimic becomes more abundant than the model?
Edible insect mimics chemically-defended insect (model). Model species can suffer if predator gets confused. Batesian mimicry only works if mimic is rare relative to the model.
______ are fungi that can protect plant and leaves from herbivore and pathogen damage, while___ help plant roots obtain water and nutrients. Both fungi and plants benefit, thus each relationship is considred a ___
Edophytes, mycorrhizae, mutualism
Number of species increases as area sampled increases -WHY
Environmental diversity and complexity increases as area increase
What are the four biological principles that underline forensic entomology
Enzymatic reaction rates are a function of temperature (up to a point) Degree days Selection for short development time Niche partitioning
Estimating abundance
Estimate abundance (parameter) with survey dataChallenge-gauge the portion of the population that we don't observeTwo surveys--First- mark a subset of animals-Second- estimate the proportion of animals in the population that are marked-Simplest approach is the Lincol-Peterson method
Macroevolution
Evolution at higher levels of organization including species, genera, families, orders, and phyla.
What insects are exclusively parasitic?
Exclusively parasitic: -Phthiraptera (within Psocoptera) (lice) -Siphonaptera (fleas)
Lokta-Volterra calculation for prey
(rate of change of population)=(population growth rate)-(population decline rate) dN/dt=rN-cNP r:exponential growth rate of prey n:prey number c: capture efficiency P:predator number rN>cNP=prey population increase rN<cNP=prey population decline
Lokta-Volterra calculation for predator
(rate of change of population)=(population growth rate)-(population decline rate) dP/dt=acNP-mP cNP:number prey eaten a:conversion efficiency m:per capita death rate (constant) acNP>dp=predator population increase acNP<dP=predator population decline
Type III functional response
(type II at high density) low predator rate of prey consumption at low prey density for three reasons (prey rfeugia, poor search image, prey switching) -functional response curve with assumptions at high and low prey densities that include predator satiation and prey refugia
The nervous system and endocrine system are related by:
*Anatomy* -NSC in central nerve system (CNS) CNS are specialized nerve cells that secrete hormones NSC in parts intercerebralis of protocerebrum NSC in other parts of the brain NSC in ganglia of ventral nerve cord Ganglion: whole ganglion becomes a hormone synthesis/release organ CC and CA *Function* Feedback: Postivel or negatively regulate each other
Herbivores* cause induced defenses in plants
*many plant stressors cause induced defenses
Regulating ecosystem services
-
What are the odds of an introduced species becoming established? Spreading?
-
Diet mixing
- Consume essential amino acids
Optimal diet
- Energy benefit vs handling time -Types of food consumed Example: hunting, Coyote chasing jackrabbit.
What is happening to rate of self fertility in mine tailing site and why?
- Individuals on zinc tolerance, zinc is high in mine area, strong decline, and zinc tolerance becomes no existent. Costly to tolerate toxins. - Zinc tolerant, want offspring to become zinc tolerant, better to selfing. Strong variability but less moving right. Strong selection pressure of zinc tolerance
Cane Toad
- Native to central America and introduced to Australia to control pets -control: kids hunting, -no native competitor
Could sub-sociality lead to eusociality?
- alturism
Foraging strategies-Phoresy
- an individual of one species being transported by an individual of another species. Relatively common among parasites and parasitoids. Example: Human bot fly -different type of foraging strategy
Economic pests
- an organism that lowers agricultural yield and profitability by causing direct or indirect damage to crop plants or harvested products. Pests cause the loss of about 1/3 of all agricultural products. Pests can include insects, other arthropods, vertebrates, weeds, fungi and other plant pathogens.
indirect flight muscles
- attached only to thorax
direct flight muscles
- directly attached to wings
Diptera pests
- feed on fruits (as maggots)
How do horsefly pierce blood?
- sword-like mandibles to rip flesh open, then sop up blood with fleshy labella.
How do parasites forage?
- the insect itself and mother may be involved in host location.
Efferent (motor) neurons
- unipolar cells that conduct signals AWAY from CNS and stimulate responses in muscles and/or glands.
How do mosquitoes pierce the blood?
-"elegantly"
Epidermis
-*only living part of integument* -ectodermal in origin: digestive tract, trachea, reproductive tracts need to molt these as well -Columnar cells: intersegmental membranes stretched flat -very active layer -participant in molting -four main cell types
Avoidance
---escape from herbivores, no actual feeding.
Tolerance
---to stand and take it simply by outgrowing the damage---compensatory growth
What makes the U.S place special or diverse?
-200,000 species -16,000 plants -9% of worlds mammals 6% of worlds land surface spanning 1/3 of the globe -12 of 14 biome types (more than other country) -21 of 28 globally defined ecoregions ->10% rich in temp broad forest, temp grassland, mixed mount systems -number one is fish, muscles... -U.S has many rivers
Diversity of insects
-28 different orders -most diversity occurs in 5 orders: -coleoptra (beetles) -lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) -hymenoptera (wasps, ants, and bees) -Diptera (flies) -Hemiptera (true bugs)
Estimating abundance: Great Elephant survey
-352,271 elephants in 18 countries -Savanna elephant populations declined by 30% (144,000 elephants) between 2007 and 2014 -The current rate of decline is 8% per year, primarily due to poaching.
Variation in ovariole number
-4-10 -as few as 2 -some social insect queens have a lot
Solanaceae
-5 fused sepals; 5 fused petals that form bell or funnel-shapped plicate corolla -5 epipetalous stamens -superior ovary with 2 carpels -fruit berry or capsule
Hexapoda-Class insecta
-6 legs -appendages uniramous -3 body parts-head, thorax,and abdomen -usually winged in adult stage -single pair of antennae -believed to have diverged from crustacea, about 440 mya
Neuron resting potential
-70 milivots for neurons, and electrical charge across the plasma membrane, with the interior of the cell negative with respect to the exterior
What are the aquatic Biomes percentages?
-71% of earth's surface is covered by water -97% oceans -2% glaciers/ice cap -1% water
logistic growth model:
-A growth model that describes slowing growth of populations at high densitites dN/dt=rN (1-N/K) Carrying capacity (K): maximum population size that can be supported by the environment S-shaped curve the shape of the curve when a population is graphed over time using the logistic model Inflection point: point on a sigmoidal growth curve at which the population has its highest growth rate
Logistic growth: resources limited
-A growth model that describes slowing growth of populations at high densitites -Define a new constant, K, to represent carrying capacity, the maximum population size the environment can support -Alter the exponential model to account for density dependence and for the logistic model dN/dt=rN(1-(N/K))
ESA
-Affirms the value of biodiversity -persistence of many endangered species and complete recovery -2000 species listed, mostly plants and vertebrates
What are some defenses to defer predators?
-Alarm calling -Spatial avoidance -Crypsis -Chemical defenses -Warning coloration
What are three metamorphosis of insects?
-Ametabolous -Hemimetabolous -holometabolous
What are the types of Exopeptidases?
-Aminopeptidase -Carboxypeptidase
What are the components of mimicry?
-Aposematic model -mimic -observer
Insecta is divided into what divisions?
-Archaeognatha -Zygentoma -Pterygota
What are insect's offense/counter defenses?
-Behavioral avoidance (least aggressive) -modify its own behavior or biochemistry to overcome plant defense -actively manipulate host plants nutrition and defense (most aggressive)
How do insects modify its own behavior, or biochemistry to overcome plant defense?
-Behavioral counterdefense or offense -biochemical counterdefense
Synaptic transmission: EPSP or IPSP
-Binding of ionotropic receptors leads to Fast opening of ion channels and influx of Na+, Ca2+ or Cl—or efflux of K+ -Binding of GPCRs leads to production of 2nd messenger (e.g. cAMP, IP3, or Ca2+), which then open ion channel--Slow -Influx of Na+ and Ca2+ produces an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) -Influx of Cl- or efflux of K+ produces an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) -Postsynaptic potential is graded and vary with the number of transmitter molecules released which in turn rely on the presynaptic AP frequency
Population growth can predict abundance in the future if we have estimates of:
-Birth (Bm Natality) -Death (D, Mortality) -Immigration (I) -Emigration (E) N (t+1)=Nt+ (b-d)+(I-E) If we assume I=E Nt+1=-Nt+(B-D) Change in abundance between time periods is Nt+1-Nt=B-D The differences between birth and death rates is the population growth rate, denoted by either a greek symbol or r.
What are the two life history traits that are regulated by the same 3 physiological factors?
-Body size Critical weight: when juveniles switch off Interval to cessation of growth: Growth rate -Development time Critical weight Interval to cessation of growth Growth rate Natural selection operates on multiple traits simultaneously
What are hormones produced by NSC in ganglia of ventral nerve cord?
-CCAP -Bursicon -PBAN
Zebra Mussel
-Came from Russia and invasive -filter feeder, out competes, negatively and positively impact fish -accidental introduction -control: clean boats, educate
Sucking food ingestion
-Chewing or mandibulate-Primitive: solid food (grasshopper) -lapping/sucking: bees,housefly -siphoning-moths and butterfly -piercing/sucking blood an plant feeds: mosquito and aphid -rasping/sucking-thrips
What are the two classes of Myriapoda?
-Chilopada -Diplopoda
What are the two types of chemical resistances?
-Chronic -Acute
What are the types of Endopeptidase?
-Chymotrypsin -Elastase -Trpsin
Taxonomy
-Classification of living organisms -recognition and naming of species -organization of species into genera, families, orders, etc. based on morphological features
What are the types of coevolution?
-Coevolution -pairwise coevolution -diffuse coevolution
What are the most diverse holometabolous orders?
-Coleoptera (beetles) -Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) -Hymenoptera (wasps, ants, bees) -Diptera (flies)
Who are the herbivorous insects?
-Colllemobola -Phasmida -*Hemiptera* -Orthoptera -*Coleoptera -Diptera -Lepidoptera*
All populations must deal with similar challenges which include:
-Competition for limiting resources -Competition for mates (fitness) -Avoiding things that want to kill/eat you -Competition for livable space (habitat)
What are 3 components of biodiversity
-Composition Structure Function
Basal membrane
-Continuous sheet of mucopoysacharides -creates boundary/bag around hemolymph -secreted by the hemolymph -repaired by epidermis -penetrated by tracheae and nerve cells to the epidermis -muscle insertion to exoskeleton -permeable to small and medium proteins
What are the types of morphological camouflauge?
-Countershading (dark on top and light on bottom) -Homochromy -Disruptive coloration: breaks up outline -Dorsal Ventral Flattening
Why study Medical Entomology?
-Deaths from vector-borne disease -Africa has the worst vector-borne disease because its: -warm -where humans evolved and has the greatest diversity
What are the tools for preventing extinction ?
-Demographic tools pop monitoring/ modeling -Genetic tools
Endoparasitoids
-Develop on the outside of the host -Tend to be less specialized than edoparasitoids, but few are truly polyphagous
Ectoparasitoids
-Develop on the outside of the host -tend to be less specialized than endoparsitoids, but few are truly polyphagous
Ephedraceae
-Dioecious shrubs in arid environments -photosynthetic stems with scale like leaves -strobili whorled at nodes -1-2 seeds per megasporangiate cone
What are types of agricultural insect pests based on type of damage?
-Direct pets -Indirect pests -Stored product pests
To avoid predator population extinction:
-Disperse (lowers intraspecific competion) -Switch food source when primary prey not available
Options for malaria control
-Drug treatment -Vector control Indoor residual spraying for adults DDT -Insecticide bednets, most used by they can become resistant -larval control
What are hormones produced by NSC in other parts of the brain?
-EH -Diapause hormone -Insulin-like peptide
What are the 7 hormones involved in molting and metamorphosis?
-ETH -EH -CCAP -Bursicon -MH -JH -PTTH
IGR: Insect growth regulator
-Endocrine system -Chitin synthesis (integument) -slow, disrupt normal growth, development and reproduction -soft, selective
What is Hexapoda divided into?
-Entognatha -Parainsecta -Insecta
What are the divisions within Pterygota?
-Ephemeroptera -Odonata -Neoptera
How are aquatic biomes determined by?
-Flow -Depth -Salinity
Ranunculaceae
-Flowers, 5 or 4 merous with tepals; white, yellow, or blue -Nectar gland at base -Numerous, helically inserted stamen -multiple distinct carpels
Function Biodiversity
-Genes, Species, Ecosystems Examples Nutrient cycles Energy flow, primary production Soil formation Hydro-logic cycle Climate regulation
What are the three components of biological diversity?
-Genetic Diversity -Level of variation within populations Species Diversity, Functional diversity -Number of evenness of species in a community Ecosystem diversity -diversity of environments that maintain species and genetic diveristy
What are the 3 key events and possible combination pairs?
-Growth rate -decision to stop growth -lag between decision and cessation of growth -body size -dev. time fitness
What are the two types of development processes insects go through?
-Hemimetaboly -Holometaboly
What are the suborders of hemiptera?
-Heteroptera -Auchenorrhyncha -Sternorrhyncha
What are the type of insect avoidance's?
-Hideing -Escape
What are insect parasitoids hosts?
-Hosts are usually insects or other terrestrial arthropods, particularly Lepidoptera and Hemiptera
Population fluctuations
-Intrinsic dynamic (cyclic ) qualities of biological systems -random environmental fluctuations cause oscillations -all populations fluctuate due availability of resources, predation, competition, disease, parasites, and climate
What are risks of classical biological control?
-Introduced biological control species -may not attack target pest -attack native species -intervene with native natural enemies -cannot be removed after establishment
Buffelgrass
-Introduced during dust bowl to hold ground in place -came from Africa -Pioneer species
Pre-ecdysis phase: MH activates gene transcription
-JH modulates ecdysone-induced activation of gene trascription -JH present during head CP: Larval gene activation, larva-larva growth molt -no JH during first head CP at the last instar, papul gene activation, pupa adult molt
What are hormones produced by CA?
-Juvenile Hormone or JH
What are adaptions of living in water?
-Large animals have streamline bodies to move through water easily with little resistance. -Specialized organs such as bladders and gills. -fats and oils in plants. Alow to float on water
NEPA
-Law inacted by republic president -EIS: detailed statement: proposals for legislation and other major federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment 1) The environmental impact of the proposed action 2) Any adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided should the proposed action be implemented 3) Alternatives to the proposed action 4) relation -Proactive rather than reactive (think ahead) -stimulates increased level of citizen involvement in environmental decision-making -scientifically informed gov decision modified by citizen input
Onagraceae
-Leaves alternate or opposite, simple with pinnate venation -4 distinct sepals fused into hypanthium -4 distinct petals -8 stamen -4 lobed stigma
Bignoniaceae
-Leaves usually palmately or pinnately compound -5 connate sepals, 5 connate bilabiate (2+3) petals -4 or 5 stamens didynamous -2 lobed stigma; superior ovary -fruit a caspule; seeds with wings, hairs
Uniformitarianism
-Lyell (geology) and Darwin(evolution) argued that the earth's history is characterized by gradual, incremental change
What are hormones produced by PTG and ovary?
-MH
Insect integument
-Major reason for evolutionary success of insects -dynamic, changing -separates insects from environment -functions as both skin and skeleton -transmits information: in and out -Source of color, shape and pattern, -50% weight of insect -source for food reserve during molt and starvation -cuticle is not a flat sheet, many folds
Male reproductive events
-Make spermatoza-------------->testes -store sperm--------------------->seminal vesicles -send off with proteins with many functions------>accessory glands -deliver the whole package to the female------> spermataphore, external genitalia (behavior)
What are the primary urines produced?
-Malpighian tubules move material from the terminal end to the opening in the hindgut. The malpighian tubules produce the primary urine while the hindgut produces the secondary or final urine
What is the goal of conservation biology according to Karieva?
-Maximize well-being of nature and humans simultaneously
What kind of neuron ionc channels open by what stimulus ?
-Mechanically-gated channels: -Temperate-gated channels: -Voltage-gated ion channels: -Ligand-gated channels (=receptor of ligand) -Secondary messenger-gated channels:
What are the types of resistances?
-Morphological resistance -chemical resistance -mechanical resistance
Tricogen sensory cells
-Multicellular :structural, support, neural -respond to environmental stimulii: mechanical and chemical
Conservation law deals with
-NEPA -ESA -affirm that extinction is undesirable -nr should be managed -funds for research and habitat acquisition -gives citizens and ngo avenue for
What are the edocrine cells located in the nerves system?
-NSC cells in parts intercebralis of protocerebrun and other ganglia, CC,CA
Chestnut blight
-Native to Japan and introduced to the US in 1905 -Japanese chestnut is resistant to chestnut blight, but not the U.S. one -control: breeding Japanese and America chestnuts together -1940 40 billion chestnuts were wiped off -species that rely on chestnut disappeared
Brown tree snake
-Native to N and E Australia -Introduced to Guam in 1952, accidental introduction -kills vertebrates, birds, lizards -acetaminophen laced mice
What are some rewards for pollinators?
-Nectar, pollen, "fun/deceit"
what surrounds the ganglion?
-Neural lamella -Perineurium -Nerve sheath
What are the types of insect pests?
-Non-economic (population never reaches EIL) -Sporadic (occasionally reaches EIL) -Perennial (usually reaches EIL) -Key pests (always exceeds EIL unless controlled.)
Species Diversity, Functional diversity
-Number of evenness of species in a community
supporting ecosystem services (ecosystem functions)
-Nutrient cycling -pollination -soil formation/fertility -seed dispersal -decomposition
Horizon layers
-O A layer composed primarily of dead organic litter -A A layer rich in humus, consisting of partly decomposed organic material mixed with mineral soil E-A layer of soil that has been leached of its minerals B- A layer of soil with a chemical composition that resembles the underlying parent material. Clay, minerals, and oxides of aluminum and iron leached out from the E horizon are sometimes deposited here. C-A layer composed primarily of large rocks of broken parent material R-Unaltered parent material, typically in the form of bedrock
What are the hormones produced by NSC in pars intercerebralis?
-PTTH -OEH -Allatostatin -Allatotropin -Brain hormone
Fleas: Order Siphonaptera
-Parasite of vertebrates, often specialized to particular mammals -Specializations for bloodfeeding: -Lateral flattening for running through hairs. -Jumping -Piercing mouthparts -Vector of plague - bacterial infection, usually affecting rodents (secondary cycle).
Amaranthaceae
-Perianth, when present, usually 3-5 tepals; green to white or reddish; dry and papery; may have subtending bracts -flowers usually very small and clustered, often in dense heads or spikes -fruits usually a utricle with persistent bracts or tepals
What does acid rain impact?
-Ph decreases and becomes more acidic, making aluminum increase - • Directly toxic for fish/invertebrate reproduction • Negative effects on enzymes
What are the types of avoidance hidings?
-Physical concealment -crypsis
What do predator insects eat?
-Phytophagous insects -Other insects (including other predators) -Other arthropods -Vertebrates (esp. among blood-feeding parasites
What are the two types of phenotypic plasticitiy?
-Polyphenism -Reaction norm
What is the goal of conservation biology according Soule'?
-Preserving biological diversity
Lotka-Volterra model assumptions
-Prey populations finds ample food at all times. -food supply of the predator population depends entirely on the prey populations (no switching) -rate of change of population is proportional to its size -during the process, the environment does not change in favor of one species and genetic adaption is sufficiently slow. (essentially no evolution )
What does an exoskeleton need to do?
-Protect organs -Structure -support movement -sensory input
Exoskeletons provide
-Protection -sensing -feeding -barrier against desiccation -defense from predators -support -providing a framework for musculature
What is Conservation Biology?
-Provide principles and tools for preserving biological diversity
Agriculture and agricultural intensification favor population growth of certain phytophagous insects by:
-Providing monocultures of host plants. -Breeding plants with reduced defenses against herbivory. -Reducing populations of natural predators and parasitoids. -Extending availability of plant hosts in time, allowing additional generations per year of phytophagous insects feeding on those plants.
Insect-plant mutualism: not all insects harm plants
-Pseudomyrmex ant protects against herbivores and plant competitors Acacia tree provides domatia and food to ants
Insect pigments
-Pterins:yellow,red,white -Ommochromes-yellow,red,brown -Quinones-homoptera only -black,brown-Melanin
Benefits of sexual reproduction
-Purging mutations -Coping with environmental variation -Male offspring care -Coping with parasites -Hosts on K selected -Parasites on r selected-short lives
What are three factors that are important to dispersal that we know of?
-Reduce intra-specific competition -Reduce inbreeding -Expand geographic range
List and briefly describe the four variables that are used to define the life history strategy of a species
-Reproduction -fecundity -parental
Insect reproduction
-Reproductive systems -mate location and attraction-long range -Mate choice-short range -Post mating manipulations
Vectorial Capacity
-Risk that a population of insects will transmit a disease -a city with a mosquito vector pop with a high vectorial capacity is more likely to have a disease problem than a city with mosquitoes with low vectorial capacity
What are the freshwater biomes?
-Rivers/streams -Lakes/Ponds
Costs of sexual reproduction
-Sex organs costly -Mating behavior risky Time finding a mate (being eaten, stds, infections,) -Cost of meiosis .
Red Queen Hypothesis predicts
-Sexual reproduction (genetic recombination) allows host to evade parasites, which are coevolving to infect them. -Asexual reproduction (self-fertilization) increases susceptibility to infection
What are the foraging strategies?
-Sit at wait (low energy, high time) -Trap (middle energy, middle time) -Active hunting (high energy, less time )
What are modes of entry for toxins?
-Stomach -Contact -Fumigant -Systemic poison
Pinchot Value of biodiversity?
-Sustainable, The Greatest Good, for the Greatest Number, for the Longest Time -Economic, utilitarian
What distinguished conservation from other disciplines?
-Systematic, multidisciplinary applied and basic sciences -Holistic natural resources management fields -natural communities as a whole or systematic, multidisciplinary -not mystidsim -Time Scale focus on a large rate viability of whole systems and species, including the evolutionary potential
Insect air sacs
-Taenidia reduced or absent -collapse under pressure -important in ventiliation-forced air movements-abdominal pumping -NOT LUNGS
Species Diversity
-Taxonomic Diversity->reflect phylogeny -Phylogeny Diversity
What are terrestrial biomes determined by?
-Temperature -Precipitation
General plan of male reproductive system
-Testils follicles -testes can be separate or bound together -Seminal vesicle for storage -Accessory gland -ejaculatory duct
Bottom-up Control (competition)
-The abundance of a population is limited by nutrient supply or by the availability of food -consumer-resource interactions cause population to fluctuate independent of environmental variation
What are the 5 main groups of arthropods?
-Trilobites -Myriapoda -Arachnids -Crustaceans -Insects
What are the types of neurons?
-Unipolar -bipolar -multipolar
What are somethings insects do for behavioral offense?
-Vein cutting -Trenching-avoid intoxication by trenching the laticifers upstream of their feeding site -Leaf rolling -mining -gardening-leaf cutter ants -gregarious feeding-group counter defense
ventricular ganglion
-Vg: or cluster of neurons. associate with foregut and midgut
Hadley circulation
-Warm air has higher water vapor potential than cold air -Warm air rises, expands and cools (adiabatic cooling) lossing its capacity to hold water -as cool air sinks, it warms and its water holding capacity increases
Obligate coevultion in yucca
-Yucca pollinated only by tegeticula yuccasella mouth, moth only eats these seeds. -female deposits pollen directly on stigma. -moth larvae grow in ovule and eat up to 30-40% of developing seeds -yucca aborts flower if moth lays too many eggs
how can fitness be signaled?
-a ritualistic signal such as a dance (energy) -body size of male: large size indicates success in growth, male-male competition -resources offered to female
Why is genetic variation important?
-able to adapt
Benefits of wing flexion?
-able to get around fast
Top-Down Control (predation)
-abundance of a population is limited by its predators -applies to predator-prey and herbivore-plant interactions
Cultural Ecosystem services
-aesthetic -science -discovery -historical -spiritual -education -recreational
Legal empowerment
-affirms the goals of con bio and influence the public to value biodiversity -provides incetives and approval for the preservation of biodiversity -
Sub-sociality in insects
-aggreation -Parental care without division of reproduction -non-reproduction solider
Social behaviors in insects
-aggregation of individuals with overlapping generations -cooperative care of young -division of labor specialization into reproductive and non-reproductive castes
Why does small body size allow success for arthropods?
-allows greater diversity and abundance of ecological niches than larger organisms -short generation times
Insect flight
-allows insects to disperse over great distances -opens wide ranges of ecological niches -find mates
mate attraction through odor
-antennae -pheromones
deuto and tritocerebrum
-antennal lobe: centers that receive the antennal nerves -Tritocerebrum: origin of the labral nerves that run to the upper lip
smell
-antennal lobes are for smells -each lobe is made up of glomeruli each respond to different odors odors of the same class are reprocessed in the same glomeruli -same glomeruls can respond to many odors in varying degrees -combination of glomeruli responses yields an odor specific response -sexual dimorphism of AL
K+ and amino acid absorption of goblet cells in midgut
-apical membrane of goblet cavity houses the B-ATPase H+ pump -V-ATP pases hyddrolyze ATP releasing H+ into the goblet cavity -K+/H+ antiport mechanism exchanges H+ for K+ -Induces columnar cells to reabsorb k+ and amino acids
Crustacea
-appendages are typically biramous -primarily marine -three body parts: head, thorax, abdomen -Two pairs of Antennae -large and varied group
males reared on artificial diet without PA
-are healthy, fly to females -hair pencils do not contain PA -females refuse to mate with them
Ommatidial units in eye
-are separate from each other, similar -hexagonal packing
Foregut: Food mechanically breakdown
-armature ("teeth") and muscle contraction for mechanical breakdown of food
Foregut breakdown of food and stop feeding
-as crop fills, it is constantly contracting -contraction frequency increases with volume ingested -filled crop is detected by stretch receptors in the abdominal nerve net -stretch receptors send inhibitory feedback to brain and feeding ceases-food is later forced into midgut
What are the "arms" or defenses of plants in plant-insect interactions?
-avoidance -resistance -tolerance
Signal transmission
-axon transmission -synaptic transmission
What are natural enemies of insect pests?
-bacteria: must be ingested -fungi:penetrate through cuticle, toxins involved -nematodes
Where is the fossil evidence of the earliest insects?
-based on fossil evidence associated with Lower Devonian deposits in Scotland
Benefits of an exoskeleton
-be repaired -durable, yet flexible and gas permeable -easily modified in color or shape for specific adaptation
Character displacement in finch beak depth possible explanations
-bigger beaks allows larger seed consumption -larger beaks due to mutations -founder effect -
Jaguar
-biggest feline, third largest in the world -12-16 years -hunt fish, turtles, deer, capybaras -solitary animals - South America, 15000 -100 in sonora -listed in 1997 -FWS recovery draft in 12/16-not finalized -Habitat Fragmentation, Border Wall, Rosemont Copper Mine, Hunting, Deforestation in SA
Dipteran digestive tract: crop
-bilobed blind sac in abdomen -storage reservoir for patchily distributed resources
Sonoran desert/sky island region
-biome diversity -migratory species 1. Topography 2. Location -65 mountain ranges -Arizona is 3 in the nation for plants, over 4,700 plants ->21oo plant species reported in the sky island region -500 bird species from SE AZ -more than half of birds of NA -176 replties -114 mammals -squirrels -150,000 invertebrate species
Defense in social insects-termites
-biting -phargmosis: blocking entrance to nest with head -chemical weapons
Open circulatory system
-blood and other fluids (hemolymph) move in an internal space (hemocoel)
Intermediate Reynolds number means
-both inertial and frictional forces important in their world -Very small insects swim through the air
How is genetic diversity lost?
-bottleneck -small population size -founder effect:reintroduction -genetic drift: change in allele frequencies -small effective population -inbreeding -reduced gene flow
resistant bred plants
-bred to resist insect feeding -successes with grain crops that fruits or vegetables -good for disease control
Insect nutrients requirements
-carbohydrates: sugars -Proteins and amino acids -Lipids -Water -Vitamins -Inorganic ions/compounds
Inside ganglion
-cell bodies cluster on outside ring Center region: axons and dendrites of interneurons and motor neurons and axon arborizations of sensory neurons center region: neuropil
What are the outermost layers of the epicuticle
-cement-secreted by dermal glands -lipoprotiens -varies among species -protects wax layer
What are three components of the insect nerve system anatomy?
-central nerve system -stomatogastric nerve system -peripheral nerve system (PNS)
What are animals four responses to food variation in space and time?
-central place foraging, -risk-sensitive foraging, - optimal diet composition, -and diet mixing.
Insect body size
-changes over time -differs among species -differs across environments (within a species) -can change within an individual
What are the electric signals in signal transduction?
-chemotransduction -Phototransduction -Mechanotransduction -thermotransduction
Arthropods have
-chitnous exoskeleton -segemented body -jointed legs -nervous system -open circulatory system
what are the types of applied biological control?
-classical -augmentation -conservation
Amphibian population declines
-climate change -contaminants -disease -competition -collecting amphibians -invasive species -predation -habitat destruction -uvb radiation
Of the theoretical spatial distributions of organisms, ___ dispersion reflects social groups or patchy resource availability, ___ dispersion reflects strong territoriality and competition for limiting resources; and ___ dispersion is relatively uncommon and reflects individual independence.
-clustered, even, random
Structural colors
-colors change with angle example: Narrow bands green reflectance wide bands: purple reflectance
rhabdom
-composite structure made up of microvili in retinula cells -location of visual pigments -refers to all 8 cells -OMMATIDIA FOR POLARIZED LIGHT DON'T TWIST OR THEY WOULD LOSE SIGNALS
Inner epicuticle
-composition still unclear -.5-2 microns -involved in would repair and tanning
Insect growth regulators
-compounds that suppress pest insect pops by interfering with growth and development -insects don't die directly, but fail to complete normal development and reproduction Advantage: unlike nervous system, vertebrates don't share these biological factors modes of action: juvenile hormone mimics -chitin-synthesis inhibitors
What are the roles of the central complex?
-control of locomotor activity, particularly flight and walking -center for direction perceptive and spatial navigation -coordinates L and R brain
Discuss two advantages of sexual reproduction
-cope with environmental variation -helps to purge mutations
mate attraction through sounds
-crickets, karydids, grassoppers -males call
Tracheal epidermal cells
-cuticle shed at molt -taenidia for strength
What are the type of mechanical defense?
-cuticular structures: mandibles, spines, hairs, hardened elytra of beetles -secretions: waxes,powders, slimes -construted coverings using inedbile materials -weapons: mouth parts, stingers
Envelope
-cuticulin layer, outer epicuticle -lipo-protein -first to be laid down -tanned to protect new cuticle -only cuticular layer present in all insects -cuticular layer of trachelos (molt) -Once the envelope is laid down and sclerotized the size of the insect is fixed. *DETERMINES THE SIZE* -Insects molt to larger envelope
What are wax decorations for?
-defense against predators -protect from environment
Behavioral resistance
-detect and avoid toxin, avoid surfaces, run from it
Ecosystem diversity
-diversity of environments that maintain species and genetic diveristy
Parasitoids
-do kill their host but only after the parasitoid's full development -10% of described insects species are parasitoids -consume the egg/larvae/pupae of other insects -manipulate insect host behavior to increase their own reproductive fitness -manipulate insect host behavior to incrase their own reproductive fitness
Discuss two advantages of asexual reproduction
-do not need to find mates so there is no risky behavior -no cost of meiosis
Epicuticle
-does not contain chitin envelope=outer epictucle -inner epicuticle
Parasitism
-does not kill host directly, consumes part of prey (host) -Increases host probability of death, lowers fitness -Herbivores (grazing (herbaceous), browisng (woody)) -Complex life cycles-generally involving 2 hosts
Segmented body evolution
-during the evolution of arthropods, segments have become reduced in number and specialized with some independence from each other
Holometaboly
-egg-several larval stages-pupa-adult -ex:butterfly
Hemimetaboly
-egg-several nymph stages-adult -Example Grasshopper
Why does an invasive species become invasive?
-escaping evolutionary constraints -gun to a knife fight -enemy release
Pre-ecdysis phase:developmental patterns of PTTH production
-every molting cycle beings with the periodic secretion of PTTH by the brain, 1 secretion per stage, except for the last instar -PTTH stimulates the PTGs to secrete the ecdysone (MH) -Once MH secreation begins, PTHH secretion stops and the molting cycle continues without further need for PTTH -The point in time at which half the animals are able to complete the normal molt in the absence of their brain=head (brain) critical period
Neocatarophsim/modern geology
-evidence of asteroid that hit the world and marked the KT boundary -conditions on earth change very slowly, except when they don't
Evolution of herbivory
-evolved from forms eating only dead tissue -detrivory to herbivory changed due to moth parts evolving -angiosperm allowed insects to forge through pollination
Honeybee pollination
-excellent -consistent, pollen will be transferred to the same species. IMPORTANT
What do hindgut and malpighian tubes do?
-excretion -osmoregulation
when did the last common ancestor probably exist?
-existed as a marine animal about a million years ago
Anthropocene is distinct
-explains magnitude of changes on earth
Diffusion of oxygen
-faster from spiracel to tracheole than from tracheole to mitochondria -because it has to go through tissue. Faster to diffuse through air
Choices between potential mates
-females usually the choosy sex based on grater investment in games -real fitness of opposite sex in being able to survive to pass genes to next generation
Females in hymenoptera
-females: gender genetically determined, caste determined by environment-diet and maternal manipulation by pheromones
Why are terrestrial arthropods such as insects so successful?
-first to adapt and diverse on land -first colonizing -Exoskeletons -Small body size
Jointed legs benefits
-flexibility -strength -agility -greatly improves mobility in terrestrial evironment
Asteraceae
-florets in head with involucre of phyllaries -head composed of ray, disk and or ligulate florets -epipetalous connate stamens form tube -style has two lobes -fruit n achene usually with pappus
Provisioning ecosystem services
-food -minerals -medicine -shelter -fibre -food -fuel -energy -drinking water -gnetics
What does the foregut do?
-food mechanically breakdown -food storage -some enzyme action (digestion)
What does the midgut do?
-food storage -food breakdown/digestion -absorption -detoxification -enzyme secretion -nutrient and water -pathogen and parasite barrier
What are chemical cues used by insect parasitoids and parasites?
-frass (poop) phereomones used by host -plant derived cues
What are the 5 key population properties?
-geographic range -abundance -density -disperison -dispersal
Water impacts cuticles how?
-hard, stiff cuticles contain less water -soft cuticle contains more water
Termites differ from hymenoptera
-hemimetabolous development -workers may be male or female -solider castes with morphological specializations -juvenile termites may serve as workers -consume cellulous: require microbes to digest -Colony mates exchange gut microbes
Apiaceae
-herbaceaous -leaves compound to simple, then dissected or lobed; sheating leaf bases -infloresence as simple or compound umbel; flowers yellow or white -styles yellow or white -styles from stylopodium -fruit usually schizocarp
What factors favor the evolution of sub-social parental care?
-high rates of parasitism and predation, particularly in egg and juvenile stages -low offspring survivor-ship due to the absence of parental care -need for transmission of symbionts -either low quality or high quality, and ephemeral resources
Dorsal heart
-higher concentration of oxygen -ventral nerve cord
Organochlorines
-highly persistent, tending to bioaccumlate in fat tissue -earliest insecticides -not acutely toxic to mammals -most banned Ex: DDT
What are some of the behavioral camouflage?
-immobility, body posturing
What are sources of insect defense compounds?
-ingested -synthesized
what are the origins of insect altruism?
-kin selection -group selection -parental manipulation -mutualism
Division of labor in termites
-king and queen reproductive -alates: winged females and males will establish new colonies -workers: non reproductive females and males -soilders: non-reproductive males and females with special defensive structures and behaviors
chitin-synthesis inhibitors
-knwon as benzolureas; disrupt formation of chitin in insect cuticle -treated insects die during or after ecdysis as they get stuck in old cuticle
California Condor
-largest land bird in NA -lives in cliffs or large trees -long life span -56 mph -late maturity-6 years -low clutch size -mates for life -stay with parents for 2 years -food is carrion -large home range -bad sense of smell -can go up to 2 weeks without food Pop decline because of habitat destruction, poaching, lead poising, lowest in 1987 Recovery -hunters couldn't use lead bullets -California recovery plan -captured all remaining condors, bred until 150 breeding pairs, double clutch -reintroduced condors in 1990
Insect success
-largest number of individuals of any class of animals -colonize virtually all terrestrial habitats -colonize most terrestrial habitats -low extinction rates -very diverse -provide essential ecosystem functions
How are some insects soft?
-less sclerotized -less exoskeleton
Ommatidial structure
-light collector= lens unit -light detector=retinula cells - corneal lens -crystalline cone
Polarized light
-light with waves that vibrate in only one plane -social insects use as a navigational aid -planes of polarization are different across sky -position of sun can be determined, even if you cant see the sun
Axon transmission: propagation of action potential
-local current flows away from the AP point in both direction -this current results in a potential change sufficient to trigger another atp at the next point. In the same way, a AP wave is produced towards the axon terminal -this cannot trigger an AP at the point that AP has just passed through because of inactiviation of Na+ channel and hyperpolarizatin
Consequences of inbreeding
-loss of heterozygosity -heterzygote advantage -recessive deletrious alleles not expressed increases homozygosity -express recessive deletrious allels
safety and selectivity of IGRs
-low acute toxicity to vertebrates -persistent, good for urban and stored product pest control, less idea for agriculture -toxic to insects, including beneficial ones -good for mosquito larvae control in bodies of water, but large scale applications of methoprene to natural wetlands in the US resulted in declines in non-target aquatic insects and organisms that feed on them
organophosphates
-low persistence, but highly toxic to vertebrates -chemical warefare agents -used in agriculture but is declining
Functions of female reproductive tract
-make eggs -receive sperm -store sperm -lay eggs at appropriate time and place with appropriate protection
how does intercropping reduce pest abundance by
-making the crop unavailable to pests in space and time -making the crop unacceptable to pests by interfering with host preference or location -reducing pest survival on the crop by enhancing natural enemies -altering the crops susceptibility to pests
How to find mates in same site?
-male and female come to same site to evaluate each other. ex: migration, around resources -oviposition site ->where female lays egg -feeding site ->large animales for tsetse ->flowers for pollinators -hiltopping -emergence site ->males emerge first protandry) and wait for female to emerge
Insects counterdefenses: manipulate hostplants
-manipulate plant's growth and nutrition -induction of plant galls: abnormal structures where gall makers (aphids, wasp, mites,etc) feed inside -repress plant defenses
How do insects reduce ROS?
-manipulate water at the tips of the tracheole 1. Discontinuous gas exchange 2. oxygen solubility
Signature of new Anthropocene Epoch
-manufactured materials -radio nuclides -particulate and lead from fossil fuel
What are the types of defense?
-mechanical -Chemical
Peritrophic envelope or matrix
-midgut does not have cuticle -has a chitin-protein meshed with peritrophins sieve that covers the microvilli and separates the food from the digestive cells -matrix layer surrounding midgut lumen against infection by ingested pathogens -protection against toxic plant allelochemicals such as tannins -allows passage of enzymes and digested molecules but not pathogens -may be formed constitutively or in response to ingestion of a meal
How do we know when new insect lineages arose?
-molecular clocks -fossil evidence -current geographic distribution of species
How is a new epicuticle produced?
-molting fluid -new cuticulin and epicuticle
Dengue prediction risk
-most common arbovirus worldwild -flavivirus with four serotypes -simply transmission cycle -Aedes aegypti mosquito is common vector
Central nerve system (CNS)
-most ganglia included: brain+ventral nerve cord -brain: a compound ganglion, major association center -ventral nerve cord: SG+TG+AG: local association center -SG: a compound ganglion (mandible, maxillae and labium)
Prey population regulation by natural enemies
-most insect pop exist at narrowly fluctuating densities, we below carrying capacity -mortality due to predation and parasitism are major factors in maintaining observed population densities
Population Biology-Carrying Capacity
-most pops don't exhibit exponential growth because resources are fine -CC:population density N at which resources become limiting to further population growth dN/dt=rN-rN^2/K K=carrying capacity
Hydrologic Cycle
-movement of water through ecosystems and atmosphere -includes evaporation, transpiration, and precipitation Services 1. Supporting-drinking water 2. Provisioning-irrigation/food 3. Regulation-salinity, temperature,erosion 4. Cultural-fishing, water parks
Dermal glands
-multicellular: secretory, duct, support -secrete cement -widely distributed -pheromones and volatiles
How can females sort out sperm from two males?
-must be able to set sperm from one mating aside until she can compare the first male to second -she must be able to discard the sperm of the smaller male
Natural selection and body size
-natural selection acts differently in different habitats and species -fecundity:natural selection will act to increase body size if fecundity is being selected Example: Larger females have more eggs/more ovarioles -male to male competition: natural selection will act to increase body size of males for male to male competition -Predators and prey: optimal prey size of predator may select for being very small or very large -Reynold's Numbers
Synaptic transmission: Transmitter release
-neurotransmitters are stored in membrane bound vesicles -arrival of action potential leads to opening of voltage gated Ca2+ channels at the presynaptic terminal -Influx of Ca2+ cause vesicles to fuse to the membrane, open up, and release transmitters
How did wings evolve?
-not derived through limbs -all wings insects share a common ancestor -located on second and third segments of the thorax -provides many benefits despite taking much power
Land transformation
-number one driver of the loss of biodiversity
attracting mates mechanisms
-one sex, usually female ends out signal attracting males to her
What are the classes of synthetic insecticides?
-organochlorines -organophosphates -carbamates -synthetic pyrethroids -neonicontoinds
Female reproductive system
-ovaries, ovarioles-> produce eggs -ovidcuts -accessory glands -sermatheca (sperm storage)
Detoxification types
-oxidation -hydrolysis -reduction -conjugation -GST
Eusociality comes at a huge cost to most individuals in the colony. They dont reproduce, and sometimes due to defend the colony. How could natural selection favor altruism?
-parental care
Natural selection acts on the __ of an individual and can result in changes in __ frequences in a ___
-phenotype, allele, population
Insect color contain
-pigments -structural colors
How is forensic entomology used?
-postmortem interval
Sit and Wait (or trapping) foraging strategy-Aggressive foraging mimicry
-predator resembles food or other resource to attract prey Example: orchid mantid, catches butterflies attracted to the flower -sit and wait or trapping
Herbivores can be ____when they remove an individual from a population, and ____ when they lower the fitness of their host
-predators -parasite
Insects interact with humans as
-prey -parasites: as a host -competitors: agricultural produce -commensals: insects that live with us
Regenerative (stem) cells
-produce new digestive cells to replace worn out digestive cells
Neurons
-projections Neurons similar to other cells, but: have specialized extensions called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring information to the soma and axons take information away from the soma. -Neurons communicate with each other through specialized structures called synapses and chemicals (e.g. neurotransmitters).
sub-sociality parental care
-protecting eggs/juveniles -nest building or provisioning
Division of labor in Hymenoptera has
-queen: reproductive female -workers: non-reproductive females, do work -solders:defend colony,non reproductive female -males:reproductive only
Why are insects excellent model organisms for population biology?
-quick generation time -easy to manipulate for experimentation -many immediate applications to management of insect pets
What are somethings insects do in biochemical counter defense?
-rapid excretion -sequestration of toxins-unpalatable insects sequestrate allelochemicals for their own defense, also develop warning color or gregarious feeding -detoxification of toxins -target site insensitivity
multi-trophic interactions
-red oaks mast every 2-5 yrs -mice populations fluctuate with masting events -high acorn densities also attract deer -deer are hosts to adult deer ticks -adult tricks drop and lay eggs in soil -larvae hatch and attach to mice -mice are main hosts to spirochete bacteria (lyme disease) -40% more ticks become infected with spirochete during masting years -larvae molt into nymphs and overwinter in soil -in spring, find deer and human hosts -lyme disease prevalence higher the year after oak masting -gypsy moths outbreaks every 10 years -larvae emerge with oak leaves and can defoliate entire forest -mice are important predators of gypsy moth pupae
Resistance
-reduce fitness (survival, fecundity) of insects after contact
manipulations of agro-ecosystems include
-reduction in plant diversity -soil management: disruption of soil environment (tillage) amendments to increase availability of plant nutrients -Selective breeding of plant and animal species (domestication) to maximize production of desired commodity. -Water management - irrigation -Management of populations of competing organisms (pests)
What are the tree type of plant/insect mutualisms?
-reproduction mutualism-pollination -Defense mutualism-Plant Guard -Dispersal mutualism-seed dispersal
What are endocrine cells located in non-nerve systems?
-reproduction system: Ovary, male reproduction tract -midgut, fatbody, malphighian tubules -inka cells -trachea
What are components of successful classical biological control
-research -ideal target pest -ideal natural enemy
Chytridiomycosis
-responsible for global amphibian population decine and numerous extinctions -aquatic fungus has always been in ecosystems -evidence for emergence as novel pathogen due to climate and stress factors (low haplotype divergence across continents) ->6,500 amphibian species ->1,300 "susceptible" -71 of 113 species extinct
What are limitation of exoskeleton?
-rigid exoskeleton limits growth, requiring molting
Exocuticle
-sclertoized -hardened region -molted skin
Examples of plasticity
-seasonally induced coat color -morphological defenses -temperature induced -Environmentally induced fecundity -musculature -fertilizers -abiotic factors
What are threats to estuaries?
-sedimentation from soil erosion from deforestation upstream -overgrazing/overfishing -eutrophication -pollutants such has heavy metals, PCBs, radionuclides and hydrocarbons -diking or damming for flood control or water diversion
Classification of neurons by function
-sensory neuron -motor neuron -interneuron
Not all insecticides entered inside pest body are available to their target sites because of
-sequestration -direct excretion -metabolism
How much have insects changed over geologic time?
-several ancient orders disappeared in the Permian mass extinction (meteor) -mass extinction at the end of Cretaceaous does not appear to have major impacts on insect tax -by the end of cretaceaous, almost all modern insect orders were present as well as many insect families -modern insect families are older than previously thought
What does the evaluation phase use?
-signals over short distances -these can use any or all of the senses
Acute (qualitative) chemical resistance
-small/simple molecules target specific insect system 1. Toxic amino acids 2. Toxic protiens 3. *Proteniase inhibitors (PIs) 4. Allelochemicals (secondary compounds)*
Avoidance-Hiding-Physical concealment
-soil-dwelling insects -enclosed feeders -nocturnal foraging
To avoid prey population extinction:
-some prey must be able to disperse/escape/hide
Apyrene sperm
-sperm without nuclei
Defense in Hymenoptera
-stinger -only females defend -cooperative attack of predator, coordinated by pheromones
Water is denser and move viscous than air, resulting in strong morphological selection in aquatic plants and animals that include
-streamlined bodies in large organisms to reduce drag -filamentous appendages in small organisms to reduce drag -gas filled bladders and oil droplets for buoyancy
How do you confirm the involvement of the 7 hormones?
-surgical removal of endocrine organ or cells -ligature to separate the body parts -implant endocrine cells or glands -injecting blood, tissue extracts, or expressed potential hormones -parabiosis: connecting two individuals
Aldo Leopold
-sustainable agriculture -advocate wilderness -writer like muir, esssays/books-advocating for wilderness preservation-form of land use -founders of the wilderness society -pushed for the established of the first wilderness area of Gila -sustainable agriculture, using the land sustaiabnly, eating food that is local -saw over-exploitation and fought against it -focused on soil erosion, during the dust bowl -worked with farmers, improving the conditions of their land
Altered target-site resistance
-target site insensitivity -AchE -Sodium channel -GABA receptor -AchR
Effective Population Size
-the size of an ideal population that would undergo the same amount of genetic drift as a particular real population -fluctuating population size -breeding sex ratio -variance in progency -overlapping gen -spatial dispersion
Dengue and deneue haemorragic fever
-transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. -considered a single cycle disease -two forms dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever Dengue fever if a flue-like illness. Can be painful but rarely fat. -Dengue hemorrhagic fever is a sever, often fatal, complication of dengue fever -four dengue serotypes exist, and a 5th was just discovered
Synaptic transmission: transmitters diffuses across the synaptic cleft
-travel across the gap by the simple diffusion -part of molecules reach the postsynaptic membrane and bind to specific receptors, which may be inotropic (transmitter gated ion channels) and metabotropic (GPCR)
bipolar neuron
-two projections extending from the cel body -typical of sensory neuron
What can jungle katydids do ro find mates if predators can hear them?
-use another channel of communication that bats cannot hear -trembleate -vibrations on the leafs
Myriapoda
-variable number of legs -segmented and legs added with each molt -mandibular mouth parts -reproduction through external transfer of sperm -entirely terrestrial
What is biodiversity?
-variation in life forms Genes-trait variations Species-different species Ecosystems-different habitats
What are hormones produced by midguts?
-various peptides, like insulin-like peptide other functions no known
mate attraction through visual
-visual signals in fireflies -species specific signals -requires good but not remarkable vision
What eats insects?
-wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate carnivores and omnivores eat insects -insects are vulnerable to attack from other insect predators and parasitoids -predation/parasitism show strong selection pressure on insect evolution
What are some characteristics for classifying insects?
-wings -mouthparts -development or maturation
Paranotal wing hypothesis
-wings arose from fixed flat structures on the tergites of the thorax of arboreal insects, presumably used originally to avoid injury in a fall or jump to escape a predator Evolutionary process: a gradual change from small projections that act as parachutes to larger structures for more controlled gliding to finally true wings with muscles and nerves for active flight Evidence: lobes on the prothoracic segemnts of many early ptergote fossils
Tracheal gill hypothesis
-wings evolved from the tracheated gill of an ancient aquatic insect evidence: -early pterygotes probably had aquatic larvae -striking morphological similarity between modern wings and structures found on fossilized nymphs of paleozoic insects -evo devo studies showing common development mechanisms between wings and gills
Queen mates with 2 different males: How are the workers related to each other?
.25
It may be said that the approach taken by an ecologist to the study of the natural world depends on the level of ecological organization studied. For example, an ecologist who takes the population approach to the study of ecology would most likely be interested in: Question options: A) The number and relative abundances of species living in a particular place. B) Adaptations of plants or animals that suit them for life in their environment. C) Changes in numbers, resulting from births and deaths, of individuals belonging to a particular species in a particular place. D) Transport and sequestration of carbon in a forest
.C) Changes in numbers, resulting from births and deaths, of individuals belonging to a particular species in a particular place.
Improvements to the ESA
1) How do we allocate resources-transparted fensible 2) Adaptive Management 3) partnerships research and managment 4) Promote low cost citizen science 5) Research to faciliate ecological restoration
How is the ESA supposed to work?
1) listing 2) ID threats 3) protect from threats 4) Recover 5) delist
Describe two ways in which insects minimize oxidative damage and why they work?
1)Discontinuous gas exchange reduces the number of oxygen molecules in the tracheal system when the spiracles are closed. 2)Increasing fluid at tips of tracheoles decreases diffusion rate of oxygen and thus the accessibility of the oxygen to the tissue
Biological Transmission: Three requirements:
1. A competent arthropod vector 2. A susceptible host (and reservoir) 3. A pathogen
Eusociality features shared
1. A complex and aggressively defended nest 2. Communication among colony-mates *3.Reproductive division of labor* *4. Cooperative brood care* *5. Overlap of generations* 6. Decentralized decision making (bolded are REQUIRED features of eusocial species)
What are insects prey responses to predation?
1. Avoidance 2. Resistance 3. Mimicry
Major sections of integument
1. Basal membrane 2. epidermal cells 3. Procuticle 4. Epicuticle
Why does Az have great diversity?
1. Biome stacking Desert Scrub Desert grassland Oak grassland Chaparral Oak woodland Pine oak woodland Pine forest Mixed Conifer forest 2. Location Nexus of Rocky Mountains, Great Plains, Chihauan Desert, Sierra Madre, Neotropics, Sonoran Desert -one break in the 4,500 mile long North American Cordillera that runs from northern Alaska to s. Mexico. The "Cordilleran Gap" between the Rocky Mountains/Colorado Plateou
Why does succession progress?
1. Direct species interactions: -tolerance, inhibition, facilitation 2.Life History Tradeoffs: -Dispersal, growth,survival and reproduction
What are the normative postulates (standards, correct) according to Soule?
1. Diversity of good, unnatural extinctions are bad 2. Ecological complexity is good 3. Evolution is good -generates biodiversity 4. Biodiversity has intrinsic value
Prescriptive or normative postulates according to Kareiva?
1. Focus on human altered landscapes -inevitable -stewardship 2. People must support conservation goals -psychology -outreach -what motivates people 3. We must work with corporations -if the corporations are involved, than things can be improved. -They are like keystone species 4. Maximizing conservation and *economic* objectives 5. Human rights, fairness, equity -People need to be motivated
What are the cells in the nervous system?
1. Nerve cells 2. Glial cells
What are the secretory cells in non-nerve systems
1. Ovary or other parts of female reproductive tract 2. Male reproductive tract 3. Midgut, fatbody, malpighian tubules 4. Tracheal surface
Anatomy outside the CNS
1. PTG or PG 2. EG
What are the Functional postulates according to Kareiva?
1. Pristine nature does not exist 2. The fate of nature and people are intertwined 3. Nature can be resilient 4.Human communities can avoid the tragedy of the commons
What does salivary gland do?
1. Secrete saliva 2. Lubricate the mouthparts and moisten food 3. Pre oral digestion and partial digestion in foregut 4. Other non-digestive roles -toxins or venoms to paralyze or kill preys -counter-defence against plant defence -anticlotting-blood sucking insects -immunity (killing pathogens -parasite or pathogen transmission -silk formation
Theremohaline circulation pattern
1. Warm water flows from the Gulf of Mexico to the North Atlantic (Gulf Stream) where some of it freezes and evaporates. 2. Cooling water that is saltier sinks to the ocean bottom. Cold water denser. 3.Sinking cold water creates current (North Atlantic Deep) that ravels along the ocean floor. 4. Cold, salty water travels to tropics and warms, creating upwellings-and circulates back to Atlantic
What are the functional postulates (working propositions, fundamental axioms) according to Soule?
1. species are the product of a coevoulutary process -species are interdependent -many species are specialized -Extinctions of keystone species have far-reaching consequences -Introductions of generalists can reduce diversity 2. Size matters (spatial scale, patch size) -Ecological processes and patterns are interrupted or fall where the system is too small -The larger an area, the less likely that all patches of a 3. Population size matters -small pops are more likely to go extinct 4. Nature reserves are disequilibiral for large, rare organisms.
Endocrine System
1.*Slow* means if communication and coordination of* long term* events such as growth, differentiation an development 2.Endocrine glands secrete *hormones* into *bloodstream*. Hormones circulate inside body *by blood* and serve as messengers between internal tissues and organs 3. *Slow* response and the effects are usually *long-term or permanent*
Nerve System
1.*fast* means of communication and coordination of *short term* events 2. *Electrical* information id directly sent to target tissues 3. *Fast* response and the effects are usually transient except for long term memory
What are laws that ecosystems obey?
1.Law of conservation of matter 2.First law of thermodynamics (energy conservation) 3.Dynamic steady state • Take many different forms • Occurs when gains and losses are in balance • Colonization such as different interactions • Ecosystem such as changes in climate • Extinction losses are greater than the gains • Many ecological questions are focused on how 4. Evolution through natural selection
What are laws that ecosystems obey?
1.Law of conservation of matter 2.First law of thermodynamics (energy conservation) 3.Dynamic steady state • Take many different forms • Occurs when gains and losses are in balance • Colonization such as different interactions • Ecosystem such as changes in climate • Extinction losses are greater than the gains • Many ecological questions are focused on how 4. Evolution through natural selection
What is optimal distance in Delphinium nelsoni?
10
What percentage of irrigation withdrawals exceed supply rates?
15-32
Insect chemical defenses can be divided into how many classes?
2
____ of insects species are predatory or parasitic at some point in life
25%
Epitracheal glands
3-4 Inka cells attached to tracheal tubes adjacent to each spiracle
Humans are responsible for how much CO2?
30% 280->400 ppm from 1800 to present
total land area modified by humans
53%
Bottom-up tropic cascades.
80-90% of energy is lost as it is transferred up the trophic chain; 10% conversion efficiency - organic matter stored
Nerve sheath
= lamella + perineurium -surround individual nerve or axon -Protect, insulate and repair neuron Pass nutrients to nerve and control ionic environment -More glial cells than neurons
Perineurium
=brain-blood barrier: a layer of glial cells that maintain stable ionic environment
Assimilation
=photosynthesis
Dissimilation
=respiration
Consumer-Resource interactons
>1/2 species obtain energy by consuming other organisms -Detritivore -Herbivory -Parasitism -Parasitoids -Hyperparasitoids
Riparian zone
A band of terrestrial vegetation alongside rivers and streams that is influenced by seasonal flooding and elevated water tables.
Mate guarding
A behavior in which one partner prevents the other partner from participating in extra-pair copulations
Subtropical desert
A biome characterized by hot temperatures, scarce rainfall, long growing seasons, and sparse vegetation.
Temperate grassland/cold desert
A biome characterized by hot, dry summers and cold, harsh winters and dominated by grasses, nonwoody flowering plants, and drought-adapted shrubs.
Woodland/shrubland
A biome characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, a combination that favors the growth of droughttolerant grasses and shrubs.
Intertidal zone
A biome consisting of the narrow band of coastline between the levels of high tide and low tide. .
Boreal forest
A biome densely populated by evergreen needle-leaved trees, with a short growing season and severe winters. Also known as Taiga.
Temperate rainforest
A biome known for mild temperatures and abundant precipitation, and dominated by evergreen forests.
Mangrove swamp
A biome that occurs along tropical and subtropical coasts, and contains salt-tolerant trees with roots submerged in water.
Temperate seasonal forest
A biome with moderate temperature and precipitation conditions, dominated by deciduous trees.
Tropical seasonal forest
A biome with warm temperatures and pronounced wet and dry seasons, dominated by deciduous trees that shed their leaves during the dry season.
Torpor
A brief period of dormancy that occurs in birds and mammals in which individuals reduce their activity and their body temperature. Hummingbirds and Bats
Dry climate
A climate characterized by low precipitation and a wide range of temperatures, commonly found at approximately 30° N and 30° S latitudes.
Tropical climate
A climate characterized by warm temperatures and high precipitation, occurring in regions near the equator.
Moist subtropical mid-latitude climate
A climate characterized by warm, dry summers and cold, wet winters.
Moist continental mid-latitude climate
A climate that exists at the interior of continents and is typically characterized by warm summers, cold winters, and moderate amounts of precipitation.
Polar climate
A climate that experiences very cold temperatures and relatively little precipitation.
Dormancy
A condition in which organisms dramatically reduce their metabolic processes. (avoid) .
Emerging infectious disease
A disease that is newly discovered, or has been rare and then suddenly increases in occurrence.
Horizon
A distinct layer of soil.
Parthenogenesis
A form of asexual reproduction in which an embryo is produced without fertilization.
Vegetative reproduction
A form of asexual reproduction in which an individual is produced from the nonsexual tissues of a parent.
Type II functional response
A functional response in which a predator's rate of prey consumption begins to slow down as prey density increases and then plateaus; predators spend more time handling more prey
Type I functional response
A functional response in which a predator's rate of prey consumption increases in a linear fashion with an increase in prey density until satiation occurs. -curve where predatin has no limit
Biome
A geographic region that contains communities composed of organisms with similar adaptations.
Thermohaline circulation
A global pattern of surface- and deepwater currents that flow as a result of variations in temperature and salinity that change the density of water.
Senescence
A gradual decrease in fecundity and an increase in the probability of mortality.
Climate diagram
A graph that plots the average monthly temperature and precipitation of a specific location on Earth.
Self-thinning curve
A graphical relationship that shows how decreases in population density over time lead to increases in the size of each individual in the population.
population
A group of individuals of a given species occupying a given area at a given time
Indeterminate growth
A growth pattern in which an individual continues to grow after it initiates reproduction.
Determinate growth
A growth pattern in which an individual does not grow any more once it initiates reproduction.
Gyre
A large-scale water circulation pattern between continents.
understory
A layer of shorter plants that grow in the shade of a forest canopy.
Coral reef
A marine biome found in warm, shallow waters that remain 20°C year-round.
Polyandry
A mating system in which a female mates with more than one male.
Polygyny
A mating system in which a male mates with more than one female.
Polygamy
A mating system in which a single individual of one sex forms long-term social bonds with more than one individual of the opposite sex.
Monogamy
A mating system in which a social bond between one male and one female persists through the period that is required for them to rear their offspring.
Promiscuity
A mating system in which males mate with multiple females and females mate with multiple males and do not create a lasting social bond.
Mark-recapture survey
A method of population estimation in which researchers capture and mark a subset of a population from an area, return it to the area, and then capture a second sample of the population after some time has passed.
Thermocline
A middle depth of water in a lake or pond that experiences a rapid change in temperature over a relatively short distance in depth.
Optimal foraging theory
A model describing foraging behavior that provides the best balance between the costs and benefits of different foraging strategies.
Exponential growth model
A model of population growth in which the population increases continuously at an exponential rate. Nt=N0e^rt Nt=future population size, N0= current population size, r=intrinsic growth rate,t=time over which a population grows
Geometric growth model
A model of population growth that compares population sizes at regular time intervals. -The geometric growth model is expressed as a ratio of a population's size in one year to its size in the preceding year.λ when λ>1, population size has increased; when λ <1, population size has decreased.λ cannot be negative.
Lotka-Volterra model
A model of predator-prey interactions that incorporates oscillations in the abundances of predator and prey populations and shows predator numbers lagging behind those of their prey. -Predicts predator-prey cycles -Predator numbers lag prey number -simplistic model, valuable tool (rate of change of population)=(population growth rate)-(population decline rate) Calculates rate of change in predator and prey populations as each is influenced by the abundance of the other
Basic metapopulation model
A model that describes a scenario in which there are patches of suitable habitat embedded within a matrix of unsuitable habitat; all suitable patches are assumed to be equal quality.
Stochastic model
A model that incorporates random variation in population growth rate.
Deterministic model
A model that is designed to predict a result without accounting for random variation in population growth rate.
DNA
A molecule composed of two strands of nucleotides that are wound together into a shape known as a double helix.
Biodiversity
totality of life on earth
Trachea molting with soft insects
trachea does grow within an instar even though they are covered in cuticle
Aquatic insects
trachea outside body
What process assists root pressure in the movement of water between the roots and leaves of trees? Question options: gravity transpiration salinization osmotic potential
transpiration
arborescent
treelike
Ventral nerve cord
trend towards ganglia (fusing) condensing SG+TG+Ag: local association center
Eusocial=
truly social
insect digestive tract
tube within surrounding tube called the body. Starts with a mouth and ends with the anus and functionally divide into foregut, midgut, and hindgut Digestive tract + salivary gland
crossing over
two chromosomes in the pair exchange DNA
competitive exclusion
two species cannot coexist indefinitely on the same resource
facultative mutualist
two species that provide fitness benefits to each other, but the interaction is not critical to the persistence of either species
obligate mutualist
two species that provide reciprocal fitness benefits to each other and require each other to persist
Interneuron (association neuron
unipolar cells that form connections between afferent and efferent neurons and conduct signals WITHIN CNS.
Modules
units that are connected but have independence
Mammals primarily excrete excess nitrogen in the form of Question options: urea. uric acid. ammonia. nucleic acid.
urea.
Pheromone-based control-monitoring
use of synthetic pheromones to be released from dispensers to monitor for the presence/density of pests. Good for timing insect control measures
In flight spiracles are
used
Bt plants
used as a bio-pesticide to control many insects. toxins in bacterial spore coat -bacterial gens for Cry toxins have been inserted -now resist insect damage by lepidoptera and coleoptera.
Retinula cells
usually 8 -microvilli extend centrally
How do predators forage?
usually the insect itself, although mothers may hunt to provision nests.
Biological control: applied definition
utilization of natural enemies to reduce the damage caused by noxious organisms to tolerable levels
What cues do blood-feeding insects use?
vertebrate host derived cues (heat, CO2, sweat)
Phototransduction
visueal cues
demography
vital statistics of populations (births, death, immigration, emigration)
Fumigant
volatile insecticides enter through the spiracle and tracheal system.
Alarm calling
warms relatives that predators are approaching
Discontinuous gas-exchange cycle hypotheses
water conservation -<15% of water lost through spiracles (85% through cuticle) -Reduce ROS (this seems more likely)
What is one of the major problems facing insects?
water loss because of their size must conserve water -cuticle and excretory system maintain proper water and ion balance -freshwater insects tend to lose ions to the enviroment -insects in salt water tend to gain ions
smaller insects lose more ___ through their _____
water, cuticle
eclosion behaviors
waves of abdominal contractions
pterostigma -
weight- reduces flutter during gliding
Adaption
what goes on in between depends on the insect, its habitats and feeding habits
Age structure fluctuations
when an age group contains a high or low number of individuals, the population likely experiences high birth or death rates in the past
dynamic
when gains and losses of an ecological system are in balance
pollen
will develop into haploid (n) microgametophyte (male gametophyte) covered by a microspore wall. The pollen grains in the conifer family, pinacea, which includes the pines, firs, and spruces
Pterygota
winged insects
Limb Exite Hypothesis
wings evolved from preexisting, mobile appendages associated with each body segment evidence -early fossils with articulated winglets, particularly on thoracic segments -evolutionary development research show a connection between wing and leg development
endopterygota
wings that develop inside a pupal case
Where do glial cells go?
with sensory neurons
herbaceous
with the characteristics of an herb, not woody
Intinsic
within
intraspecific
within species
anaerobic
without oxygen
shrub
woody plant
shoot
young stem or branch
Natural Selection
• A change in the frequency of genes in a population through differential survival and reproduction of individuals that possess certain phenotypes 1. Individual variation in traits within species such a mutation, recombination 2. Some of the variations are heritable such as alleles passed to offspring 3. More offspring are produced than can survive such as competition 4. Variation in traits causes some individuals to experience higher fitness (survival and reproduction) • Individuals with better fitness are those with randomly generation variations that best suit their current environment. They will pass more copies of their genes to the next generation and that phenotype will come to dominate. Does not • Plan • Predict • Perfect Current distribution and abundance of a species is determined by ecological experiences of its ancestors.
Natural Selection
• A change in the frequency of genes in a population through differential survival and reproduction of individuals that possess certain phenotypes 1. Individual variation in traits within species such a mutation, recombination 2. Some of the variations are heritable such as alleles passed to offspring 3. More offspring are produced than can survive such as competition 4. Variation in traits causes some individuals to experience higher fitness (survival and reproduction) • Individuals with better fitness are those with randomly generation variations that best suit their current environment. They will pass more copies of their genes to the next generation and that phenotype will come to dominate. Does not • Plan • Predict • Perfect Current distribution and abundance of a species is determined by ecological experiences of its ancestors.
What does heat do on a molecular level?
• Causes biological molecules to change shape ○ Enzymes • Accelerates chemical reactions by increasing molecular movement
Why is water a powerful solvent?
• Dissolve inorganic nutrients essential for life (N,P,S,K,C,Fe,Si) • Water is polar: the negative oxygen end of one molecule is strongly attracted to the positive hydrogen end of another. -Water attracts charged atoms or molecules which causes many substances to dissolve
What is Ecosystem research approach?
• Energy flow and nutrient cycling through organisms and the physical environment • Element pools: carbon, oxygen hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus ○ Dominate pools ○ How they change form and the energy required to change from one form to another
Genotype
• Genetic makeup of an organism
What are some properties of water?
• High specific heat (E required to raise temp 1 C) • 800+ times as dense as air -as water freezes it becomes less dense.Water does not freeze al the way to the bottom. Life is still at bottom • 55 times as viscous as air • High absorption of light energy ○ Light is restricted to the surface of water
Endosymbiosis
• Mutualistic relationship between a host and an organism living within its body or cells
Phenotype
• Outward expression of environmental effects on an organisms genotype-includes all traits (morphology, development, behavior). Example: Fit twin and not so fit
Evolution by natural selection
• Population level • Mutations-change = variation • Heritable • (genetic drift) • Intraspecific Competition (Intra means within) • Differential fitness Passing on more genes to the next generation resulting in the trait to become more dominate
Why do hydrogen ions in water impact pH?
• Some water molecules break apart into h+ and OH- ions • Acidity: concentration of H+ ions in a solution • Acidity is measured in pH:-log(H+ concentration) • Water with low pH is acidic, medium is neutral and high pH is basic or alkaline
Osmoregulation
•: mechanisms used to maintain solute balance ○ Maintain balance in body
Eutrophication
•An increase in the productivity of aquatic ecosystems -algal blooms caused by overfertilization that leads to hypoxia
Effects of alteration of sheetflowe
•Change in species composition (many exotics) •More frequent fires •Increased salinity in Florida Bay•Many T&E species
External Influences/Boundary issues
•Deer, javelina, coyotes from Saguaro NP into surrounding neighborhoods •People, bikes, dogs, cats, from adjacent neighborhoods into Saguaro NP
Active management of reserves is necessaryWhy?
•Historical disruptions (things that happened in the past that require current management) •External influences(things that happen outside the reserve that influence what happens inside the reserve
Focal Species Approac
•ID needed population size (analysis of viability) •Keep an area that can maintain a viable population •(multiply the area needed for one breeding pair by the number of breeding pairs identified in the first step) •Keep patches close enough to allow movement between them •(based on dispersal abilities and conditions between patches
Nitrogen
•Required by all organisms for growth •N often limits primary production •Excessive N can cause toxic plant/algae growth (eutrophication) -Atmospheric N2not bioavailable •Amount of 'fixed' N is increasing
Problems in the Everglades Ecosystem
•Wetlands cleared for agriculture •Water diverted to coastal cities •Normal movement of water flow (sheetflow) altered
Ecosystem structure
•movement of carbon, nutrients, and energy among organisms in an ecosystem •Flux of Energy / Efficiency of Energy transfer •Nutrient cycling -Macronutrients: C, H, O, N, P, K, [Ca, S] -Micronutrients: Na, Cl, Mn, Mg, B, Bu, Fe, Co, Cu, Mo, nutrients cycle through (bodies of organisms in) ecosystems and exist in different chemical states carrying different amounts of energy
• Endosymbiosis Theory
○ The mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes evolved from bacteria that were incorporated by other bacteria into their cell structure 1. Primordial Soup 2. A prokaryote cell ingests another prokaryote cell 3. Ingested prokaryote cell is not digested (random) 4. Host cell benefits from energy (ATP) produced by ingested cell 5. Interdependence in ingested and host cell selected for (evolves) 6. Ingested cell becomes eukaryote mitochondrion/chloroplast
What are the types of proteases?
Exopeptidases and endopeptidases
How do we measure competition?
Experiment: first test of competition in plants. Observation: closely related species grow in different habitats. Hypothesis: Each species is adapted to particular soil conditions and will be competitively superior in its native habitat. Prediction: 1.Grown alone, each species will grow best in its native soil type. 2.When both species are grown together, the outcome of competition will depend on soil type. White bedstraw chalk calcareous (alkaline) specialist, grows best in calcareous soil. Heath bedstraw, peat (acidic) soil specialist, grows best in acid soil When planted together: White bedstraw outcompetes in alkaline soil. Heath bedstraw outcompetes in acidic soil
Competitive exclusion example
Experiment: grew two freshwater ciliated protozoa in culture. Bacteria are the food source. Grown together but only one survivied.
Exponential growth rate vs geometric growth rate
Exponential growth rate (r) -Useful when new individuals added to a population continuously: Birth-flow -Predict abundance at any time in the future with: N t=N0e^rt -r is the exponential growth rate which is an instantaneous rate Geometric growth rate λ -Useful when new individuals are added to a population at one time: Birth pulse -predict abundance at any time in the future with Nt=N0λt - λ is the geometric growth rate which is discrete or finite rate both Models to predict population size Nt are identical, except that λ replaces e^r: Exponential (continuous):Nt=N0e^rt Geometric (discrete): Nt-N0 λ^t
What is the value of conservation biology according to Karieva?
Extrinsic utilitarian, economic value, instrumental
Density dependent
Factors that affect population size in relation to the population's density. -Both λ and r are constants that are independent of population density; therefore these models are density independent. -any population with fixed birth and death rates will increase at an increasing rate forever -eventually, birth and death rates will be affected by population density
Density independent
Factors that limit population size regardless of the population's density. -both λ and r are constants that are independent of population density -any population with fixed birth and death rates will increase at an increasing rate forever
A phytophagous insect is considered an agricultural pest if it
Feeds on a crop plant in a way that significantly reduces yield or quality of harvested product. AND Is sufficiently abundant on the crop plant that its feeding results in economic losses.
zygote
Fertilized egg
Why are insects more successful/diverse than other terrestrial arthropods?
First to fly
Pollination syndrome: phalaenophily
Flower: Mostly white with long nectar (corolla) tube or spurs, heavy sweet odor, bloom at night, blossom rim with deep dissection or fringed, blossom horizontal or tilting downward Moth: long thin proboscis, tend to hover below the flower and point its proboscis upward to insert it in the long nectar spurs
Pollination syndrome: psychophily
Flower: red/yellow color patterns, the large landing platform, wide flower, bloom at day time, weak odor, blossom erect and blossom rim without dissection. Butterfly: long thin proboscis, but tend to alight on flowers
Pollination syndrome: melittophily
Flower: strong landing platform, vivid color present, UV-reflectance pattern, subtle odor Bees: pollen chewers, morphologically well adapted for pollen transfer, some with advanced learning capacity
Pollination syndrome: myophily
Fly pollination: flowers produce fly attracting odors (dung or decaying carrion) and frequently trap fly inside flowers. Usually dark red, purplish-green, hide sexual organs, no nectar
Self fertilization or selfing
For hermaphrodites, selfing occurs when an individuals male gametes fertilize its own female gametes. -Strong inbreeding depression cost -Selection favors individuals who can also outcross
Central place foraging
Foraging behavior in which acquired food is brought to a central place, such as a nest with young. Optimize travel and search time
Risk-sensitive foraging
Foraging behavior that is influenced by the presence of predators. Example: grasshoppers and spiders. If the threat or perceived threat may change behavior. -18% reduction in foraging time in presence of predators
Optimal foraging
Foraging strategy must maximize fitness by -Maximizing benefits (quantity and quality of prey) AND -Minimizing costs (time and energy spent, exposure to harsh environment and predators)
What are the four stages of decomposition?
Fresh stage Bloated stage Active decay stage Dry stage Each stage attracts different insects
What kind of fish is hyperosmotic and why?
Freshwater fish are hyperosmotic: they have a higher salt concentration in their body than exists in the surrounding water. To maintain salt balance they must excrete large amounts of water and use their gills and kidneys to actively retain solutes.
Where do insects get their sources of nutrients?
From food: plants, animals or rotting materials -endo and exosymbionts -biosynthesis or bioconversion from other nutrients
Stomatograstic nerve system (SNS)
Frontal ganalion + hypocerebral ganglion+ventricular ganglion; innervate muscles of the mouth cavity, foregut, midgut, and regulate uptake and food transport
Stomata:
Gas exchange, how plants take up CO2 but water is released
Vision
General structure and function of eye -seeing polarized light -limits to resolution -processing and image formation
Using the term gene flow correctly, what is a potential consequence of interacting species responding to environemental drivers and different rates?
Genetic drift is the loss of genetic variability in a population and this occurs in smaller populations. phenotypic mismatches of breeding in climate change, for example, different emerges of insects, populations die off and decrease diversity (gene flow)
Ecological restoration
Goal: ecosystem looks and functions as it did before it wad degraded. Need to understand: Scale ecological succession Natural disturbance Regimes Nature Range of variability Considerations: Risks Economic goals/conflicts/competing intersts
Estimating abundance
Goal:Estimate abundance (parameter) with survey data Challenge:gauge the portion of the population that we don't observe Two surveys: -First: mark a subset of animals -Second: estimate the proportion of animals in the population that are marked -Simplest approach is the Lincol-Peterson method
Robert Whittaker
Gradient analyses helped bring closure the Clements-Gleason debate -different tree species appeared and disappeared at different elevations corresponding to changes in moisture.
Poaceae
Grass. 2-ranked alternate parallel-veined leaves Round culm stem; solid at nodes Leaves of sheath, ligule, and blade Spikelets with glumes and 1 or more florets Usually 3 stamens and 2 stigmas (pistils) Fruit a caryopsis
graminoid
Grasses and grass like plants
Green house effect
Greenhouse effect The process of solar radiation striking Earth, being converted to infrared radiation and being absorbed and re-emitted by atmospheric gases.
mullerian mimics
Group of organisms, like bees/wasps, all possessing the same yellow warning colors, although not phylogenetically related
What are the green house gases?
H2O (water vapor), )O2, N2, CO2, Methane CH4, nitrous oxide N2O and ozone O3.
Habitat Reserves
Habitat ReservesLand set aside and protected or managed for the primary purpose of conservation of one or more species of plants and animal
arms race
Hosts and predators/parasites are engaged in an evolutionary "arms race"-evolving defenses (host) and overcoming defenses (parasites/predators) just to maintain fitness
What is a research approach to individuals?
How adaptations or characteristics of an individual's morphology, physiology, and behavior enable it to survive in an environment.
What are the enzymes insects use for digestion in the midgut?
Hydrolases -Glycosidases -Lipases -Peptidases
Phylogenetic trees
Hypothesized patterns of relatedness among different groups such as populations, species, or genera.
Why is solar energy input greater near the equator than near the poles? I. The longer path through the atmosphere at the poles decreases solar energy. II. Solar energy is spread over a smaller area at the equator. III. There is higher albedo at the equator than at the poles
I. The longer path through the atmosphere at the poles decreases solar energy. II. Solar energy is spread over a smaller area at the equator.
What are explanations for eusociality involving altruism?
If the benefits of eusociality are sufficiently great, that may be a greater driver than relatedness. Kin selection - part of the story, but not the whole thing. Group selection - could be favored by those species that build complex nests. Parental manipulation - capacity to turn off some daughters' reproduction. If queen fitness is driving diversity, mother has turned off daughters reproduction Mutualism - reciprocal altruism. "You scratch my back, I will scratch your back".
Does haplo-diploidy cause eusociality in monogamous queens?
If the queen is monogamous, workers are more related to the queen's daughters (r=0.75) than to their own (r=0.5). This would explain why so many Hymenoptera are eusocial and why workers are always females. Closer related to sister than to own offspring.
What does it mean for Hymenoptera to be haplo-diploid? Why might haplo-diploidy favor eusocial behavior?
In Hymenoptera, unfertilized eggs (n) become male, and fertilized eggs (2n) become female. If the queen is monogamous, workers are more related to the queen's daughters (r=0.75) than to their own (r=0.5).
Using seed size and seed mass as an example, what is the importance of the concept of tradeoffs in life history strategies?
In a drought, most finches will eat the smaller seeds because their beaks cannot crack open bigger seeds. However, finches who have larger beaks can crack open larger seeds. Finches small beaks is a tradeoff in drought conditions.
Growth rate
In a population, the number of new individuals that are produced in a given amount of time minus the number of individuals that die.
Trophic pyramid
In terrestrial systems, pyramids of biomass and energy look similar. HIGH plant longevity & defenses = low consumption In aquatic systems, pyramids of biomass and energy inverted. LOW plant (algae) longevity & defenses = high consumpC
Laterization
In tropical/subtropical biomes where soils weather. The breakdown of clay particles, which results in the leaching of silicon from the soil, leaving oxides of iron and aluminum to predominate throughout the soil profile.
Lotka-Volterra prediction
Increase in growth rate of prey (r) leads to increase in predator population but not prey population (N)
Henry Gleason argued about what kind of communities?
Independent communities
Avoidance-Escape-Protean Display
Individual or swarm of potential prey fly or move chaotically, making it difficult for predator to focus Ex: zebra
Clustered dispersion
Individuals are aggregated in discrete groups ( e.g social groups or clustering around resources).
Clones
Individuals that descend asexually from the same parent and bear the same genotype.
Simultaneous hermaphrodites
Individuals that possess male and female reproductive functions at the same time.
Sequential hermaphrodites
Individuals that possess male or female reproductive function and then switch to possess the other function.
Draw the exponential growth curve, and adjust to include K. Put an X on this curve where you see the maximum growth rate. What is this point on the curve?
Inflection point
Interactions may change over life stages-saguaro example
Initially: Saguaro benefits from shade of paloverde Eventually: Competing for water and nutrients
Allochthonous
Inputs of organic matter, such as leaves, that come from outside of an ecosystem.
The insect nerve system can be divided into central nerve system, stomatogastric nerve system, and peripheral nerve system. Please briefly describe the makeup (components) of the central nerve system
Insect central nerve system (CNS) is composed of brain and ventral nerve cord. Brain is the largest fused ganglion and serve as the major association center for the whole body. Brain can be subdivided into protocerebrum, deutocerebrum (=antennal lobe) and tritocerebrum (control labrum). Ventral nerve cord is composed suboesophageal ganglion (SG), thoracic ganglion (TG) and abdominal ganglion (AG). SG is the second largest fused ganglion and serves as the association center for mandible, maxilla, and labium. Each of TG and AG is a local association center for the corresponding body segment.
Example of an arms race
Insect resistant to toxin 3 Insect resistant to toxin2 Insect resistant to toxin1 Insect eats plant Plants make toxin 1 Plants make toxin 2 Plants make toxin 3 Plants make toxin 4
Insect wings differ from airplanes
Insects differ from airplane in wings moving at high angle of attack (35-40o). -stream of air separates at leading edge of wing = leading edge vortex -as it increases in size and gives less lift, sheds off tip
Antagonistic herbivory
Insects eat plants and plants suffer tissue loss, low survival and reproduction (+,-)
Biosphere:
Integrated system of all the environments and organisms on earth. Distant ecosystems are linked together by exchanges of wind and water and by the movement of organisms
what determines the quality of the image formed by an insects eye?
Interommatidial angle -smaller facets will result in a smaller angle and larger facets, a larger angle
What does the low albedo of forests cause?
It causes the tropics at the equator and the increases in average temperatures
Integument vs exoskeleton
It is an exoskeleton, but it refers more to function. Integument-refers more to structure (cuticle is compond)
What happens if the dermal glands and oenocyte make new cuticles?
It will be the same size as the one before -cell division need to occur -new cuticle will form on top of larger epidermis
Pre-ecdysis phase: Developmental patterns of JH production
JH is continuously released during almost all of larval life -JH levels gradually decrease as larvae get older -Nature of molting: no JH during the head critical period leads to larva-pupa or pupa-adult metamorphosis molting -typically not present at the pupa-adult molt, not present in the pupal stage
What does the female keep from the sperm package?
Keeps PA, nutrients from all, dumps sperm from all but largest
Important insect pest orders
Lepidoptera - Coleoptera - Diptera Orthoptera - Hemiptera -
Genetic Diversity
Level of variation within populations
What are examples of facilitation?
Lichens, liverworts create conditions that retail soil moisture and add organic matter, allows shrub growth -Alder trees fix Nitrogen though mutualism with root bacteria -Increased N availability in soil allows colonization by spruce and hemlock
Periodically released PTTH from the pars intercerebralis drives the prothoracic gland to secrete ___ to trigger each molt
MH
Pre-ecdysis phase: developmental patterns of MH
MH is the direct trigger for each molting cycle -periodically secreted, 1 per stage except for the last instar -the small MH peak before the big peak in the last larval instar is called commitment peak, which commit the larva to become a pupa
Acps cons
Males want to overstimulate egg production -eggs are costly, reduce female longevity -decreases chance she will remate Females do not receive AGP's live longer but produce few eggs
Optimal outcrossing distance=intermediate
Mating with distant individuals adapted to different conditions may reduce fitness but nearby individuals are likely to be close relative Balances -Risk of inbreeding with dispersal to unsuitable habitat and mating with too distant relatives
Direct effects of parasitic feeding
Mechanical reactions (dermatosis, dermatitis, itching) Myiasis (fly larvae invading living tissues) Toxin & Paralysis (envenomization) Allergic reactions (anaphylaxis)
How do insects spread disease?
Mechanical transmission - Biological transmission -
Indirect effects of parasitic feeding
Mechanical vs. biological transmission of a microbial pathogen
Myriapoda-Class Diplopada
Millipedes -2 pairs appendages per segment -generally detritivores
What is the first step that has to happen in order for an insect to molt to a larger size?
Mitosis of the epidermal layer
Why is eutrophication bad?
N,P addition cause algal "blooms" • Blooms block sunlight, deplete O2 (hypoxia) • Microbe and plant diversity decline -Hypoxia toxic for fish/invertebrate survival
what is the source of CCAP and Bursicon?
NSC in TG+AG
What is the source PTTH?
NSC in pars intercerebralis
At resting state, neurons are polarized because of an asymmetric distribution of ions across the cell membrane. There are more _____, _______, and _______but less ______outside of the cells. Such unequal distribution of ions is maintained by___________, _____________and the presence of leaky _______channel. These four ions may flow in or out of neurons in a ___________direction via their corresponding ion channels, leading to ___________ (membrane potential less negative than the resting potential) or ___________ (more negative) of neurons. Ion channels are pore-forming transmemebrane protein complex and may open in response to ______________, ________________, __________________, or __________________.
Na+, Ca2+, Cl-,K+ Na+/K+ ATPase, Ca2+ ATPase K+ downhill deplarization, hyperpolarization mechanically-gated channels, temperate-gated channels, voltage gated ion channels, or ligand-gated channels.
What are examples of insects targeting site insensitivity?
Na+/K+-ATPase is the target site of the milkweed allelochemical ouabain, a cardiac glycoside. The Monarch butterfly Na+/K+-ATPase has a single point mutation and thus is insensitive to ouabain. Other example: induction of proteases in herbivore gut, which are insensitive to plant proteinase inhibitor
Neurons and two ion pumps
Na+/K+ATPase, Ca2+ ATPase and the presence of leaky K+ channels: Na+/K ATPase pumps move 3 Na+ out of 2K+ into the cell at the expense of 1 ATP; Ca2+ ATPase pump
Whitenose syndrome
Native to Europe, accidental in 2006, affects bats and causing them to be listed, less bats leads to an increase in insects
Rosy wolfsnale
Native to tropical Americas, introduced in 1955 to Hawaii as a biological control -wiped out native snails 1/3 of native snails are gone
Sexual selection
Natural selection for sex-specific traits that are related to reproduction.
What are the two systems animals use for communication and coordination?
Nerve system Endocrine
Neurotoxins
Nerve system -rapid knock down and kill insects -relatively broad spectrum -lower selectivity
Nerve system is composed of neurons and glial cells. ______________ transmit and process nerve messages whereas ____________ maintain a stable ionic environment.
Neurons, glial
What are the types of mode of actions that interact with target sites?
Neurotoxins IGR
Lentic
Non-flowing water -Lakes and ponds Formed by -Glacier retreat Geologic activity Oxbow Lake:broad bend of river cut off by channel shift Dams
Liebig's law of the minimum
Not all resources limit consumer populations -Law stating that a population increases until the supply of the most limiting resource prevents it from increasing further.
Species area curve
Number species increases with area sampled S=cA^z S=species A=area z=slope of the species-area relationship in a log-log space c=constant; the number of species that would exist if the habitat area was confined to one square unit logS=logc+zlogA
What do spermatophores contain?
Nutrients AGPs. PA, sperm
Why is photo-respiration inefficient?
O2 is more more abundant than CO2 now. Rubsico binds to O2 and CO2 is respired. Requires ATP and NADPH which don't produce energy. Increases at high temperatures and low CO2 levels
Why is Sept 3 significant?
Obama and Chinese President ratify 53 nations need to sign
Obligate pollination
Obligate pollination: neither party can survive without the other. Pairwise co-evolution. Two of the most famous are figs-fig wasps and yuccas-yucca moths (Tegeticula) Tightly coevolved mutualism, in which the plant relies exclusively on the insect for pollination, and the insect relies exclusively on the plant for food In both cases, the larvae are seed/flower eaters
Exclosure experiments measure animal competition
Observation: large and small rodents compete for seeds. Hypothesis: large granivorous rodents are superior competitors and limit the abundance of small rodents. Prediction: removing large granivores will result in population increase in small granivores. Experiment: mesh exclosures prevent large granivores from entering plots, but small granivores are not excluded, compare with control plots where all animals can enter.
Lincoln-Peterson example:
Occasion 1: M=72 humpback whales "captured" marked and released. Occasion 2: C=78 whales "captured" R=22 of these were marked previously M and C need to be similar or it will be unbalanced, degrees of freedom will be wrong, no confidence. Equal amount of work needs to be achieved. N=MC/R=72*78/22=255 estimate pop size
Podsolization
Occurs when plan material is broken down slowly. A process occurring in acidic soils typical of cool, moist regions, where clay particles break down in the E horizon, and their soluble ions are transported down to the lower B horizon. Rainfall slows upward movement of new clay particles and distinct horizon bands.
What drives ocean currents?
Ocean currents distribute unequal heating on earth's water and influence the location of different climates. Factors include -unequal heating -coriolis effects -wind directions =ocean basin topography -salinity
What are the marine aquatic biomes?
Oceanic Pelagic zones Abyssal zones Intertidal regions Coral reef
What insects are exclusively predatory?
Odonata Mantodea Neuropteroid orders Mecoptera
Green house effect process
Of the solar radiation that strikes Earth, some is reflected back into space and the rest penetrates the atmosphere where much of it warms clouds and the planet's surface. These warmed objects emit infrared radiation back toward the atmosphere where it is absorbed by greenhouse gases. The warmed greenhouse gases re-emit infrared radiation back toward Earth, which causes the surface to warm further.
Commensalism
One is benefited and one is unaffected
Resting Ventilation
One spiracle is open and one is closed
Optimal Foraging theory equation
Optimal Foraging Theory: Foragers must maximize E/(s + h) where E = energy extracted from prey/host s = searching cost (time and energy) h = prey/host handling cost
is there a cost to the calling male?
PREDATORS HEAR
What is the source for MH?
PTG
What are Pure Endocrine organs?
PTG and epitracheal glands
What are the 3 hormones that interact to initiate and coordinate old cuticle digestion and new cuticle formation?
PTTH, MH, and JH
Insects Parasites
Parasites feed on the blood or flesh of host animal without killing it. -Hosts are typically vertebrates. -Insects do have parasites too, but most are mites.
Insect Parasitoids
Parasitoid mother lays eggs in or on the host. Parasitoid larva develops in the host, emerging around the pupal stage of the parasitoid, killing the host. .
Perfect flowers
Perfect flowers Flowers that contain both male and female parts.
Reaction norm
Phenotypic map of response of a genotype to different environments add map The reaction norm 'translates' the environmental variation into phenotypic variation Plasticity is a property of a trait not an individual -Reaction norms can take many shape
What are some specialized mouthparts to pierce the exoskeleton and eat prey?
Piercing/sucking Extra big, strong mandibles.
Pinaceae
Pine Family trees with elongate, needle shaped or narrowly linear leaves arranged spirally or in fasicles and are resinous -Plants monoecious (mega and microsporangiate cones on separate places on an individual tree); seed producing condes more less elongate with thick woody scales with many >15 ovuliferous scales
nurse plant
Plant that helps another plant
Antagonistic insectivory
Plants eat insects for nitrogen, nutrients (+,-)
Insectivore
Plants eating insects, antagonistic relationship
Dioecious
Plants that contain either only male flowers or only female flowers on a single individual.
Monoecious
Plants that have separate male and female flowers on the same individual.
Polyphenism
Polyphenisms are favored when the environmental cues are highly predictive of the selective environment
Competition for a single resource
Population dynamics of two competing species can be modelled by using the logistic growth equation. dN/dt=rN(1-N/K) and extending it by considering the carrying capacity of the environment relative to the number of individuals from both species. To include a second species, we add: 1. number of individuals of the second species (N1 or N2) 2.How each individual of the second species affects the carrying capacity of the first species.
Slow population growth
Populations initially grow slowly because there is a small number of reproductive individuals; growth rate increases with the number of reproductive individuals. -Most species have discrete breeding seasons (California quail breeds only during the spring)
Pollinator decline
Populations of both wild and domesticated pollinators are declining due to: -Pesticide use and misuse -Transport of invasive pathogens -Urban and suburban development -Reduced prices of honey -Clear- cut logging and forest monoculture
There are 2 queens that mate with 2 different males: How are the workers related to each other?
Possibly not at all.
Foraging Strategy-sit and wait
Predator/parasite finds a suitable patch for prey and waits for prey to come close enough to attack - Ambush. -Sit and wait predators tend to be motionless, often hidden or cryptic (may be a defense against being prey themselves!) -Not all sit and wait predators are slow and cryptic - e.g. robber flies, dragonflies.
Which insects forage?
Predators Parasitoids Parasites
Describe one assumption of the Lokta Volterra predator-prey moel
Predators do not switch resources
Top predators
Predators that typically consume both herbivores and mesopredators.
What are some examples of keystone species?
Predatory sea stars as if they are removed, a single mussle species dominates rock surfaces.
Climate change tolerance and species range shift-amphibians
Predict species distribution from limited information 15 amphibians -Distributions known -Temperature tolerance known Climate projections -Dynamic, variable (warm and cold periods) Determinants of range shifts -rate of dispersal tolerance to unfavorable temperature conditions (persistence in low quality habitat) Predicted -climate change tolerance and species range shift -4 extinct -4 endangered -7 "vulnerable" smaller populations
What are potential solutions for wildfire increase due to supression?
Prescribed fire and mechanical thinng
First winged insects
Present in the fossils of the upper carboniferous -fossils include several now extinct groups. some of much larger wingspan than modern insects -large size may have been due to elevated atmospheric oxygen levels
What is the value of biodiversity according to Muir?
Preserve Nature
Conservation attention should focus on according to Soule
Pristine wild
Does haplo-diploidy cause eusociality?
Problems with this explanation: Workers are only related to males by r=0.25 (less than to daughters) - thus average relatedness to reproductive offspring is still 0.5 (depending on sex ratio) Actual relatednesses measured in insect colonies are almost never 0.75 (multiple queens, polygamy) -Many haplodiploid species are not social. -Termites are not haplo-diploid but are exclusively social.
Accessory glands
Produce accessory gland protiens -AGPs
What are the kind of peptidases?
Proteases: which inclue exopeptidadases and endopeptidases
What does the axon in the ganglion do?
Protect, insulate and repair neuron -pass nutrients to never and control ionic environment -more glila cells than neurons
How do insects make the cuticle hard?
Proteins are key -interactions of protein with chitin -interactions of protein with protein -water content and pH change how proteins interact -over 100 cuticular proteins -differ among insect parts depending on hardness
What are specalized structures to grab/subdue the prey?
Raptorial legs Venom
Reynolds number
Re=V*I/v=Velocitiy * length/viscous force -As size in insects decreases, viscous forces will have greater effects on their movement -Increasing velocity reduces effects of viscous forces
What is the difference between a reaction norm and a polyphenism?
Reaction norms are modifications of existing developmental pathways in continuous traits in response to environmental variation. Polyphenisms are developmental switches to alternate developmental pathways resulting in discrete traits.
Avoidance-Hiding
Reducing probability that natural enemies will see or find you
Population cycles
Regular oscillation of a population over a longer period of time. -can occur among related species and across large geographic areas Example: synchronous cycles of grouses in finland
Density Dependence
Regulation of population growth by mechanisms controlled by the size of the population; effect increases as population size increases.
Endocrine system function
Regulations of homeostasis Communication of organs
Mesopredators
Relatively small carnivores that consume herbivores.
Niche:
Represents the range of conditions and resource qualities within which a species can persist. -Conditions (temp) -Resources (nesting sites )
Binary fission
Reproduction through duplication of genes followed by division of the cell into two identical cells.
Type III example
Researchers manipulated the abundance of isopod and mayfly prey for backswimmer predators. When mayflies were rare, backswimmers consumed fewer mayflies than expected based on their proportion, which indicates prey switching. When mayflies were common, backswimmers consumed more mayflies than expected, likely because the predators had pactice consuming their prey
Renewable resources
Resources that are constantly regenerated.
Nonrenewable resources
Resources that are not regenerated.
What is a Reynold's number and how is it relevant to insects?
Reynold's number is a unit-less number that relates an objects speed and length with the viscosity of the medium the object is traveling through, RN= (velocity*length)/viscosity)). It is relevant to insects because insects are small. As a consequence, viscous forces have a big effect on the flight of small insects. To overcome the viscous forces, small insects increase velocity by increasing wing beat frequency.
What is responsible for the low efficiency of C3 photosynthesis at low CO2 levels? Question options: PEP mesophyll ATP RuBisco
RuBisco
Nature is according to Muir?
Sacred
What are the two types of wetland biomes?
Salt Marsh and Mangrove
How do the components of the procuticle vary to give such a wide range or properties?
Sclerotization
Artificial selection
Selection in which humans decide which individuals will breed and the breeding is done with a preconceived goal for the traits of the population.
Mixed Mating
Selfing and outcrossing -when mates are available, individuals outcross. -When mates are unavailable, individuals self fertilize and do not produce as many viable offspring, but it is better than nothing -Mixed mating can be in response to lack of resources in the environment
Feeding on vertebrate blood requires special adaptations in arthropods. Briefly describe two specializations of blood-feeding arthropods.
Sensory apparatus to locate vertebrate host Specialized piercing-sucking mouthparts Saliva components to prevent blood coagulation and host immune response. Capacity to deal with dramatic increase in gut volume.
What is apolysis?
Separation of old cuticle from the epidermis during the molting
Phylogenetic diversity
Shows relatedness through time based genetic history -how far away from common ancestor
Muir Legacy
Sierra Club, Yosemite, father of the national park systems
Leibigs law of the minimum example
Silica is a limited resource of diatoms, such as Asterionella formasa and syndra ulna. The two species have different demands of this limiting resource. Asterionella populations reach carryin capacity when they draw silica down to 1muM Synedra populations reach carry capacity when silica goes down to 0.4muM When Synedra reaches carrying capacity, the abundance of silica in the environment is not sufficient to support the population of asterionella. When grown together, synedra persists whereas asterionella declines to extinction. When two species compete for a single limiting resource, the species that persists is the one that can drive down the abundance of that resouce to the lowest level.
Light-dark bottle experiment
Since producers take up CO2 during photosynthesis and produce CO2 during respiration, we can measure NPP by recording the rate of CO2 exchange from the leaf. Leaves are placed in a sealed chamber with a CO2 sensor. When a leaf is exposed to light in the chamber, photosynthesis and respiration occur; the net uptake of CO2 represents NPP. When a leaf is concealed in the dark, only CO2 respiraCon occurs. We can then measure GPP: GPP = NPP + Respiration
Single Transmission Cycle
Single transmission cycle - human is the only host of pathogen Vector is typically oligaphagous, but pathogen is usually more specialized and can only survive and be transmitted from one or a few host species (reservoirs). -Co-evolution of host, vector and pathogen
Prokaryotes:
Single-celled bacteria and archaea without distinct organelles . Use sources of energy that most other organism that cant -cynobacteria can photosynthesize
What is the problem with small populations?
Small populations are more vulnerable to extinction than larger populations Example: Researchers conducted a survey of birds on the channel island off the coast of California. Over 80 years, they studied the number of breeding pairs at different species and rates of extinction . Extinction probability was inversely correlated with population size.
Where does acid rain draw aluminum from?
Soils in watershed
Why are tropical rainforests located at the equator?
Solar energy warms the air at the surface of the earth, and this caused the air to expand and rise. As air rises into regions of decreased atmospheric pressure, it expands. The temperature of the air cools through adiabatic cooling. The cooled air has reduced capacity to contain water vapor so it condenses and rains. -Process in which the surface air heats, rises, and releases excess water in rain
Solutions to influences/boundary issues
Solutions:Recognize that parks and reserves must extend their management beyond their boundaries Tucson buffers SNP with zoning for low density housing near the park boundarie
What are some parasitic species?
Some parasitic species: -Diptera (flies) -Hemiptera (true bugs)
What are some parasitoid species?
Some parasitoid species: -Hymenoptera (many wasp families) -Diptera (Tachinid family) -Strepsiptera (twisted wing flies) (don't worry about this one)
What insects are some predatory species?
Some predatory species: Coleoptera Diptera Hemiptera Hymenoptera
metapopulations revisted
Source patch (high quality) -sink patch (low quality) -habitat matrix -patch size and isolation At equilibrium: p=1-(e/c) p=fraction of occupied patches e=probability of patch extinction c=probability of patch colonization
Structure biodiversity
Spatial Arrangement -Alpha, (within community) beta (among communities), and gamma diversity (region) -Competition drives diversity Eveness -balance of species -Dominance Vs. Rarity
Chloroplasts:
Specialized cell organelles found in photosynthetic organisms. -Light reactions.
Reservoir species
Species that can carry a parasite but do not succumb to the disease that the parasite causes in other species.
Endemic
Species that live in a single, often isolated, location.
Cosmopolitan
Species with very large geographic ranges that can span several continents.
Sperm and AGP's (Accessory Gland Proteins) are transferred by?
Spermataphore
What should conservation attention focus on according to Muir?
Spiritual value, pristine, church, cathedral
Phasmatodea
Stick and leaf insects -stick like body wings:2 pairs (males), females wingless -Juveniles like adults but wingless
Describe one biochemcical adaption plants have evolved to reudce water loss
Stomata uptake CO2 but water get released. More water is released than uptake of CO2 so they have guard cells that close their stomata in dry conditions
Foraging strategy-active hunting
Strategy of many predators, some parasites and virtually all parasitoids
Interaction Matrix: Strong vs Weak Natural Selection
Strong types of interaction -Consumer-resource interactions, including predator-prey, herbivore-plant, and parasite-host interactions -competition -mutualism Weak types of interactions -Commensalism -Amensalism, perhaps incidental
Phenology:
Study of time of plant, anima, and microbe life cycle stages (leafing, flowering, emergence of insects, migration ○ Study of these recurring life cycle stages in response to weather and climate
What are co-adaptions to maintain insect pollination systems?
Synchrony in time and space -Plants provide attractive cues: flower color, fragrance, and shape -Plants provide direct rewards: pollen, nectar, and fun/deceit -Insect pollinators have morphological capacity to transport pollen and to get rewards -Some degree of pollinator constancy (flower fidelity): visit the plant regularly
What is an example of a foraging cue?
Talking trees. Pine trees emit terpens when attacked by bark beetles. Terpens attaract pteromalid parasitoid wasps that attack the beetles
Cost of meiosis
The 50 percent reduction in the number of a parent's genes passed on to the next generation via sexual reproduction versus asexual reproduction. -Occurs because gametes are haploid
Infection tolerance
The ability of a host to minimize the harm that an infection can cause.
Infection resistance
The ability of a host to prevent an infection from occurring.
Phenotypic plasticity
The ability of a single genotype to produce multiple phenotypes. -Phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to achieve homeostasis if environmental conditions vary and change rapidly
Cation exchange capacity
The ability of a soil to retain cations.
Dispersal limitation
The absence of a population from suitable habitat because of barriers to dispersal ( all species limited at some scale) -Most dispersed species do not establish viable populations.
Parental investment
The amount of time and energy given to an offspring by its parents.
Handling time
The amount of time that a predator takes to consume a captured prey. .
Benthic zone
The area consisting of the sediments at the bottoms of lakes, ponds, and oceans.
Profundal zone
The area in a lake that is too deep to receive sunlight.
Photic zone
The area of the neritic and oceanic zones that contains sufficient light for photosynthesis by algae.
Aphotic zone
The area of the neritic and oceanic zones where the water is so deep that sunlight cannot penetrate.
Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
The area where the two Hadley cells converge and cause large amounts of precipitation.
Polar cells
The atmospheric convection currents that move air between 60° and 90° latitudes in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Lifetime dispersal distance
The average distance an individual moves from where it was hatched or born to where it reproduces.
Atmospheric convection currents
The circulations of air between the surface of Earth and the atmosphere.
Tundra
The coldest biome, characterized by a treeless expanse above permanently frozen soil.
Gene pool
The collection of alleles from all individuals in a population.
Sexual dimorphism
The difference in the phenotype between males and females of the same species.
Catastropism
The discovery of fossils in the 19th century brought Georges Cuvier to propose that radical changes could lead to the extinction of past life form -terrible things happened that wiped animals off the plantet -extinctions could happen
Body size is the product of growth rate and the duration of the growth period. What regulates the duration of the growth period?
The duration of the growth period is determined by the timing to reach the critical weight and the duration of the interval to cessation of growth (ICG).
Explain the origin of the chloroplast in a cell using the correct terms .
The endosymbiosis theroy is the origin. The host of the engulfed prokaryote benefits because the engulfed prokaryote supplies nutrients.
Allopatric speciation
The evolution of new species through the process of geographic isolation. .
Speciation
The evolution of new species.
Microevolution
The evolution of populations.
Intrinsic growth rate (r)
The highest possible per capita growth rate for a population.
Why is enzymatic reaction rate important?
The hotter the temp, the faster the developmental time Example: maggots grow faster when hotter
Good genes hypothesis
The hypothesis that an individual chooses a mate that possesses a superior genotype.
Red Queen hypothesis
The hypothesis that sexual selection allows hosts to evolve at a rate that can counter the rapid evolution of parasites. -Hosts and predators/parasites are engaged in an evolutionary "arms race"-evolving defenses (host) and overcoming defenses (parasites/predators) just to maintain fitness
Solar equator
The latitude receiving the most direct rays of the Sun.
Parent material
The layer of bedrock that underlies soil and plays a major role in determining the type of soil that will form above it.
Soil
The layer of chemically and biologically altered material that overlies bedrock or other unaltered material at Earth's surface.
Longevity
The life span of an organism. Also known as Life expectancy.
Saturation point
The limit of the amount of water vapor the air can contain. -If water vapor content of air exceeds saturation point, excess condenses and changes into either liquid or ice.
Growing season
The months in a location that are warm enough to allow plant growth.
Mating system
The number of mates each individual has and the permanence of the relationship with those mates.
Fecundity
The number of offspring produced by an organism per reproductive episode.
Parasite load
The number of parasites of a given species that an individual host can harbor.
Parity
The number of reproductive episodes an organism experiences.
Species richness
The number of species in a community (area)
Principle of allocation
The observation that when resources are devoted to one body structure, physiological function, or behavior, they cannot be allotted to another.
Oceanic zone
The ocean zone beyond the neritic zone.
Neritic zone
The ocean zone beyond the range of the lowest tidal level, and which extends to depths of about 200 m.
Limnetic zone
The open water beyond the littoral zone, where the dominant photosynthetic organisms are floating algae. Also known as Pelagic zone.
Bioavailability
The percentage of insecticides that is available to the corresponding target sites inside the insect body
El nino
The periodic changes in winds and ocean currents in the South Pacific, causing weather changes throughout much of the world. -Weak trade winds mean no cold water upwelling -warm water=low fishing harvest (December)
Weathering
The physical and chemical alteration of rock material near Earth's surface. Age
Joint equilibrium point
The point at which the equilibrium isoclines for predator and prey populations cross. -If either of the populations stray from the equilibrium point, they will oscillate round the point
Equilibrium isocline
The population size of one species that causes the population of another species to be stable. Also known as Zero growth isocline. For prey, this occurs when P=r/c and for predators when m/ac=N As the number of predators or prey changes and moves away from the equilibrium isoclines, populations will increase or decrease
Gonads
The primary sexual organs in animals
The handicap principle
The principle that the greater the handicap an individual carries, the greater its ability must be to offset that handicap.
Competitive exclusion principle
The principle that two species cannot coexist indefinitely when they are both limited by the same resource. -Complete competitors cannot coexist. Two species cannot coexist indefinitely on the same resource. -When two species are limited by the same resource, one species is often a better competitor and survives better when resources are scare.
Habitat fragmentation
The process of breaking up large habitats into a number of smaller habitats.
Ecological niche modeling
The process of determining the suitable habitat conditions for a species.enables predictions of species current and future distribution from limited information
Random assortment
The process of making haploid gametes in which the combination of alleles that are placed into a given gamete could be any combination of those possessed by the diploid parent.
Ecological envelope
The range of ecological conditions that are predicted to be suitable for a species.
Fragmentation and Loss of Natural Environment
The reduction and isolation of patches of natural environments (e.g., forests or grassland
body size affects water regulation
The relationship between surface area and body volume changes with size ≈ 80% of water loss happens through the cuticle volume= water content, surface area= way to lose water smaller insects are more susceptible to desiccation than larger ones
Functional response
The relationship between the density of prey and an individual predator's rate of food consumption.
Recombination
The reshuffling of genes that can occur as DNA is copied during meiosis and chromosomes exchange genetic material.
What is photo-respiration and why is it a problem for plants?
The reverse process of photosynthesis is the light reaction in which rubsico binds to oxygen. Rubisco is an inefficient enzyme because it was developed when the world had higher CO2 levels and now we have more oxygen. Rubisco fixed only 2 molecules of G3p where other enzymes can fix molecules faster.
Littoral zone
The shallow area around the edge of a lake or pond containing rooted vegetation.
J-shaped curve
The shape of exponential growth when graphed. -The rate of a population's growth at any point in time is the derivative of this equation dN/dt=rN
Aestivation
The shutting down of metabolic processes during the summer in response to hot or dry conditions. Snails and tortoises
Joint population trajectory
The simultaneous trajectory of predator and prey populations.
joint population trajectory
The simultaneous trajectory of predator and prey populations.
Dispersion
The spacing of individuals with respect to one another within the geographic range of a population.
Medical Entomology
The study of insects (and arachnids), insect-borne diseases, and other associated problems that affect humans health and the health of livestock. This can include: -*Insects that transmit disease* -Insects that bite, sting, blister, or irritate -Allergies to insects -Entomophobia and delusional parasitosis
Epilimnion
The surface layer of the water in a lake or pond.
Doubling time
The time required for a population to double in size.
Degree days
The total heat input (temperature x time) necessary to produce full development is approximately constant whatever the temperature insects require a specific amount of "physiological time" to complete development
Synaptic transmission: breaking down and recycling of transmitters
The transmitter must be removed once the signal is delivered -Broken down by an enzyme. e.g. acetylcholinesterase (AchE) breaks down acetylcholine (Ach) to acetate and choline . -recycled--transported back into the presynaptic neuron -Combine enzyme degradation and recycling
Hadley Cells
The two circulation cells of air between the equator and 30° N and 30° S latitudes.
Climate
The typical atmospheric conditions that occur throughout the year, measured over many years.
Weather
The variation in temperature and precipitation over periods of hours or days.
Spring overturn
The vertical mixing of lake water that occurs in early spring, assisted by winds that drive the surface currents.
Fall overturn
The vertical mixing of lake water that occurs in fall, assisted by winds that drive the surface currents.
Communities and Boundaries
The zone in which each species grows reflects: -different tolerance ranges for various environmental conditions -ability co compete with other species Communities are categorized by their dominant organism or by physical conditions that affect the distribution of species
What is the specific term for global ocean currents mediated global temperatures?
Thermoline circulation
How do CAM plants minimize water loss? Question options: They exchange gas primarily at night. They use the enzyme Rusbisco. They have large stomata. They use low concentrations of ATP.
They exchange gas primarily at night.
Why might exaggerated secondary sexual characteristics in males demonstrate a superior genotype to females? Question options: a. They signify an increased rate of survival. b. They provide material benefit for the male and female. c. They often reduce fitness, which signifies a better genotype for survival. d. They demonstrate runaway sexual selection.
They often reduce fitness, which signifies a better genotype for survival.
What is the hormone involved in Post-ecdysis phase?
This phase is tanning, hardening, and darkening of new cuticle, initiated by bursicon
How do ticks pierce the blood?
Tick (Arachnid, Order Acari) - chelicerae to pierce skin, and barbed hypostome to suck blood and anchor tick into host.
Hyperventiliation
Time 'All closed" is reduced-continuous
Phenological mismatches
Timing of the availability of an important resource changes in response to climate but the timing of the demand of the resource does not change. Examples: -environmental cues for egg laying do not change-but cues for insect emergence do-resulting in chicks fledgling when food supply is low -Differential climate change between summer and winter ranges leads to problems in the transition for migratory birds
Predator-prey cycles happen how?
To avoid prey population extinction: -some prey must be able to disperse/escape/hide -reproductive capacity of predator must lag prey To avoid predator population extinction: -Disperse (lowers intraspecific competion) -Switch food source when primary prey not available
Insect respiration
Trachael system is comprised of spiracles, trachea, tracheoles and air sacs Longitudinal trunks: lateral dorsal, ventral Cross wise tracheae: dorsal, ventral, visceral
Secondary sexual characteristics
Traits related to differences between the sexes in terms of body size, ornaments, color, and courtship.
Primary sexual characteristics
Traits related to fertilization.
What is a strategy of K-selected species to mazimize fitness?
Traits that are selected that increase competitive ability
Foraging strategy-trap
Trap -structure to aid in attracting and/or subduing prey. Big energy cost to construction of trap. Examples - antlion larvae, web-spinning spiders
Cupressaceae
Trees or shrubs -needle like or scaly leaves spiraled, in pairs or whorled -Microsprangiate cones small, generally with few sporphylls Megasporangiate cones usually with few scales; cones woody or fleshy
Direct versus Indirect Insect Pests
Type of damage (direct or indirect) depends on the crop, not just the insect feeding behavior. E.g. cabbage looper leaf-feeding is indirect damage on broccoli, but direct damage on cabbage. Economic significance of damage - usually crops can experience more indirect damage than direct damage without a drop in value, but what matters most is the severity of the damage.
Why are the Earth's major deserts location 30 n/s of the equator?
Upward movement of air. Once cool dry air is displaced horizontally toward the poles, it beings to sink back toward earth at 30n/s. -as air compresses, it adiabatic heats and decreases humidity. By the time the air falls back to earth's surface, it is hot and dry.
Where is the nitrogenous waste uric acid synthesized? How does it end up in the feces of insects?
Uric acid is synthesized in fat body, released into hemolymph (equivalent to blood), absorbed with other toxins into the lumen of malpighian tubules, discharged into the lumen of the hindgut, and finally excreted with food residues via insect anus in the form of feces.
Sources of variation
VP=VG+VE+VGXE+Ve VP- phenotypic variation VG - genetic component of variation VE - environmental component of variation VGxE - genotype by environment interaction e - (individual) error term
Competition coefficients
Variables that convert between the number of individuals of one species and the number of individuals of the other species.
Environmental stochasticity
Variation in birth rates and death rates due to random changes in the environmental conditions.
Demographic stochasticity
Variation in birth rates and death rates due to random differences among individuals.
What is population research approach?
Variation in number of density, demographic composition of individuals.
Sclerophyllous
Vegetation that has small, durable leaves.
How does thermoline circulation work?
Warm water from the gulf of mexico flows up the the North Atlantic where the water evaporates and freezes. The water underneath the from frozen part becomes denser and has more salt. This water travels back up and is cylced once again.
How do parasitoids forage?
Wasps - the mother wasp places eggs in or on host. Flies - mother places eggs near host, larvae find and enter host.
Apyrene sperm function
We actually don't know
The land Ethic
We should extend the ethics of right and wrong behavior to the land -land, soil, water, plants, animals, community. We should view as one community that humans are apart of -extend the normal human ethics to how we treat the land -privileges--->obligations rights---> responsibilities, treating others in the community with respect
Water use
We use 50% of fresh water supply
What are the brackish biomes?
Wetlands and estuaries. Mix of salt and fresh
Subpopulations
When a larger population is broken up into smaller groups that live in isolated patches. -When individuals frequently disperse among subpopulations, the whole population functions as a single structure; all subpopulations increase and decrease in abundance synchronously. -When dispersal is infrequent, each subpopulation fluctuates independently.
Vertical transmission
When a parasite is transmitted from a parent to its offspring.
Horizontal transmission .
When a parasite moves between individuals other than parents and their offspring.
Overshoot
When a population grows beyond its carrying capacity.
Knowing λ or r informs population trajectory
When a population is decreasing,λ<1 and r<0. When a population is constant, λ=1 and r=0. When a population is increasing, λ>1 and r>0
Pleiotropy
When a single gene affects multiple traits.
Polygenic
When a single trait is affected by several genes.
Founder effect
When a small number of individuals leave a large population to colonize a new area and bring with them only a small amount of genetic variation.
How does action potential lead to release of neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft? How do neurotransmitters reach the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron?
When action potential arrives at the terminal end of the axon of the presynaptic neuron, it opens up the voltage-gated Ca2+ channel, and Ca2+ ions rushes into the axon. Local elevation of Ca2+ ions drives neurotransmitter-containing synaptic vesicles to move toward the synapse membrane, fuse with the membrane, and release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The released neurotransmitters then cross the cleft and reach the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron by simple diffusion.
Heterozygous
When an individual has two different alleles of a particular gene.
Homozygous
When an individual has two identical alleles of a particular gene.
Extra-pair copulations
When an individual that has a social bond with a mate also breeds with other individuals
Hyperosmotic
When an organism has a higher solute concentration in its tissues than the surrounding water.
Hyposmotic
When an organism has a lower solute concentration in its tissues than the surrounding water.
Local mate competition
When competition for mates occurs in a very limited area and only a few males are required to fertilize all of the females.
Delayed density dependence
When density dependence occurs based on a population density at some time in the past. logistic growth model: dN/dt=rN (1-N/K) add a time delay (t) to logistic growth model dN/dt=rN(1-Nt-gt/K) cycling depends on r at greek t when rgreekt<037, the population approaches carrying capacity without oscillations , the population exhibits damped osculations
Rescue effect
When dispersers supplement a declining subpopulation and thereby prevent the subpopulation from going extinct.
Ideal free distribution
When individuals distribute themselves among different habitats in a way that allows them to have the same per capita benefit.
Directional selection
When individuals with an extreme phenotype experience higher fitness than the average phenotype of the population.
Disruptive selection
When individuals with either extreme phenotype experience higher fitness than individuals with an intermediate phenotype.
Stabilizing selection
When individuals with intermediate phenotypes have higher survival and reproductive success than those with extreme phenotypes.
Epistasis
When the expression of one gene is controlled by another gene.
Frequency-dependent selection
When the rarer phenotype in a population is favored by natural selection.
Negative density dependence
When the rate of population growth decreases as population density increases.
Positive density dependence
When the rate of population growth increases as population density increases. Also known as inverse density dependence or the Allee effect.
Codominant
When two alleles both contribute to the phenotype. .
Latent heat release
When water vapor is converted back to liquid, water releases energy in the form of heat.
Active hunting-foraging cues for prey/host location
While active hunting may include random searching, most predators probably use specific cues to direct searching. -Cues for finding patches of prey (long-range) and prey within patches (short-range). -Long-range cues can focus on finding the host plant (for phytophagous prey), using the same cues used by the prey. -Types of cues: can include visual and auditory cues, but chemical cues are most widely used.
What fungal disease affects bats during topor?
White nose syndrome. ® Bats starve to death, cannot remain in torpor ® Potential biocontrol: Rhodococcus rhodochrous ◊ Bacterium with antifungal properties ◊ Limited success
Why have one muscle type over the other?
Wing loading = body mass / wing area within similar sizes, wingbeat frequency increases with wing loading over all sizes, smaller insects have higher wingbeat frequencies (due to resonant frequency,Reynolds #)
Can herbivores be predators?
YES
Does the trachae molt?
Yes -except tracheoles . They keep at the molt Penetrate tissue but rarely cells New trachae has to reconnect to tracheals
What are examples of a resource?
Yucca flowers for yucca moths, silica for diatioms, domatia for plants
Epitracheal gland or EG
a 3 or 4 Inka cell gland complex found near each of the larval and pupal spiracles present in lepidoptera, diptera, and some coleoptera
A decrease in the prey population causes?
a decrease in the predator population
Geographic Range:
a measure of the total area covered by a population (temperature and drought define the range of sugar maple). -Small-scale variation in the environment creates geographic ranges that are composed of small patches of suitable habitat
Lincoln-Peterson method
a method to estimate population abundance with survey data through mark-recapture -Ex: Collected fish and measure, release in population, go back in recapture, know the number captured -N=abundance of the study population (unknown) M=no. individuals marked and released on occasion 1 C=Total no. individuals in the sample on occasion 2 (both marked and unmarked) R=No. Marked individuals in the sample on occasion 2 R/C Is an estimate of the proportion of the population that is marked 1-R/C is the unmarked portion we never observed
forb
a non-grasslike herbaceous plant
log-normal distribtion
a normal, or bell-shaped, distribution that uses a logarithmic scale on the x-axis
stable limit cylce
a pattern of growth in which the population continues to exhibit large oscillations over time -when rgreekt>1.57
perennial
a plant that lives three or more years
annual
a plant which germinates from seed, flowers, sets seed, and dies in the same year
epiphyte
a plant which groups upon another plant but does not draw food or water from it
phreatophyte
a plant with its root system typically in soil saturated with water
Landscape metapopulaiton model
a population model that considers: -differences in the quality of the suitable patches and quality of the surrounding matrix (habitat corridors) -represents the most realistic and most complex spatial structure of populations
In delayed density dependence, A) when rt>1.57, a population will reach carrying capacity B)a population's probability of over and undershooting k increases with increasing time delay c) a population can never reach carrying capacity D) damped oscillations occur when a population continues to exhibit large oscillations over time
a population's probability of over and undershooting k increases with increasing time delay
mutulaism
a positive interaction between two species in which one species receives benefits that only the other species can provide
Q10 value:
a ration of physiological process rate at one temperature to the rate of that process when the temperature is 10 C cooler ○ Compare temperatures
Amensalism
a relationship between organisms of two different species in which one is unaffected and the other is negatively impacted by the association
A rise in prey population is followed by?
a rise in predation
pre-eclosion behaviors
a series of abdominal rotations
Keystone species
a species that substantially affects the structure of communities, although it may not be particularly numerous -removal of a keystone species can cause a community to collapse
Cladophyll
a stem with the form and function of a leaf
lichen
a structure formed when fungi and certain other photosynthetic organisms grow together
Why might an herbivore that consumes many different species of plant be less successful at regulating the abundance of a well-defended plant species than an herbivore that specializes in eating a single species of plant? Question options: a. A flexible herbivore will avoid the well-defended species in preference for easier food. b. A flexible herbivore will consume much less of any particular species. c. A specialized herbivore will take time to evolve a response. d. A specialized herbivore will not have any alternative to eating the plant.
a. A flexible herbivore will avoid the well-defended species in preference for easier food.
What is the relationship between abundance of a species and the geographic range of the species? Question options: a. Geographic range increases as abundance increases. b. Geographic range is fairly constant across various abundances. c. Geographic range decreases as abundance increases. d. The relationship is different for animals and plants.
a. Geographic range increases as abundance increases.
How does the fragmentation of a landscape have a positive effect on biodiversity? Question options: a. It increases the amount of edge habitat. b. It increases the number of habitat patches. c. It increases the total size of available habitat. d. It increases the amount of matrix habitat.
a. It increases the amount of edge habitat.
What did Robert Whittaker's data on plant species composition along gradients of temperature and moisture in mountains show? a. It provided evidence that challenged the concept of interdependent communities. b. It provided evidence that challenged the concept of independent communities. c. It showed that ecotones affect diversity. d. It showed the relationship between resource abundance and diversity.
a. It provided evidence that challenged the concept of interdependent communities.
How might nitrogen-fixing bacteria living in symbiosis with a plant affect the types of environments in which the plant could live? Question options: a. It would allow the plant to live in areas without much nitrogen. b. It would allow the plant to live in areas with significant shade. c. It would allow the plant to live in areas with excessive nitrogen. d. It would allow the plant to live in areas with limited trace nutrients.
a. It would allow the plant to live in areas without much nitrogen.
Explain why researchers commonly find a relationship between adult body size and population density. Question options: a. Larger animals require more land to support their metabolism. b. Larger animals are able to disperse much more quickly. c. Larger animals are at the top of the food chain. d. Smaller animals compete more for resources.
a. Larger animals require more land to support their metabolism.
What is the assumption used when arranging species on a phylogenetic tree? Question options: a. Organisms with the most traits in common are the most closely related. b. No assumptions are made about species relatedness. c. Species were able to evolve independently on different continents. d. Polyploid species were directly related to similar species.
a. Organisms with the most traits in common are the most closely related.
How might natural selection favor the evolution of flower sizes, shapes, and colors that attract a specific group of pollinators? a. Plants with favored characteristics are most likely to be pollinated consistently. b. Plants adapt characteristics to different methods of pollination. c. Plants increase fitness by developing characteristics that allow them to form a mutualism with a particular pollinator. d. Flowers are more likely to attract pollinators when different abiotic conditions favor a gene linked to a characteristic related to size, shape or color.
a. Plants with favored characteristics are most likely to be pollinated consistently.
Which continent does NOT include a boreal forest biome? Question options: a. South America b. North America c. Europe d. Asia
a. South America
If species A provides a habitat to species B as part of a mutualistic relationship, what is the probable effect on the abundance and distribution of species B? a. Species B will not be able to survive outside the range of the species A. b. Species B will be much less abundant outside the range of species A. c. Species A and species B will both be limited by the range of their partner. d. Species A will have little effect on the range of species B. Answer: a
a. Species B will not be able to survive outside the range of the species A.
How would a trade-off between dispersal ability and competitive ability affect where a species can effectively colonize? Question options: a. Species with high dispersal ability and low competitive ability are better able to colonize large gaps in a community. b. Species with high dispersal ability and low competitive ability are better able to colonize small gaps in a community. c. Species with high dispersal ability and low competitive ability are better able to survive in crowded communities. d. Species with high dispersal ability and low competitive ability are better able to survive in resource- limited communities.
a. Species with high dispersal ability and low competitive ability are better able to colonize large gaps in a community.
In a life table, what is the fundamental difference between survival rate (sx) and survivorship (lx)? Question options: a. Survivorship is the total percentage that has survived up to that age. b. Survival rate is the percentage that is expected to die in the age category. c. Survivorship is the observed survival, whereas the survival rate is the expected survival. d. Survivorship is the percentage of individuals that died in the previous age category.
a. Survivorship is the total percentage that has survived up to that age.
When using a t-test, what is an important assumption regarding the distribution of the data? Question options: a. The data has a normal distribution. b. The means of the data are different. c. The standard error of all data is the same. d. The alpha is less than 0.05.
a. The data has a normal distribution.
How do changes in stoichiometry affect assimilation efficiencies? Question options: a. The efficiency of a consumer with a different nutrient ratio than its food is reduced. b. Species with higher ratios of N to P are more efficient assimilators. c. Species with lower ratios of N to P than the species they consume have higher efficiencies. d. Assimilation efficiencies are highest in transfers between species with 1:1 nutrient ratios.
a. The efficiency of a consumer with a different nutrient ratio than its food is reduced.
10. Why do some species of plants flower earlier in warmer spring temperatures when other spring plants do not? Question options: a. The plants that flower earlier are more sensitive to temperature. b. The plants that flower earlier are resistant to temperature changes. c. The late-flowering plants have adapted for when pollinators are more common. d. All flowering plants use photoperiod to determine when to flower.
a. The plants that flower earlier are more sensitive to temperature.
How has continental drift affected global patterns of biodiversity? Question options: a. The separation of continents has increased diversity. b. The breakup of Pangaea resulted in reduced diversity. c. The connection of North and South America decreased diversity in both continents. d. The distribution of species is a result of when each continent separated from Pangaea.
a. The separation of continents has increased diversity.
Why are solar energy, precipitation on land, and ocean water temperatures important in determining global patterns in biodiversity? Question options: a. They control the energy available to support species. b. They control the amount of disturbance a habitat can tolerate. c. They control the heterogeneity of habitats. d. They control the difficulty of dispersal for organisms.
a. They control the energy available to support species.
How can energy reserves make a population experience delayed density dependence? Question options: a. They enable the population to survive above carrying capacity. b. They protect organisms from devastating events like hurricanes or floods. c. They increase the time it takes for a population to reach carrying capacity. d. They reduce the effects of predation.
a. They enable the population to survive above carrying capacity.
Why are corridors and habitat stepping stones important to the conservation of biodiversity? Question options: a. They reduce the negative effects of habitat fragmentation. b. They decrease the effects of predators and pathogens. c. They allow the formation of metapopulations. d. They increase the number of species that can live in the matrix habitat.
a. They reduce the negative effects of habitat fragmentation.
Which does local mate competition favor? Question options: a. a female-biased offspring ratio b. an equal ratio of male and female offspring c. a male-biased offspring ratio d. a hermaphroditic species
a. a female-biased offspring ratio
An organism that can survive well in cold temperatures but not in hot temperatures is an example of a. a phenotypic tradeoff. b. a temporal adaptation. c. acclimation. d. phenotypic plasticity.
a. a phenotypic tradeoff
Which is an example of a mutualistic relationship in which one species provides defenses against herbivory for the other? a. ants and acacia trees b. yucca and yucca moths c. painted trillium and ants d. tortoises and ebony trees
a. ants and acacia trees
What is NOT accounted for in a model that considers age structure? Question options: a. differences in survival between different years b. survival rates at different ages c. reproductive rates at different ages d. differences in survival rates between cohorts
a. differences in survival between different years
What causes eutrophication? Question options: a. excess phosphorus and nitrogen b. the denitrification of streams c. anaerobic decomposition d. low rates of decomposition
a. excess phosphorus and nitrogen
Why are transient climaxes not stable? Question options: a. frequent disturbances b. cycling of climax species c. interaction among herbivores d. a lack of a keystone species
a. frequent disturbances
. When the fitness increment of increased male function results in a larger cost in fitness through female function Question options: a. hermaphrodites will have a fitness advantage. b. males will have a fitness advantage. c. females will have a fitness advantage. d. hermaphrodites will be selected against.
a. hermaphrodites will have a fitness advantage.
When a community experiences succession, which is a common pattern of change in species richness? Question options: a. increase, plateau, decline b. increase, decline, increase c. plateau, increase, decline d. increase, decrease, plateau
a. increase, plateau, decline
In the classic experiments of C. F. Huffaker using mites and oranges, what mechanisms allowed the predator and prey populations to persist? Question options: a. increased dispersal of prey b. refuge habitats for prey c. a varied environment for the predators and prey d. a secondary prey population
a. increased dispersal of prey
Which behavior is optimal for an organism using central place forging? a. increased time spent searching for food at longer distances b. decreased time feeding when the number of competitors increases c. increased feeding as the number of predators decreases d. feeding from a central supply of food or water
a. increased time spent searching for food at longer distances
Why do organisms face a trade-off between growth and fecundity? Question options: a. limited energy and resources b. limits to the number of offspring a small organism can produce c. limited ability to grow d. inability to grow after reproduction
a. limited energy and resources
Which is an example of demographic stochasticity? Question options: a. low fertility b. unusual weather c. increased food availability d. a forest fire
a. low fertility
Which process is used to measure primary productivity in aquatic ecosystems? Question options: a. measuring O2 uptake and release b. measuring CO2 uptake and release c. measuring changes in biomass d. measuring solar energy absorption
a. measuring O2 uptake and release
The primary difference between artificial selection and natural selection is Question options: a. natural selection only selects for traits that increase fitness. b. natural selection occurs without the influence of other organisms. c. artificial selection occurs over a longer time. d. artificial selection does not operate on heritable traits.
a. natural selection only selects for traits that increase fitness.
Apparent competition Question options: a. occurs when two species have a negative effect on each other through an enemy. b. occurs when two species compete without the same limiting resource. c. is the result of disturbances or abiotic conditions that favor one species. d. occurs between two species with multiple limiting resources.
a. occurs when two species have a negative effect on each other through an enemy.
The rescue effect Question options: a. refers to the dispersal between source and sink populations. b. occurs when a patch is repopulated after extinction. c. occurs when two subpopulations join to form a more resilient metapopulation. d. refers to stochastic events that help prevent extinction.
a. refers to the dispersal between source and sink populations.
Which would you expect from an organism with low annual survival? Question options: a. reproduction beginning at an early age b. relatively low fecundity c. high life expectancy d. large offspring
a. reproduction beginning at an early age
In models of delayed density dependence, what determines the magnitude of population oscillations? Question options: a. rτ b. rN c. τ d. τK
a. rτ
An organism that can live for many years but only reproduces once is known as Question options: a. semelparous. b. iteroparous. c. annual. d. perennial.
a. semelparous.
Which is a nonrenewable resource? Question options: a. space b. water c. nitrate d. seeds
a. space
Which is NOT a factor that limits the net primary productivity of aquatic ecosystems? Question options: a. temperature b. phosphorus c. iron d. light
a. temperature
What mechanisms could cause evenly spaced distributions of individuals within populations? Question options: a. territorial animals b. vegetative reproduction c. the formation of flocks or herds d. variable levels of predation
a. territorial animals
The movement of water from the oceans to continents is driven by Question options: a. the Sun's energy. b. differences in water concentrations. c. gravity. d. pressure differences in aquifers.
a. the Sun's energy.
According to the basic S-I-R model Question options: a. the number of infected individuals decreases over time. b. the number of susceptible individuals increases over time. c. the rate of transmission increases over time. d. the rate of recovery decreases over time.
a. the number of infected individuals decreases over time.
If two plant species have similar dispersal and competitive abilities, what factor might help determine which species occupies an early seral stage? Question options: a. the priority effect b. tolerance c. facilitation d. seed size
a. the priority effect
The greenhouse effect is primarily due to a. the re-emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere. b. the reflection of visible light off the atmosphere. c. the absorption of short wavelength radiation by the atmosphere. d. the absorption of long wavelength radiation by Earth.
a. the re-emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere
Why would a plant not make its fruit very colorful until the seeds are fully developed? a. to prevent consumption of the undeveloped seeds b. to signal that the unripe fruit is toxic c. to make the fruit harder to find d. to save energy until the seeds are fully developed
a. to prevent consumption of the undeveloped seeds
If roots increase a plants ability to obtain water, under what circumstance shouldn't a plant grow more roots? a. when water is abundant b. when nutrients are limiting growth c. in drought conditions d. when temperatures are high
a. when water is abundant
Resilience
ability for ecological system to return to a reference state after a disturbance
Insect pollinators as Agricultural partners
about 130 crops in the US require insect pollination at least for seed production -main pollinator is the western honeybee
Abundance (N):
absolute number of individuals (ex 500 deer)
What is the difference between acclimation and adaptation?
acclimation is individuals adjusting to the environment where adaptation is an evolutionary process by which population becomes better suited
How is receptor potential transmitted to the terminal arborization of the axon in CNS?
action potential
Natural selection
acts on phenotypes of individuals, results in changes in allele frequencies in populations
facultative
adaptations in one population promote evolution of adaptations in another population, applies to all interaction populations (most pollinatr, seed dispersers, predators)
What are advantages of holometaboly?
advantage: -immature and adults don't compete for resources, specialized for different function and reproduction
Sermatheca and accessory glands
after mating, sperm must move to sermatheca -muscular contractions by female oviduct, sperm power -often has a spermathecal gland attatched
JH receptor
agonist. prevent metamorphosis and adulthood. inhibit reproduction
Brain hormone
all hormones produced by brain
Peripheral Never System (PNS)
all sensory neurons; not bundled in ganglia; located in integument -in epidermis -associated with sensory organs -outside ganglion
Benefits of segments
allows flexibility and versatility in any system, including a living one
maximum sustainable yield
also called inflection point, peak growth rate that can be supported
interspecifc
among species
weed
an aggressive plant which colonizes disturbed habitats and cultivated lands
stolon
an elongate, horizontal stem creeping along the ground and rooting at the nodes or at the tip and giving rise to a new plant
anthrome
antrhopogenic biome that encompasses greater variation in land cover due to human causes
estimate
any quanitity that is computed or estimated from sample observations, sometimes called statistics
resource
any substance or factor that is consumed or used by an organism and that supports increased population growth and its availability increases
ovuliferous scale
appendage of the megastrobilus to which the ovule are attatched
Chytridiomycosis
aquatic fungus responsible for global amphibian population decline and numerous extinctions
Neuron Ion channels
are pore-forming transmembrane proteins. Channels are closed at the resting state
Herbivory is considered an __ race
arms race -insects attack and consume plants, plants defend against being eaten
What are insects?
arthropods
tagmata
arthropods have grouped segments called tagmata. Segments and their limbs are specialized ( head, thorax, abdomen of insects)
axillary sclerites (and others)
articulate wings and thorax - very important in determining wing movements
Avoidance-Escape in time
asynchronous development of prey insect and potential predators. Ex: 17 year cicada
Charles Darwin's "on the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life" A) describes natural selection as a mechanism that plans, predicts, and perfects. B) uses the scientific method to provide evidence for this hypotheses C) do not apply to mechanism of artificial selection D) Does not apply to prokaryotes because they were unknown
b) uses the scientific method to provide evidence for his hypotheses.
If a life table projects a population size of 100 females and the sex ratio of the population is 1:1, how large is the entire population? Question options: a. 100 b. 200 c. 150 d. 300
b. 200
Plant A has seeds that are carried by the wind and plant B has seeds that are distributed by gravity. How would lifetime dispersal distance and neighborhood size differ for plants A and B? Question options: a. A would have a greater lifetime dispersal distance and smaller neighborhood size. b. A would have a greater lifetime dispersal distance and larger neighborhood size. c. B would have a greater lifetime dispersal distance and smaller neighborhood size. d. B would have a greater lifetime dispersal distance and larger neighborhood size.
b. A would have a greater lifetime dispersal distance and larger neighborhood size.
What is an important distinction between weather and climate? a. Weather occurs at a larger physical scale. b. Climate occurs over a longer temporal scale. c. Climate varies much more than weather. d. Weather is largely predicable.
b. Climate occurs over a longer temporal scale.
What is the difference in approach between the geometric growth equation and the exponential growth equation? Question options: a. Geometric growth models much slower growth rates. b. Geometric growth models species that reproduce at discrete times. c. Exponential growth is used for species that have a constant growth rate. d. Exponential growth is used only for relatively small populations.
b. Geometric growth models species that reproduce at discrete times.
What are the assumptions when using a chronosequence to document the pathway of succession? I. Various sites have similar abiotic conditions. II. The sites did not experience any disturbances. III. The sites pass through the same stages of growth. Question options: a. I and II only b. I and III only c. II and III only d. I, II, and III only
b. I and III only
Why might an increased number of offspring with high parental care be selected against? Question options: a. High parental care might not increase the fitness of the offspring. b. Increased parental care can decrease the subsequent fitness of the parent. c. Additional offspring do not increase fitness as long as one survives. d. Some species cannot physically have more than a few offspring.
b. Increased parental care can decrease the subsequent fitness of the parent.
Why is allelopathy considered a form of interference competition? Question options: a. It prevents competitive species from gathering resources in an area. b. It allows a species to prevent its competitors from competing effectively. c. It gives one species an advantage over another by enabling it to substitute resources. d. It attracts predators or herbivores to prey on the competing species.
b. It allows a species to prevent its competitors from competing effectively.
Why is methane gas commonly produced in swamps? Question options: a. It is a byproduct of nitrification occurring in swamps. b. It is created through the anaerobic decomposition that occurs in swamps. c. The lack of light in swamp water leads to its production. d. Warm temperatures in swamps create the conditions for production.
b. It is created through the anaerobic decomposition that occurs in swamps.
The American bullfrog is native to eastern North America, but it has been moved by humans and thrives in western North America. What does this suggest about the cause of the bullfrog's historical range limit? Question options: a. It was limited to its fundamental niche. b. It was caused by an environmental barrier. c. It was limited by the presence of humans. d. It changed with the evolution of the bullfrog.
b. It was caused by an environmental barrier.
What is the difference between obligate and facilitative mutualists? a. Obligate mutualists interact with a few closely related species; facilitative mutualists interact with many species. b. Obligate mutualists require a mutualistic relationship to survive; facilitative mutualists do not require a mutualistic relationship to survive. c. Facilitative mutualists require a mutualistic relationship to survive; obligate mutualists do not require a mutualistic relationship to survive. d. Facilitative mutualists interact with a few closely related species; obligate mutualists interact with many species.
b. Obligate mutualists require a mutualistic relationship to survive; facilitative mutualists do not require a mutualistic relationship to survive.
How does coevolution affect the relationship between hosts and parasites? Question options: a. Parasites evolve to form symbiotic relationships. b. Parasites become less deadly over time. c. Parasites become more able to transmit to other species. d. Parasites prevent other species from competing in the same niche.
b. Parasites become less deadly over time.
1. What is the difference between population distribution and population dispersion? Question options: a. Population dispersion is how a population increases or decreases its range. b. Population dispersion is the spacing of individuals with respect to one another within a population. c. Population distribution does not consider the density of a population within its range. d. Population distribution refers to the area an entire species occupies, while dispersion is only one subpopulation.
b. Population dispersion is the spacing of individuals with respect to one another within a population.
Why might assimilation efficiencies be much higher for herbivores eating seeds than for herbivores eating leaves? Question options: a. Seeds take less time to find. b. Seeds are easier to digest. c. Seeds are from a higher trophic level. d. Seeds are from a lower trophic level.
b. Seeds are easier to digest.
Why does an increase in total resources or number of added resources commonly lead to declines in species diversity? a. The diversity in most communities is negatively correlated with resources. b. Species diversity is usually highest at intermediate values of resources. c. Increases in the number of resources increase competition. d. Increased plant density reduces the number of species that the community can support.
b. Species diversity is usually highest at intermediate values of resources.
What is the difference in the classic and modern explanations for the succession of ponds and lakes? Question options: a. Succession in the modern model occurs over a much longer period of time. b. Succession in the modern model is attributed to periods of extended drought. c. Succession in the classic model occurs cyclically with periods of inactivity. d. Succession in the classic model is primarily due to terrestrial inputs.
b. Succession in the modern model is attributed to periods of extended drought.
Why should we not expect a single climax community within a biome? Question options: a. Disturbances prevent the formation of a single climax community. b. The composition of the climax community can vary with small environmental changes. c. There are multiple paths to different climax communities depending on the pioneer species. d. Animals are not affected by the process of succession and differ across a climax community.
b. The composition of the climax community can vary with small environmental changes.
How might a type II functional response prevent a predator from controlling a large prey population? Question options: a. The predators will be unable to grow at the same rate as the prey. b. The handling time will decrease the number of prey the predator can catch. c. The consumption of prey will remain constant as the number of predators increases. d. Prey will be able to avoid the predators due to evolved defenses.
b. The handling time will decrease the number of prey the predator can catch.
Which is true of a stable age distribution? Question options: a. The population will remain constant. b. The population will maintain the same age distribution. c. The population is at carrying capacity. d. The population will not decrease.
b. The population will maintain the same age distribution.
What is the function of protozoan mutualists in the digestive systems of termites? a. They break down toxic compounds plants use as a defense. b. They consume lignin and cellulose. c. They provide proteins for constructing nests. d. They convert nitrogen into ammonia.
b. They consume lignin and cellulose.
Why are corridors and habitat stepping stones important to the conservation of biodiversity? Question options: a. They reduce the negative effects of habitat fragmentation. b. They decrease the effects of predators and pathogens. c. They allow the formation of metapopulations. d. They increase the number of species that can live in the matrix habitat.
b. They decrease the effects of predators and pathogens.
If two species require the same limiting resource, what would you predict about their ability to coexist? Question options: a. They will be unable to coexist only if the resource is nonrenewable. b. They will be unable to coexist whether the resource is renewable or nonrenewable. c. They will be able to coexist as long as no other species are using the resource. d. They will be able to coexist as long as both species stay under their carrying capacities.
b. They will be unable to coexist whether the resource is renewable or nonrenewable.
Which conditions would you expect to support the most species? Question options: a. a large island far from the mainland b. a large island close to the mainland c. a small island far from the mainland d. a small island close to the mainland
b. a large island close to the mainland
The difference between log-normal abundance distributions and rank-abundance curves is a. a log-normal distribution shows species richness; a rank-abundance curve shows species evenness. b. a rank-abundance curve orders species by abundance; a log-normal distribution groups similarly abundant species together. c. a log-normal distribution shows species evenness; a rank-abundance curve shows species richness. d. a rank-abundance curve groups similarly abundant species together; a log-normal distribution orders species by abundance.
b. a rank-abundance curve orders species by abundance; a log-normal distribution groups similarly abundant species together.
. What practice increased the spread of mad cow disease? Question options: a. insufficient disposal of cow manure b. adding dead cows to cow feed c. blood transfusions used to treat other cow illnesses d. an increase in the density of cow herds
b. adding dead cows to cow feed
Which is NOT a benefit that a mutualism provides to ecosystems? a. an increase in the diversity of species b. an increase in resources available c. an increase in total productivity d. a greater distribution of species
b. an increase in resources available
A negative correlation between two variables means that a. a decrease in one variable leads to a decrease in the other. b. as one variable increases, the other decreases. c. the two variables are not related. d. as one variable increases, the other variable remains the same.
b. as one variable increases, the other decreases.
Why do aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems differ in their pyramids of biomass? Question options: a. because of the greater diversity of producers in terrestrial biomes b. because of the higher rates of consumption in aquatic biomes c. because of the lower conversion efficiencies in terrestrial biomes d. because of the low variability of most aquatic environments
b. because of the higher rates of consumption in aquatic biomes
Where is the intertropical convergence zone located? a. along the equator all year round b. between 30 N and 30 S depending on the season c. north of the solar equator in the Northern Hemisphere summer d. between 15 S and the equator depending on the season
b. between 30 N and 30 S depending on the season
Vertical transmission of parasites is a transmission Question options: a. between 2 different species of hosts. b. between a parent and its offspring. c from a species that is not affected by the parasite. d. that requires a vector species.
b. between a parent and its offspring.
Which is NOT evidence that humans have historically contributed to extinctions through overharvesting? Question options: a. bones of consumed animals changing over time from easy- to hard-to-catch species b. changes in species composition of forests after logging c. the extinction of flightless bird species after encountering humans d. the collapse of many ocean fisheries after extended fishing
b. changes in species composition of forests after logging
Given that the bottom of the ocean is anaerobic, what process in the nitrogen cycle is likely to be occurring in this location? Question options: a. nitrification b. denitrification c. mineralization d. assimilation
b. denitrification
Which is NOT one of the primary sources of genetic variation? Question options: a. sexual reproduction b. genetic drift c. mutation d. recombination
b. genetic drift
What process causes El Nino Southern Oscillation events? Correct Answer a. weak prevailing winds in the Southern Hemisphere b. higher temperatures in the Pacific near Australia c. drought conditions in South America d. increased movement of cold polar water from Antarctica
b. higher temperatures in the Pacific near Australia
Why is knowing current land cover, rather than theoretical biome distribution, important? (lecture 7/8) Question options: a. it isn't b. if estimates of biome fluxes are incorrect, earth system model predictions will be incorrect c. so that visiting aliens from other galaxies will not be confused
b. if estimates of biome fluxes are incorrect, earth system model predictions will be incorrect
Trait-mediated indirect effects a. often depend on the density of an intermediate species. b. include effects caused by changes in the distribution or behavior of an intermediate species. c. are most common in aquatic communities. d. include competition between two species.
b. include effects caused by changes in the distribution or behavior of an intermediate species.
According to the Lotka-Volterra model of predator-prey interactions, what follows a period of low prey population and low predator population? Question options: a. increased predators and decreased prey b. increased predators and increased prey c. decreased predators and decreased prey d. decreased predators and increased prey
b. increased predators and increased prey
How might climate change cause the release of CO2 from boreal forest soils? Question options: a. increased precipitation causing increased decomposition b. increased temperature causing increased decomposition c. decreased precipitation causing decreased decomposition d. increased temperatures causing decreased weathering
b. increased temperature causing increased decomposition
. Extra-pair copulation has favored the development of Question options: a. monogamy. b. mate guarding. c. polygamy. d. sexual dimorphism.
b. mate guarding.
At what frequency of disturbance would the most diversity be expected? a. low frequency b. medium frequency c. high frequency d. low and medium frequency
b. medium frequency
Parasites outside their native range are often Question options: a. unable to find hosts. b. more deadly. c. mutate less frequently. d. unable to survive outside their hosts.
b. more deadly.
Rain shadows primarily occur a. in the Southern Hemisphere. b. near large mountains. c. along ocean coasts. d. due to low evaporation in deserts.
b. near large mountains.
What factors can be used to identify biodiversity hotspots instead of species richness? Question options: a. number of endemic plant and animal species b. number of endemic plant species and amount of vegetation lost c. number of endemic animal species and genetic diversity of the species d. number of endemic plant and animal species and percent extinct
b. number of endemic plant species and amount of vegetation lost
The Red Queen hypothesis states that Question options: a. mutations in an asexual organism can quickly change the entire species. b. sexual reproduction can increase resistance to parasites. c. sexual reproduction is most beneficial in organisms with equal gender distributions. d. in stable environments asexual reproduction often results in high fitness.
b. sexual reproduction can increase resistance to parasites.
The probability of extinction due to stochastic processes declines as population size increases because Question options: a. increased population reduces the effects of delayed density dependence. b. stochastic events have a proportionally smaller effect. c. the number of stochastic events decreases as population size increases. d. a large population decreases the effect of diseases.
b. stochastic events have a proportionally smaller effect.
An organism moving through areas with environmental variation will perceive that variation as a. spatial homogeneity. b. temporal heterogeneity. c. temporal homogeneity. d. climatic heterogeneity.
b. temporal heterogeneity.
The difference between gross primary productivity and net primary productivity is due to Question options: a. the biomass consumed by higher trophic levels. b. the energy lost to respiration. c. the biomass that decomposes. d. the energy stored in producers.
b. the energy lost to respiration.
Which evolutionary effect would be most likely to occur if a small part of a population relocated to a new area? Question options: a. the bottleneck effect b. the founder effect c. genetic drift d. artificial selection
b. the founder effect
The intrinsic growth rate, r, is Question options: a. the number of new individuals produced minus the number that die. b. the highest possible per capita increase in population size under ideal conditions. c. the time it takes for a population to double in size. d. the maximum population size that can be supported by the environment
b. the highest possible per capita increase in population size under ideal conditions.
Which model includes consideration of the quality of the surrounding matrix? Question options: a. the sink-source model b. the landscape model c. the metapopulation model d. the free distribution model
b. the landscape model
Species richness is a. the relative abundance of species in a community. b. the number of species in a community. c. the number of species relative to other similar communities. d. the number of individuals of a given species.
b. the number of species in a community.
Alpha diversity is Question options: a. the difference in number of species between two habitats. b. the number of species in a small area. c. the number of species in a large geographic area. d. the total number of species that have ever been recorded living in an area.
b. the number of species in a small area.
Bt transgenic crops
bacterial pathogen of some insects -not harmful to most non-target organisms including natural enemies and people
At the compensation point, what does photosynthesis do?
balances respiration
optimal outcrossing distance
balances risk of inbreeding with risk of dispersal to unsuitable habitats
Why is there a tight relationship between temp and development time of maggots?
because Enzymatic rates are a function of temperature and Insects require a fixed number of degree days to develop (irrespective of temperature) and Natural selection acts to minimize development time There is a very tight relationship between temperature and development time of carrion maggots
Why do population grow slow?
because there is a small number of reproductive individuals; growth rate increases with the number of reproductive individuals -most species have discrete breeding seasons (California quail breeds only during spring)
Coleoptera
beetles -holometabolous -hard wings, hard shell wings: 2 pairs, front wings hardened Juveniles: variable, grublike or worm like
Based on the direction of signals they send, neurons can be divided into ______________, _____________ and _____________. Almost all ____________are located in integument but most of the other two types of neurons aggregate in____________, which are surrounded by a single layer of glial cells known as ____________ .
bipolar, multipolar, and unipolar, sensory neuron, ganglion, perineurium
Why dosen't crypsis always work?
birds or mammals learn to recognize cryptic and mimetic insects.
Intermediate Reynold's numbers means
both inertial and frictional forces important in their world Very small insects swim through the air
in the lynx-hare predator-prey example of population cycling A) Hare populations lag lynx populations in terms of growth and decline B) hares are only prey resource for lynx C) both top-down and bottom-up processes control of hare populations
both top-down and bottom-up processes control of hare populations
ecotone
boundary created by sharp changes in environmental conditions over a relatively short distance, accompanied by a major change in the compostion of species
Lipases
break down lipids
Glycosidases
break down sugar/ carbohydrates -only monosaccharides are absorbed -disaccharides and polysaccharides must be broken down -acidic amylases breakdown carbohydrates into short dextrins
Aposematic coloration:
bright markings to advertise chemical defenses to would-be predators
Hemiptera order
bugs, aphids, hoppers -hemimetabolous -sucking mouthparts -wings: Variable-true bugs-2 pairs forming x or colored line or 2 pairs wings colored or clear held straight back over (cicada) or wingless (scale insect) -Juveniles: like adults but wingless
fascicle
bundle of needle like leaves. Found in the Pinacea
Lepidoptera
butterflies and moths -holometabolous -Wings: 2 pairs with colored scales Juveniles: caterpillars
There is a rampant tuberculosis outbreak in a small village. Each infected individual is given antibiotics, which reduced the infection rate of the tuberculosis bacterium to negligible numbers in most individuals. However, not all individuals complete their antibiotic series and a new outbreak quickly emerges that infects previously infected as well as newly-infected individuals. For the tuberculosis bacterium, this is an example of A) artificial selection B) bottleneck effect C) both a and B D) none of the above
c) artificial selection and bottleneck effect
Given the relationship between λ and r in the geometric and exponential growth equations, what is λ when r is 0? Question options: a. 0 b. 0.5 c. 1 d. 10
c. 1
Why are population growth rates at zero when two species are at equilibrium? Question options: a. Two species can only coexist if neither population is growing. b. Disturbances prevent further population growth. c. At equilibrium both species have reached carrying capacity. d. When one species reaches carrying capacity, competition will prevent the other from growing.
c. At equilibrium both species have reached carrying capacity.
Why is the weathering of bedrock responsible for such a small fraction of nutrients available to plants? Question options: a. Bedrock contains a low concentration of nutrients. b. Plants are unable to directly process the nutrients from weathering. c. Bedrock weathers slowly. d. There is a large distance between bedrock and plant roots.
c. Bedrock weathers slowly.
Why do closely related species often experience more intense competition than distantly related species? Question options: a. Distantly related species are more likely to have a significant competitive advantage. b. Closely related species are more likely to live in the same place. c. Closely related species are more likely to rely on the same limiting resource. d. Closely related species are able to evolve more effective traits to interfere with their competitor.
c. Closely related species are more likely to rely on the same limiting resource.
If you were trying to save an endangered species that lived in a metapopulation, how might you try to increase the proportion of occupied patches? Question options: a. Limit dispersal to only a few patches. b. Create barriers around the metapopulation. c. Decrease patch isolation. d. Increase the number of available patches.
c. Decrease patch isolation.
Which factors determine the equilibrium population size of predators during predator-prey population cycles? I. the intrinsic growth rate of the prey II. the mortality rate of the predator III. the prey capture rate Question options: a. I and II only b. I and III only c. II and III only d. I, II, and III only
c. II and III only
In a metapopulation, what is the relationship between the amount of dispersal among subpopulations and the synchrony of fluctuations among subpopulations? Question options: a. Increased dispersal among subpopulations will decrease the synchrony of the subpopulations. b. Low dispersal rates will decrease the chance of any one subpopulation going extinct. c. Increased dispersal among subpopulations causes the subpopulations to fluctuate at the same rate. d. As fluctuations of subpopulations increase, the rate of dispersal increases.
c. Increased dispersal among subpopulations causes the subpopulations to fluctuate at the same rate.
If self-fertilization results in low fitness, why would an organism choose self-fertilization as a mating strategy? a. It prevents inbreeding depression. b. It increases genetic diversity. c. It ensures reproduction in low population densities.
c. It ensures reproduction in low population densities.
Why do we need to consider the process of biomagnification when assessing the risk of a pesticide to wildlife? Question options: a. It increases risk for producer species. b. It increases risk in aquatic species. c. It increases risk in species at the top of the food chain. d. It increases risk in scavenger species
c. It increases risk in species at the top of the food chain.
How might the carrying capacity for humans on Earth change if the human population ate mostly plant products instead of animal products? Question options: a. It would remain approximately the same. b. It would increase the carrying capacity by about 10 percent. c. I would increase the carrying capacity by over 50 percent. d. It would decrease the carrying capacity by about 10 percent
c. It would increase the carrying capacity by over 50 percent.
Why might natural selection act more strongly on traits that improve reproductive success early in life rather than later in life? Question options: a. Survival rates of organisms are often much higher earlier in life. b. Organisms do not produce offspring after a certain age. c. Many organisms do not survive to reach the age where the traits increase survival. d. Organisms produce more offspring soon after sexual maturity.
c. Many organisms do not survive to reach the age where the traits increase survival.
Why does the less common sex in a population have a higher fitness? Question options: a. Since fewer members have survived, the surviving organisms must have a relatively high fitness. b. Members spend less energy competing for mates. c. Members contribute more genes on average per offspring. d. Members can select a mate with a superior genotype.
c. Members contribute more genes on average per offspring.
Which continents would you expect to have the greatest similarity among species? Question options: a. Australia and South America because of the long time they were joined b. Africa and Europe because of their formation of a biogeographic region c. North America and Europe because of their consistent connection d. Africa and South America because they were adjacent before the breakup of Pangaea
c. North America and Europe because of their consistent connection
What is the difference between endomycorrhizal fungi and ectomycorrhizal fungi? a. Hyphae of endomycorrhizal fungi rarely enter plant cells; hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi often enter plant cells. b. Hyphae of endomycorrhizal fungi live entirely within plant cells; hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not live entirely within plant cells. c. The hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi rarely enter the plant cells; the hyphae of endomycorrhizal fungi often enter plant cells. d. The hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi live entirely within the body of plants; the hyphae of endomycorrhizal fungi do not live entirely within the body of plants.
c. The hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi rarely enter the plant cells; the hyphae of endomycorrhizal fungi often enter plant cells.
Why can migration be considered a phenotypically plastic behavior? a. Many animals change physically when they migrate. b. By moving, the organism increases its fitness. c. The place an organism lives can be considered part of its phenotype. d. It can result in multiple populations with different phenotypes.
c. The place an organism lives can be considered part of its phenotype.
Why is it important to consider the quality of the matrix habitat that exists between habitat fragments? Question options: a. High quality matrix habitat can decrease diversity in contained fragments. b. The quality of matrix habitat is negatively correlated with the quality of habitat fragments. c. The quality of matrix habitat affects the ability of species to disperse. d. The matrix habitat is often a secondary habitat for species in habitat fragments
c. The quality of matrix habitat affects the ability of species to disperse.
Why are residence times much longer in forest ecosystems than in aquatic phytoplankton-based ecosystems? Question options: a. The lifetime of the organisms in forests is longer. b. There is greater availability of nutrients in forests. c. The rate of consumption from the next trophic level in forests is lower. d. Succession in forests occurs more slowly.
c. The rate of consumption from the next trophic level in forests is lower.
What are the differences between the interdependent community and independent community perspectives of Frederic Clements and Henry Gleason? a. Independent communities do not interact with neighboring communities; interdependent communities do interact with neighboring communities. b. Interdependent communities do not interact with neighboring communities; independent communities do interact with neighboring communities. c. The species in interdependent communities all rely on each other for survival; species in independent communities do not rely on each other for survival. d. The species in independent communities all rely on each other for survival; species in interdependent communities do not depend on each other for survival.
c. The species in interdependent communities all rely on each other for survival; species in independent communities do not rely on each other for survival.
Why are some populations inherently cyclical? Question options: a. Members of a population often give birth at the same time each year. b. Seasonal environmental variation creates cyclical die-offs. c. There is a delay between the time of breeding and the birth of offspring. d. They have adapted to reduce stochastic effects, which prevents random fluctuations.
c. There is a delay between the time of breeding and the birth of offspring.
According to the S-I-R model, what happens when new susceptible individuals are born on regular intervals? Question options: a. The proportion of resistant individuals increases. b. The proportion of infected individuals increases over time. c. There would be a cyclical steady state of infected individuals. d. There would be a decrease in the rate of recovery.
c. There would be a cyclical steady state of infected individuals.
Explain why agricultural soils in boreal Canada retain their nutrients for many more years than agricultural soils in tropical South America. Question options: a. They have much higher levels of clay. b. They experience more rain. c. They are in a colder environment. d. More weathering occurs due to freeze-thaw cycles.
c. They are in a colder environment.
What is an important feature of tropical seasonal forests? Question options: a. They have fairly constant temperature and precipitation all year. b. They contain few deciduous plants. c. They have two seasonal peaks of rainfall. d. They are more diverse than other biomes.
c. They have two seasonal peaks of rainfall.
How does knowledge of historic climate patterns affect our interpretation of present-day patterns of species diversity? Question options: a. Plant species in the Northern Hemisphere have not reached their full range due to the recent ice age. b. Warmer temperatures have caused temperate regions to expand from their historic ranges. c. Tropical regions have been limited by the increased differentiation between the poles and equator. d. The temperate climate of Pangaea resulted in high diversity in current temperate biomes.
c. Tropical regions have been limited by the increased differentiation between the poles and equator.
A mesopredator is Question options: a. a predator at the top of the food chain. b. a predator that consumes only carnivores. c. a predator that is relatively small and consumes herbivores. d. a predator that is carnivorous only in specific situations.
c. a predator that is relatively small and consumes herbivores.
Which environment is more likely to favor the evolution of phenotypic plasticity? a. the deep ocean b. a tropical rainforest c. a tidal zone d. a hot desert
c. a tidal zone
The difference between the processes involved in allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation is Question options: a. sympatric speciation occurs much more slowly. b. sympatric speciation requires interaction with another species. c. allopatric speciation requires geographic isolation. d. allopatric speciation occurs through the formation of sets of three or more chromosomes.
c. allopatric speciation requires geographic isolation.
Which greenhouse gas is produced only by humans? a. methane b. carbon dioxide c. chlorofluorocarbons d. nitrous oxide
c. chlorofluorocarbons
The intrinsic value of an ecosystem Question options: a. considers the value an ecosystem provides in regulating natural systems. b. includes the cultural value of an ecosystem to its human inhabitants. c. considers the value of an ecosystem apart from any economic benefit. d. is the monetary value of all species in the ecosystem.
c. considers the value of an ecosystem apart from any economic benefit.
What allowed H1N1 to jump to a new species of host? Question options: a. decreased host resistance due to other parasites b. warm and humid environmental conditions c. direct transmission between members of the new host species d. consumption of the original host by the new host species
c. direct transmission between members of the new host species
The spread of introduced species can be predicted using Question options: a. fundamental niche estimation. b. line-transect surveys. c. ecological niche modeling. d. census modeling.
c. ecological niche modeling.
Cleaner fish consume both parasites and scales from larger fish. What determines whether the interaction is best categorized as mutualism or parasitism? a. if the cleaner fish caused any decrease in fitness b. if the larger fish switched to eating cleaner fish rather than allowing them to clean c. if the cleaner fish caused reduced survival in the larger fish d. if the population of cleaner fish was linked to the number of larger fish
c. if the cleaner fish caused reduced survival in the larger fish
What is NOT a way introduced species contribute to the extinction of native species? Question options: a. competing better than native species b. acting as a pathogen on native species c. increasing the fitness of a competing native species d. acting as a predator
c. increasing the fitness of a competing native species
What is the mechanism by which the fungus that causes White Nose Syndrome kills bats in North America? a. it interrupts diapause b. it interrupts hibernation c. it interrupts torpor d. it interrupts aestivation
c. it interrupts torpor
Which would be a characteristic of an early-succession species? Question options: a. large seed size b. high root to shoot ratio c. low shade tolerance d. slow growth rate
c. low shade tolerance
The self-thinning curve is evidence for Question options: a. positive density dependence. b. a stable age distribution. c. negative density dependence. d. a declining population structure.
c. negative density dependence.
Reduced fertility occurring in moist acidic soils is known as a. oxidization. b. cation exchange. c. podsolizaton. d. laterization.
c. podsolizaton.
The benefits of sexual reproduction include Question options: a. reduced cost of meiosis. b. lower energy requirements. c. purging of mutations. d. increased ease of reproduction.
c. purging of mutations
Convergent evolution Question options: a. occurs between predator and prey. b. results in the development of symbiotic relationships. c. results in similar growth forms in different parts of the world. d. allows differentiation between various biomes.
c. results in similar growth forms in different parts of the world.
Which biome includes maple, beech, and oak trees as a dominant feature? Question options: a. temperate rainforest b. boreal forest c. temperate seasonal forest d. woodlands/shrublands
c. temperate seasonal forest
What drives the circulation of air in a Hadley cell? a. the sinking of cold polar air b. the dry desert conditions around 30 N and 30 S c. the heating of tropical air by the sun d. the fluctuation of air patterns between latitudes of 30 degrees and 60 degrees
c. the heating of tropical air by the sun
. All of the following explain why trade-offs among life history traits are common EXCEPT Question options: a. genes limiting a particular effect. b. limited resources or time. c. the lack of constant environments. d. physical limitations.
c. the lack of constant environments.
A predator's numerical response depends on Question options: a. the rate of food consumption. b. the number of available prey. c. the migration of predators. d. the availability of prey refuges.
c. the migration of predators.
Which does NOT reduce the efficiency of energy transfer between two trophic levels? Question options: a. the process of consumption b. the process of assimilation c. the number of trophic levels d. the amount of respiration
c. the number of trophic levels
What might prevent a species in a mutualism from reaping the benefits from a partner without providing a benefit in return? a. a net decrease in fitness of both partners b. the partner dying without the benefits c. the partner reducing its benefits in response d. selection against partners that do not provide a benefit
c. the partner reducing its benefits in response
A realized niche is Question options: a. the range of abiotic conditions under which a species can persist. b. the total area where a species lives. c. the range of abiotic and biotic conditions in which a species persists. d. the conditions under which an organism can survive.
c. the range of abiotic and biotic conditions in which a species persists.
Which is an example of coevolution? Question options: a. a plant that becomes more toxic as it is fed on by herbivores b. two predator species that evolve the same method to overcome a prey's defenses c. when an insect species mimics the coloration of a toxic insect to avoid predation d. when a predator and prey species both evolve crypsis
c. when an insect species mimics the coloration of a toxic insect to avoid predation
Under what conditions can two species competing for two resources coexist? Question options: a. when the two resources are unrelated b. when the competition is indirect c. when each species can persist at a lower level of one resource d. when the ecosystem does not experience any disturbances
c. when each species can persist at a lower level of one resource
When might environmental sex determination be an adaptive strategy? Question options: a. when it is beneficial to have a variable sex ratio b. when the fitness of all offspring is approximately the same c. when offspring of each gender can survive better in different conditions d. when it takes less energy to produce a particular gender of offspring
c. when offspring of each gender can survive better in different conditions
Parasitoids cuckoos
called brood parasitism -cuckoos lay eggs in the nests of other bird species -cuckoo chicks hatch first, eject or eat host eggs -cuckoo chicks mimic host chick calls and are fed by host adults
Avoidance-Hiding-Crypsis
camouflage -mimesis resembling an inedible object
Character displacement A) can be influenced by founder effects B) reduces interspecific competition C) is an example of direction selection D) all of the above
can be influenced by founder effects, reduces interspecific competition, is an example of direction selection
Neuron stimulus
can open ion channels. Ions may flow in or out in down hill directions with their corresponding channels are open -cross membrane movements of ions lead to potential changes across membrane-electrical signals : depolarization or hyperpolarization
Population biology-exponential growth
capacity for exponential growth dN/dt=rN N=population size of density r=intrinsic rate of increase dN/dt=change in population over time
No matter what kind of foods insect may eat, the nutrients for insects are basically the same for human, which include water, vitamins, ions/inorganic compounds, ______________, ______________, and ______________
carbohydrates, proteins/ amino acids, and lipids
K
carrying capacity
Goblet cells
cells that connect the lumen to the hemolymph and are invoked in pumping *potassium ions from the hemolypmph to the lumen.* This facilitates water movement into the gut lumen that is essential for the absorption of digested nutrients from the midgut.
Mushroom body
center for higher order sensory integration and learning -receive info mainly from olfactory (antennal lobe). Hymenoptera also from optic lobe -Olfactory learning and memory, place memory, associative memory, and roles in motor control.
genetic drift
change in allele frequency due to random variation in births and deaths, big problem for small populations
Succession
change in species composition over time -predictable series of species replacements (seres) over time -initiated by disturbance
Predatory feeding behavior can __ over life time, especially among ____ species
change, holometabolous
juvenoids
chemical mimics of juvenile hormone, stop normal development of the adult, or result in the emergence of an sterile adult -prevent insects from reaching the adult stage, work best against adults, not larvae
chemotransduction
chemical signals (smell, taste)
Which soil particle would you expect to have the highest field capacity? Question options: sand silt clay they all have the same field capacity
clay
Which type of soil would you expect to have the most available water? Question options: sand silty clay loam clay
clay
cuticle protein
cleft full of aromatic residues, which form flat surfaces of aromatic rings, for protein-chitin interactions -outer surface important for protein-protein interactions in cuticle
Metabolic resistance
common resistance mechanism is metabolic resistance. they have more enzymes or more efficient enzymes. -P450 -Esterases -GST
interdependent communities
communities in which species depend on each other to exist -communities are superorganisms -species tightly bound together in common coevolutionary history -a community will always reach a stable climax state
Independent communities
communities in which species do not depend on each other to exist -community consists of individual species that respond independently and gradually to fluctuating environmental conditions -species, not communities are the essential unit (individualistic)
__can be measured in plants through common garden experiments, and measured in animals through exclosure eperiments
competition
Zygophyllaceae
compound leaves -persistent stipules -5-merous perianth with parts distinct -schizocarp often with 5 segments
Acidity:
concentration of H+ ions in a solution
frontal ganglion
connect with tritocerebrum and Hg,sends axons to pharynx and esophagus. control of food passage through the gut and crop emptying
parasite
consumes part of host, reducing host fitness but does not kill host directly.
Hypertreholosemic Hormone or HTH
control of sugar metabolism, resulting high concentration of tehalose in blood
Which heat transfer method is most affected by the formation of a boundary layer? Question options: radiation conduction convection evaporation
convection
Signal transduction
convert various incoming sense signals into electric signals
thermotransduction
cool, cold, warm, hot
Selection for short development time
corpses are ephemeral habitats that induce strong competition and selection (dung, pools, carcass)
When is it not good to be big in size for insects?
cost for being large: -long development -fast growth-consume a lot of resources-higher chance of being exposed -reduced agility or increases detectability -time and energy cost of supporting large size
Where does the foregut store its food?
crop
Pore canals
cytoplasmic extensions of epidermal cells -transports lipids/wax to newly formed envelope. 200/cell
Suppose that 100 cattle were allowed to graze in either one of two pastures. If the grass was three times as productive in pasture A as in pasture B, how many cows would you expect in pasture A according to the ideal free distribution? a. 25 b. 33 c. 66 d. 75
d. 75
What rate of extinction will determine if the current rate of extinction is equivalent to a mass extinction? Question options: a. 35% b. 45% c. 65% d. 75%
d. 75%
What are the requirements of evolution by natural selection? (lecture 2/5/8) Question options: a. individual variation in traits is caused by mutation and recombination b. hertiable traits increase offspring fitness c. strong intraspecific competition selects for individuals well suited to current environment d. All of the above.
d. All of the above.
Why do tropical and temperate soils have different rates of nutrient regeneration? Question options: a. Decomposition decreases as temperature increases, and decreases as precipitation increases. b. Decomposition increases as temperature increases, and decreases as precipitation increases. c. Decomposition decreases as temperature increases, and increases as precipitation increases. d. Decomposition increases as temperature increases, and increases as precipitation increases.
d. Decomposition increases as temperature increases, and increases as precipitation increases.
Which is NOT a reason that species diversity decreases while moving toward the poles in the Northern Hemisphere? Question options: a. Diversity increases as water temperatures rise. b. Increased solar radiation increases diversity. c. Increased precipitation increases diversity. d. Decreased environmental heterogeneity increases diversity.
d. Decreased environmental heterogeneity increases diversity.
A type III functional response in predators is a result of which factors? I. prey refuges II. search images III. prey switching Question options: a. I and III only b. II and I only c. II and III only d. I, II, and III
d. I, II, and III
Economic benefits of preserving biodiversity include I. nutrient cycling II. recreation III. providing products Question options: a. I and II only b. I and III only c. II and III only d. I, II, and III
d. I, II, and III
What challenges can arise when considering a species reintroduction? I. high monetary cost II. local opposition to the species III. changes in land use Question options: a. I and II only b. I and III only c. II and III only d. I, II, and III
d. I, II, and III
Why is extinction less likely in models of stochastic extinction that include density dependence than in models that exclude density dependence? Question options: a. Density independent models are more sensitive to variation in resource availability. b. Most density independent models assume a low carrying capacity. c. Density dependent models have higher growth rates for large populations. d. In density dependent models, the growth rate at low populations is higher.
d. In density dependent models, the growth rate at low populations is higher.
What can the age structure of a population tell us about population fluctuations over time? Question options: a. It can help predict what the future growth rate will be. b. It reveals the age at which the population has the fastest growth rate. c. It shows how survival depends on environmental conditions. d. It can show times of particular growth or decline in previous years.
d. It can show times of particular growth or decline in previous years
How is Liebig's law of the minimum related to a population's growth? Question options: a. It correlates a population's growth to the minimum size of the population. b. It calculates the rate a population grows while in competition with another population. c. It considers the minimum a resource can reach before a population switches resources. d. It states that a population increases until the most limiting resource prevents further increase.
d. It states that a population increases until the most limiting resource prevents further increase.
Which is an advantage of an ectoparasite? Question options: a. Low exposure to natural enemies b. Protection from the external environment. c. Ease of feeding on the host. d. Limited exposure to the host's immune system
d. Limited exposure to the host's immune system
What is an important difference between cohort life tables and static life tables? Question options: a. It is less time consuming to gather data for cohort life tables. b. Static life tables do not distinguish the effect of environmental change on survival. c. It can be difficult to gather data for early ages in cohort life tables. d. Static life tables allow the study of species with much longer lifetimes.
d. Static life tables allow the study of species with much longer lifetimes.
What does it mean when a community is said to exhibit top-down control? a. The abundance of trophic groups is determined by the productivity of the producers. b. The diversity of species is determined by a factor outside of the community. c. The diversity of species is dependent on a keystone species. d. The abundance of trophic groups is determined by the presence of predators
d. The abundance of trophic groups is determined by the presence of predators
Given that the distributions of many animals are determined by the species composition of the plant community, what might you predict about the diversity of animals in an ecotone with a more diverse ecosystem on one side and a less diverse ecosystem on the other side? a. The amount of diversity would be similar to the more diverse ecosystem. b. The amount of diversity would be similar to the less diverse ecosystem. c. The amount of diversity would be lower than either ecosystem. d. The amount of diversity would be higher than either ecosystem.
d. The amount of diversity would be higher than either ecosystem.
Explain the concept of "competition coefficients" that are used in the Lotka-Volterra competition equations. Question options: a. They relate interconnected resources used by two competing species. b. They compare the carrying capacities of two competing species. c. They relate the growth rate of two competing species. d. They convert the number of individuals between the two competing species.
d. They convert the number of individuals between the two competing species.
When discussing trophic levels a guild is a. a group of species that feed on each other in a food chain. b. a group of closely related species. c. a group of species that can feed at multiple trophic levels. d. a group of species that feed on similar items.
d. a group of species that feed on similar items.
Which is an effect of global climate change that is already being observed? Question options: a. increased sea level b. earlier flowering of some plants c. changing species compositions in northern latitudes d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Which of the following statements is true? Question options: a. smaller seeds can disperse farther but have lower probability of survival b. the number of seeds produced per individual is inversely related to seed size c. seed mass is positively correlated with potential germination success d. all of the above
d. all of the above
H5N1 is an example of Question options: a. a parasitic prion. b. horizontal transmission through a vector. c. a helminth that can infect multiple species. d. an emerging infectious disease.
d. an emerging infectious disease.
Antibiotics are used to control turberculosis; however, there are now multiple strains of drug resistant turberculosis; because of Question options: a. the founder effect. b. the bottleneck effect. c. industrial melanism. d. artificial selection.
d. artificial selection.
How might the ocean reduce the effects of fossil fuel combustion on CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere? Question options: a. by decreasing the rate of evaporation b. by moderating the temperature c. by increasing the rate of photosynthesis d. by absorbing atmospheric CO2
d. by absorbing atmospheric CO2
Exploitative competition Question options: a. occurs when one species defends a resource from another. b. is often due to aggressive interactions between species. c. occurs when one species uses resources gathered by another species. d. causes the abundance of a resource to fall lower than other species can use.
d. causes the abundance of a resource to fall lower than other species can use.
Which does NOT drive ocean gyres? a. the Coriolis effect b. the unequal heating of Earth c. atmospheric convection currents d. coastal upwelling
d. coastal upwelling
Based on your knowledge of the ocean conveyor belt, how might melting ice in the Arctic Ocean affect the climate of Europe? a. increased temperatures in western Europe b. increased rain throughout Europe c. decreased climate variation in Europe d. decreased temperatures in western Europe
d. decreased temperatures in western Europe
According to the Lotka-Volterra model of change in the prey and predator population sizes, which is NOT a determinant of predator growth? Question options: a. prey consumption efficiency b. number of prey c. number of predators d. growth rate of prey
d. growth rate of prey
In larger rivers the major source of organic material is usually Question options: a. riparian sources. b. allochthonous sources. c. autochthonous sources. d. increased photosynthesis
d. increased photosynthesis
Speciation is a form of Question options: a. artificial selection. b. natural selection. c. microevolution. d. macroevolution.
d. macroevolution.
Secondary succession Question options: a. occurs after the formation of lichens and mosses. b. occurs on bare rocks or similar location. c. occurs when only part of a community is affected by a disturbance. d. occurs in a habitat that has organic soil but no plants
d. occurs in a habitat that has organic soil but no plants
Which is NOT a common environmental cue? Question options: a. photoperiod b. predation c. food availability d. population size
d. population size
Which is NOT a factor that limits the net primary productivity of terrestrial ecosystems? Question options: a. precipitation b. temperature c. nitrogen d. silicon
d. silicon
What is the primary cause of higher productivity in the photic zone of the ocean? Question options: a. increased interaction with land biomes b. increased temperatures c. increased nutrient availability d. sufficient light for photosynthesis
d. sufficient light for photosynthesis
Which is NOT a density-dependent factor? Question options: a. disease b. resource availability c. difficulty of finding a mate d. temperature
d. temperature
Which is NOT used to categorize aquatic biomes? Question options: a. flow b. depth c. salinity d. temperature
d. temperature
Which factor has a neutral effect on species interactions in succession? Question options: a. facilitation b. the priority effect c. inhibition d. tolerance
d. tolerance
What information is NOT displayed in a climate diagram? Question options: a. when growth is limited by precipitation b. when growth is limited by temperature c. when the growing season occurs d. when growth is limited by nutrients
d. when growth is limited by nutrients
Given that self-fertilization can lead to inbreeding depression, under what conditions should a hermaphrodite use self-fertilization? Question options: a. when it can become a sequential hermaphrodite b. when outcrossing requires less energy c. when resources are abundant d. when population density is low
d. when population density is low
Using Grime's categorization, which method of dispersal would be expected from ruderals? Question options: a. seed dispersal using nuts or fruit b. few, large seeds c. vegetative reproduction d. wind-dispersed seeds
d. wind-dispersed seeds
A prey population is stable when its rate of change is zero:consuption
dN/dt=0rN-cNP->rN=cNP->r/c=p Hence a prey population is stable when the addition of prey is balanced by the consumption of prey
Write out the derivative of the exponential growth equation using the correct variables
dN/dt=rn expressed the rate of increases on a "per individual" basis. Rate at which new individuals are added to a population
Logistic growth model
dN/dt=rn(1-n/k)
Competition for a single resource: adding a second species
dN1/dt=r1N1(1-(N1=alphaN2/K1) dN2/dt=rnN2(1-(N2+betaN1/K2) alpha=competition coefficient for species 1, which converts individuals of species 2 into the equivalent number of individuals of species 1. Beta=competition coefficient for species 2, which converts individuals of species 1 into equivalent number of individuals of species 2. Example: an experiment has a carrying capacity of 100 rabbits (species 1). The food needed to support 100 rabbits would also support 200 squirrels (species 2). Alpha would be .5 because 1 squirrel is equivalent to 0.5 rabbits, beta would be 2 because 1 rabbit
A prey population is stable when its rate of change is zero:mortality
dP/dt=0=acNP-mP->acNP=MP->m/ac=N A predator population is stable when the addition of predators is balanced by the mortality of predators.
rosette
dense radiating cluster of leaves
logistic
density dependent model representing resource limitation regulating population growth
exponential growth model
density independent model for populations with continuous breeding
___ is the ___ of individuals per unit area
density, abundance
Acid Rain
deposition Acids deposited as rain and snow or as gases and particles that attach to the surfaces of plants, soil, and water. -SO2 and NO2 react with water in atmosphere-> H2SO4 and HnO3
Accessory glands are modified ___ __, and provide ____ and ____
dermal glands, cement, ootheca
PTG is _____ in adults of most insects
destructed
Habitat loss
destruction and degradation of habitat has been the largest cause of declining biodiversity
holometabolous
development with abrupt changes at pupal molt ex: butterfly
hemimetabolous
development with gradual changes at each molt ex:milkweed
Unpredictable- reaction norm:
diet quality, temperature, crowding, precipitation
population growth rate
difference between birth and death rate, denoted by either λ or r
Peptidases
digesting proteins -break down proteins Proteases: exopeptidases, endopeptidases
Many insects have ____ sperm
dimorphic -eupyrene: the usual -apyrene: without nuclei
muscles make wings move in one of two ways
direct flight indirect flight
mimicry rings
distantly related species co-evolve similar aposematic signals
logistic growth model competitor
dn/dt=rN1((1-N1-greek competition coefficitN2)/k1)
What are threats to wetlands?
drained and filled for development
synchronous or neurogenic-
each nerve impulse triggers one muscle contraction
facilitation
each sere paves the way for the next by providing conditions that increase probability of colonization
What happens when dispersal is infrequent?
each subpopulation fluctuates independently.
Dermaptera order
earwigs -hemimetabolous -leathery wings, pincer tails wings:2 pairs, short, tough -Juveniles like adults but wingless -maternal care common
Ecdysone mimics
ecdyson receptor agonist -mimic actions of molting hormone and cause premature molt -insect stop feeding -soft on non-target organism -slow
MH or molting hormone
ecdysterioids, initiation of molting (larvae) or egg maturation (adults)
agro-ecosystem
ecosystem managed by humans to maximize production of agricultural commodities
conversion efficiency
efficiency of a predator converting consumed prey into predator offspring, a
Reactive oxygen species
electron leakage in electron transport chain produced Superoxide anion (O2-) 1-2% of all oxygen molecules -not good
What results from selection pressure for thermoregulation?
endothermy, torpor, migration
Stomach poision
enter through mouth and midgut
Whether a trait will evolve as a reaction norm or as a polyphenism is determined largely by the predictability of the ______
environment
Phenotypic plasticity
environmental effects on phenotypic variation -ability of an organism to react to environmental input with a change in form, state, movement, or rate of activity -Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce more than one phenotype in response to environmental stimuli.
Foregut stores and mechanically breaks down food particles, midgut secretes ______________ to digest (i.e. chemically break down) food particles and ______________ the digested nutrients such as glucose and amino acids, and hindgut eliminates ______________ and ______________.
enzymes, urine and feces
The wing is the
epidermal bilayer
What is the source of ETH?
epitracheal glands
Water moves to ___ solute concentrations
equalize
Primary Succession
establishment and development of communities in newly formed habitat that was previously devoid of life -mineral substrate
Threats to rivers, streams and lakes
eutrophication, acid rain
Character displacement
evolutionary response that is selected for because it reduces interspecific competition
What wing hypothesis is right?
exite and tracheal gill hypothesis are not mutually exclusive. wings and gills could have evolved from limb exites -new findings on the fossil Coxoplectoptera suggest the paranotal hypothesis may have some validity as well -the tracheal gills of this species were fused into the tergites. The classic paranotal hypothesis proposed a tergite origin of wings
Neonicotinoids
fairly low persistence, low toxicity, high potency -safer for vertebrates -concerns about bee toxicity
decidious
falling off, as leaves from a tree' not every green; not persistent
Adipokinetic hormone (AKH)
fat (energy) metabolism
Stored product pests:
feed on harvested food products
Orthoptera pests
feed on leaves and shoots.
Lepidoptera pests
feed on leaves, shoots, stems, fruits and seeds.
parasites
feed on one or more hosts during lifetime usually without killing the host
Indirect pests:
feed on other plant parts, reducing plant vigor and/or spreading disease
Hemipetra pests
feed on plant juices
Coleoptera pests
feed on seeds, leaves and roots
Direct pests:
feed on the harvested portion of crop.
Why do insects eat feces of others?
feeding on feces of another insect provides that organism with symbionts that it lost, usually from the molt since the hindgut and its cuticular lining are shed at the molt Insects include: fleas, termites, beetle grubs
males pheromones
females are attracted to males by the pheromone and use it in their assessment in arctiid moths -male hair pencils or coremata are extruded from the abdomen and the pheromeone is released
As the prey population falls, it will support
fewer predators
When is an insect pest worth controlling?
figured out by the economic injury level or EIl
Diptera
flies -holometabolous -wings: 1 pair only Juveniles: maggots
inflorescence
flowering part of a plant, a flower cluster, the arrangement of the flowers on the flowering axis
Pollination:
flowering plant (angiosperm) and animals have co-evolved (or at least affect each other to some degree) to use each other to accomplish feeding and reproductive needs. The plant feeds the pollinator and the pollinator accomplishes the pollen transfer for the plant.
Reproduction mutualism-Pollination:
flowering plant / insect pollinator system
gametophyte
gamete producing, haploid phase in the plant life cycle. This is the pollen grain (male) or ovule prior to the fertilization (female). Mega=large (female) Micro=small (male)
fitness
genetic contribution of an individual to the next generation's gene pool relative to the average for the population
sex
genetic recombination
How do you measure plasticity?
genotype's mean difference among environments
What do regions of unsclerotized cuticle do?
give points/lines to bend
aposematic model
gives the basic warning signal
nonmaterial benefits
good genes or good health
Orthoptera order
grasshoppers, crickets, katydids hemimtabolous -Straight wings, jumping hind legs, -Wings: 2 apirs, folded over back -Juveniles like adults but wingless
The tendency to cheat in obligate mutualisms such as the yucca moth system is kept to a minimum due to A) leigibs law of the minium B) the altruistic nature of interaction species C) greater fitness reward from cheating D) greater fitness reward from not cheating
greater fitness reward from not cheating
Monophyletic
group of organisms that include most recent common ancestor of all descendants of that ancestor Ex: mammalia, aves, insecta
creeping
growing along the surface of the ground, or just beneath the surface, and producing roots, usually at the nodes
Caespitose
growing in dense tufts
climbing
growing more or less erect by leaning or twining on another structure for support
Development time
growth determines the timing of when an individual attains the CW but not the value of the CW
Body size
growth rate determines how much mass is accumulated during the ICG, but not the duration of the ICG
Morphological resistance
hairs, spines, hook, sticky glands, immobilizing insects or puncturing their body wall
Post-ecydsis phase
hardening (sclerotization) and darkening of new cuticle, initiated by bursicon
Individual:
have a membrane boundary that separates internal processes from the external environment ( e.g bacterium, lizard, human). Individuals acquire nutrients and energy and produce waste
Friendly mutualism(+,+):
help each other, both benefit and no one is harmed. No free lunch, but benefits > costs.
Mantodea order
hemimetabolous -mobile triangular head -eggs laid in papery foam-like egg cases (ootheca) -predators -like a prophet, grabbing front legs -wings 2 pairs, pleated over back -Juveniles:like adults but wingless
sporanglum
hollow unicellular or multicellualr stricture in which spores are produced
Which developmental process of insects constitutes more diversity?
holometabolous orders
rhizome
horizontal underground stem
When the two life history traits are under synegistic selection, the response to selection is determined by _______ _______
hormonal regulation
Tradeoff in allocation:
how an organism invests its time and energy between growth, reproduction, and survival for maximum fitness • Driven by extrinsic and intrinsic factors
Anthropocene
humans altering properties of earth on a geologic scale Physical -agriculture, industry, settlement, urban systems (erosion) -Dams (weight of water stored induces earthquakes) Chemical -CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, etc. emissions -acid mine tailing, ocean acidification -n fixation, soil fertilization/depletion biological -species domestication, genetic modification for food -50000 species endangered/extinct yearly
Nitrogen fixation
humans are responsible more than 50% of nitrogen fixation Fertilizer-> algal bloom, bust, decay-> hypoxia
wax
hydrocarbons -achohols -fatty acids -transported through pore canals
Why is knowing biome distributions important?
if estimates are incorrect, model predictions are incorrect
Classical control
importation and establishment of natural enemies of exotic pests
Tracheoles
in active tissue, tracheoles reach near mitochondria
How do males influence choice?
in damseflies males remove sperm from previous mating -guarding females
Endangered
in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range
How can scleratoziation vary?
in different body parts, stages, species.etc
Temporal variation
in the environment describes how environmental conditions change over time.
Where does synthesis of uric acids occur?
in the fat body. Fatbody takes wastes out of hemolymph and produces uric acid
Auto-mimicry
individuals of a species that acquires chemical defensive compounds from plant hosts may receive different amount of defensive compound due to variation among individual host plants -by resembling other individuals of the same species, the poorly defended individual avoids predation
Economic Injury level (EIL)
insect density at which cost of control equals cost of the crop damage by that insect EIL=C/VDK C=cost of control per unit area V=market value of crop D=yield loss per unit density of insects K=reduction in insects expected from control -tells you the point at which economic losses will occur if you don't control the pest
When did insects arise?
insects are believed to have arisen from Crustaceans and have a common ancestor with fairy shrimp that existed at the Silurian Ordovician boundary
hindgut and its symbionts
insects rely upon and take up symbionts to either aid in digestion of molecules they cant digest, or provide the insect with essential nutrients, especially various vitamins they would otherwise be unable to get from diets poor in these substances
Genetic Polymorphism
insects that are polymorphic have the natural potential to be only one form but more than one form occurs in the population (eye or hair color) polymorphisms are genetically hardwired into the developmental system and is the component of variation that responds to natural selection
apparency
insects with chemical defenses tend not to hide, they are often large, long-lived, aggreated or social and brightly colored
Nature according to Soule is
interdependent, specialized, co evolved
Masting
intermittent, suprannual production of large seed crops that can result in seed predator satiation
r
intrinsic growth
What determines resolution?
intrommatidial angle
Esterases
involved in resistance to organphosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids
Why is avoiding predation costly?
involves trade-offs in energy and time
Photon Energy:
is positively related to frequency and inversely related to wavelength
Specific heat
is the energy required to raise temperature by 1 degree c
Economic threshold ET
is the pest density at which control should occur to PREVENT the pest from passing the EIL
Tracheal respiration efficiency
it is more efficient than blood based respiration -O2 is more soluable and diffuses 10^6 faster in air than it does in blood, water, or tissue -CO2 diffused 10^4 times faster in air than it does in blood, water or tissue Rates: PO2 21 kPa in atmosphere at 6 kPa in trachea=delta 15 kPa PCO2 in atmosphere is 0 and at peak 6.5 kPa=delta 6.5kPa O2 will always enter faster than CO2 leaves
what does photosynthesis do beyond the saturation point?
it no longer increases with increasing light intensity
succulent
juicy and fleshy, as the stem of a cactus or the leaves of Aloe
ecosystem engineers
keystone species that affect communities by influencing the structure of a habitat Example: Beavers and dams
Predators
kill and consume multiple prey
Sodium Channel
knockdown resistance to DDT and Py. Super kdr
Neurptea order
lacewings and antlions -holometabolous -wing netlike wings:2 pairs with lots of veins, tent like Juveniles-Long and flat, with big mandibles
protein in soft cuticles
lacks histidines for sclerotization -tend to be more hydrophilic
the__ meta population model considers differences in quality of suitable habitat. ___ patches are low quality and cannot maintain a population in the absence of ___ from other patches through the habitat ___
landscape, sink, resources
Which is NOT an adaptation to arid regions? Question options: very shallow roots large leaf surfaces waxy cuticle resins on leaves very deep roots
large leaf surfaces
tree
large woody plant, with a single main stem or trunk
ephermeral
lasting a very short time
scale like
leaves that are very reduced, overlapping and adhering to the stem of the plant as in cupressacea
How is the procuticle put together?
like plywood. Many layers. Circadian control 1. Chitin chain-form fibers 2. Chitin fiber wrapper in protein 3. Clustering of fibers 4. Branched woven network of chitin protein fibers 5. Twisted plywood pattern of chitin plywood planes 6. Fibril arches in cross section
threatened
likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range -provides a public participation in the listing process -USFWS must designate critical habitat -must develop recovery plan
synthetic pyrethroids
low persistence, low toxicity, high potency -function by disrupting nervous system of insects, (some mammals) -most are contact or stomach poisons -degrade quickly in the environment
sink
low-quality patches that produce few individuals and rely on dispersers to keep the sink population from going extinct
prostrate
lying flat on the ground
The predator population will increase when the addition of predators exceeds the mortality of predators:
mP<acNP->N>m/ac
(mortality)predator population will decrease whenever
mP>acNP->N<m/ac
How does light get transduced into neural signal?
made possible by retinal which as two conformation-one is stable and the other is not -light converts unstable form to stable trans-retinal -change in conformation triggers depolarization of the nerve -retinal is linked to the visual pigment rhodopsid -different rhodoposins change wavelength that will trip the retinal
trunk
main stem of a tree below the branches
How do insects maintain homeostasis?
maintain constant internal osmotic environment of the hemolyph tissues and cell environment by 1. Elimination of excretory products: indigestible food residues + metabolic wastes 2. Reabsorption of water from the feces 3. Reabsorption and elimination of various ions 4. Absorption of materials produced by symbionts in the hindgut of those insects housing them PROCESSES BASED ON OSMOSIS AND DIFFUSION
Acid Rain A) increase viability of fish eggs through aluminum fertilization B) decrease aluminum in rivers, streams, and lakes through soil leaching. C) make pH of rivers more alkaline by wathering bedrock D) directly cause algal blooms.
make pH of rivers more alkaline (basic) by weathering bedrock
chitin
makes up as much as half of the exoskeleton -chains interact with each other -hydrogen bonds -form microfibrils -fibers are in a matrix of protein -Helicoidal layering-(think plywood)>under circadian control (time restraints) Chitin is to rebar as protein is to concrete
Sites need to be defended
male-male competition -leads to large size -striking morphologies
Males and females in Hympenoptera
males-caste genetically determined
Pinchot What should conservation attention focus on?
managed areas
Archaeognatha
mandible with single pivot, wingless
Zygentoma
mandible with two pivots, wingless
multipolar neuron
many projections extending from the soma but only one axon
Eupyrene sperm
mature eupyrene sperm of higher lepidoptera have "lacinate appendages" -blade like extensions
Gametic meiosis
mature individual (2n)->meiosis->gamete (1n, sperm)+ gamete (1n,egg)-> zygote (2n)
Carrying capacity (K):
maximum population size that can be supported by the environment dN/dt=rN(1-N/k)
Neural lamella:
mechanical support for NS, secreted by perineurium
The cost of __ means each mate only passes on 50% of their genes to their offspring
meiosis
"Mark"-recapture:
memorizing patterns to "mark" individuals. Used in scenarios where animals can't be captured Ex: humpback whales.
Mullerian mimicry
model and mimic are both distasteful and aposematic -all species benefit from reinforcing learning in predator -contains mimicry rings
carbamates
moderate persistence, but highly toxic to vertebrates -related to calabar bean, toxic to mammals
bract
modified, usually reduced, leaf-like structure associated with the scale on a strobilus -usually fused to the scale and can been only as the sharp protrusion from the end of the scale
stem succulent
moist stem
Which mating system is favored when the males can make important contributions to raising the offspring? Question options: a. monogamy b. polygyny c. polyandry d. promiscuity
monogamy
Neuron and Asymmetrical distribution of ions
more Na+, Ca2+ and cl- but less K+ outside the cell. Exception: some intracellular membrane bounded compartments may have high Ca2+
a population that randomly experiences a string of years with low birth rates or high death rates is?
more likely to go extinct
why choose largest males
more successful and chances are some of this tendency can be passed on to the offspring
Trophic dynamics
movement of carbon, nutrients, and energy among organisms in an ecosystem -eating
Osmosis:
movement of water in membrane
What quinone is common among hard cuticles?
n-acetyldopamine
Ligand (neurotransmitter)
naturally occurring chemical that binds and activates a receptor
Cataglyphis
navigates using polarized light -few landmarks in environment -speed essential -goes straight home
Molting
need to molt to get larger exoskeleton
Neoptera means
new wings (folding)
Ecological ___ modeling allows us to predict future species distributions and potential for __ into novel systems. In the amphibian example, tolerance to unfavorable ___ conditions was a predictor of extinction probability
niche, invasions,environmental
Ametabolous=
no change in body during maturation ex: silverfish
gymnosperms
nonflowering plants that produce seeds
Sit and Wait-Parasitoids
not common, but common among some blood feeding, wingless parasites such as fleas.
Endocuticle
not hardened, provides strength, unsclerotized
extrnisic
not part of
Reproductive ratio
number of secondary cases produced by an infected person influenced by (b-transmission /g-revocery) rate
species diversity
number of species in an area and their relative abundance (evenness) -indices help correct for variation in abundances among species
Spatial avoidance
occurs when a prey moves away from a predator.
Antagonism (+, -):
one benefits, another is harmed
Commensalism (+, 0):
one benefits, another is unaffected
Segmented nervous system
one pair of gangilia per segment
Unipolar neuron
one projection extending from the soma
Mosquito biology
only females consume blood, for egg production. males feed on nectar. holometablous life cycle
Pre-ecdysis phase: regulation of PTTH and molt cycles
onset of a molt cycle is an indeterminate event -molt cycles are tightly linked to growth and nutrition -factors shown to regulate molt cycles are stretch of the abdomen -temp/photoperiod/injury and attainment of critical size -humidity/contact with specific substrates and pheromones These factors directly or indirectly regulate the secretion of PTTH
Ligand-gated channels (=receptor of ligand):
open in response to a specific ligand molecule on the external face of the membrane. -ligand-gated channel is the receptor of ligand -binding leads to immediate opening of channels and potential changes
Secondary messenger-gated channels:
open in response to internal secondary messengers (cAMP, cGMP, IP3, Ca2+) on the internal face of the membrane.
Voltage-gated ion channels:
open in response to the transmembrane potential changes. E.g. voltage-gated Na+, K+ and Ca2+ chananels
Mechanically-gated channels:
open or close in response to mechanical forces that arise from local stretching or compression of the membrane around them
mimic
organisms that prasitizes the signaling system through copying the aposematic model and deluding the observer
Parainsecta
other small, wingless soil arthropods (protura and Collembola)
Phenotype. Give an example
outward expression of a genotypic response to environmental conditions. Example: Twins have the same DNA but one could work and the other does not
Many insects are attacked by 4 to 6 ____ ____
parasitoid species
mitosis
part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides
PTTH or Prothoracicotropic hormone
peptide stimulate PTG to produce Molting Hormone or MH
Ovarian Ecdysteroidogenic hormone or OEH
peptide stimulate adult ovary to produce MH
ETH or Ecdysis TRIGGERING hormone
peptide, control ecdysis behavior
Eclosion hormone or EH
peptide, control ecdysis behavior
Crustacean cardioactive peptide or CCAP
peptide, ecdysis behavior and heart rate modulation
Allatropin
peptide, stimulation of juvenile hormone production by CA
Pheromone biosynthesis activation neuropeptide or PBAN
peptide, stimulation of pheromone biosynthesis
Allatostatin
peptide; inhibition of Juvenile Hormone (JH) produced by CA
increased sequestration
pervisceral fat body, peripheral fat body
Conjugation
pesticide or its metabolites are conjugated to either glucose or glutathione (GSH) and become more water soluble and more easily excreted.
The timing of the availability of important resource changes in response to climate, but the timing of the demand for the resource does not change. This is an example of a) proximate mismatch B) pheotypic mismatch C) phenological mismatch D) polygenic mismatch
phenological mismatch
Abiotic factors can affect____
phenotype
Predictable-polyphenism
photoperiod, seasonal diet, seasonal temperature trend, crowding, seasonal precipitation
ingested defense compounds
phytoghagous insects feeds as a specialist on a chemically defended plant -insect sequesters defense compounds or uses them as base to make their own
cultural controls of insect pests
planning strategies increase agro-ecosystem complexity -crop rotation -intercropping -planting or harvesting schedules that are asynchronous with pests
predators regulate herbivores and benefit
plant abundance (trophic cascade)
vine
plant with the stem not self-supporting, but climbing, or trailing on some support
herb
plant without a persistent above ground woody stem, the stems dying back to the ground at the end of the growing season
Depending on species, insect may eat ______________, ______________, ______________, and ______________
plants, animals, live plants and animals, detritus
What are the foods for insects?
plants, animals, live plants and animals, detritus (dead plant/animal materials, dung, etc.)
Inflection point:
point on a sigmoidal growth curve at which the population has its highest growth rate
Conservation attentnion should focus on to Kareiva is
populated, wild
Logistic curve
population size (N) and per capita growth rate (r) influenced by carrying capacity (k)
internode
portion of a stem between tow nodes
node
position on the stem where leaves or branches originate
ETH switches on _______ _____
pre-eclosion behavior
Resistance
predator finds you, but regrets it -use defenses: structures or compounds to discourage predators/parasitoids that have successfully located prey -higher energy cost than escape or hiding, but allow greater freedom of movement
P:
predator number
acNP<dP
predator population decline
acNP>dp
predator population increase
Observer
predator which associates the warning signal given by the model with some sort of pain that it wishes to avoid
herbivores are regulated by their
predators (top-down)
In the Lotka Volterra Predator prey model, an increase in the growth rate of prey leads to an increase in the number of a) predators and a decrease in the number of prey B) prey and no change in predator numbers C) predators and no change in prey numbers D) predators and prey
predators and no change in prey numbers
What is mimicry?
predators learn to avoid toxically defended predators by their aposematic coloration or patterns. Undefended insects can mimic these colors or patterns as a defense mechanism without expending the energy to actually make chemicals
top-down
predators reduce size of prey population below carrying capacity set by resources for the prey
what is the goal of conservation biology according to Muir?
preservationist
n:
prey number
rN<cNP
prey population decline
rN>cNP=
prey population increase
capture efficiency
probability of an encounter between a predator and prey leading to the prey's capture, c
How were the segments of ancestor arthropods?
probably consisted of a series of undifferentiated segments, each with a pair of appendages
Transpiration
process by which leaves can generate water potential as water evaporates from the surfaces of leaves
Ecosystem functions
process control fluxes of nutrient energy and matter
Diuretic hormone (DH)
produced by NSC in brain and ventral ganglia, water balance and urine production
Diapause hormone
produced by NSC in suoesphageal ganglion, peptide, iniation of diapause in embryos
Why do exoskeletons allow arthropods to be so successful?
protect internal organs from harsh environments and modified system for breathing on land
brain
proto, deuto, and tritocerebrum -a compound ganglion, major association center
generalized insect wing
pterostigma - weight- reduces flutter during gliding wing generalized axillary sclerites - determine shape of wing path veins - rigidity lines of flexion - give wing different shapes during flight
What is population viability anaylsis?
quantitative analysis of population dynamics with the goal of assessing extinction risk -Demographic data: -mathematical analysis -prediction of extinction risk
(consuption)Prey population will decrease when
rN<cNP->P>r/c
The prey population will increase when the addition of prey exceeds the consumption of prey:
rN>cNP-> P<r/v
Which of the following is NOT an example of a negative feedback? Question options: pathogens regulating seedling density in a tropical forest rainfall regulating soil matric potential hypothalamus regulating body temperature kidneys regulating nitrogen concentrations
rainfall regulating soil matric potential
g=
rate of recovery and developmental immunity
b
rate of transmission (via contact between individuals
b=
rate of transmission between individuals
A population's "intrinsic capacity for increase" depends on?
rates of birth and death
Sustainability challenges
realize our potential and take responsibility for our actions apply our critical thinking and logic to promote sustainable prosperity for our future and the ecosystems that make our civilization possible
Obligate
reciprocal evolution of related structures and functions in two interaction populations, influences fitness (example yucca mouth pollination, host pathogen interactions, leaf cutter ant fungus, acacia tree ant )
phenophases
recurring life cycle stages
What are 3 key factors of dispersal?
reduce intra-specific competition -reduce inbreeding -expand geographic range
yucca
reduces cheating by aborting flowers if moth lays too many eggs
Describe three reasons why is dispersal important
reduces intraspecific competition, creates gene flow, and limited at some scale
sessile
referring to a leaf lacking a petile, where the blade attaches directly to the stem
Secondary succession
regeneration of a community following disturbance (tornado, fire etc)
when the two life history traits are under antagonistic selection, the repose to selection is determined by
regulation of growth
JH or Juvenile hormone
regulation of molting, metamorphosis and reproduction
biological control: ecological definition
regulation of plant and animal numbers by natural enemies
sub-sociality aggregation
related to defense, common in aposematic species
Class 2 of chemical defenses
relatively harmless chemicals with repellant smells or tastes or completely innocuous chemicals that warn predators of the existence of class 1 -function as an aposematic odor, helps with predator learning
strobilus
reproductive structure (cone) consisting of a number of pollen-bearing or ovule bearing scales. The male cones (microstrobili) are usually small and papery,where the female cones (megatrobili) are usually fleshy when young and woody and dry at maturity -
In SIR and SEIR models, R0 represents the____ ratio and is calculated by the ____ and ___ rate
reproductive, recovery, transmission
Nature according to Kareiva is
resilience
AchE
resistance to OP and Carb
GABA
resistance to cyclodiens, fipronil, and avermectins
AchR
resistance to nicotin, neonicotinoids and spinosad
honest signals
resistance to parasites and pathogens (secondary sexual traits) can be inherited by the offspring of the males
Reduced penetration
resistant individuals have a pen gene that reduces penetration of insecticides 2 to 3 folds -modified composition and structure
Predators and plants are___
resource-limited (bottom-up)
Hydrolysis
result in detoxifications. Detoxify organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids
Oxidation
results in detoxification , but sometimes active the pesticides, detoxify all classes of insecticides
How would you structure the retinula cells to maximize light exposure?
retinula cells are twisted so all cells are exposed -very long -increases chance that enough light will be detected to stimulate neurons
Photorespiration
reverses the light reaction of photosynthesis which rubisco binds to oxygen
with fewer predators, the prey population
rises again
carboxylase/oxygenase
rubsico can catalyze both carbon fixation (Co2, photosynthesis) but also reacts with oxygen which makes it inefficient
Insect digestion/excretion system is composed of digestive tract (gut) and salivary gland. Salivary secretes ____________ into mouth cavity for moistening foods and partial digestion of foods.
saliva
Hymenoptera
sawflies, bees, wasps, ants -holometabolous -wasp waist and stingers Wings: 2 pairs, exept most ants -Juveniles: maggot or grublike
Avoidance-escape-startle response
scare predators by sudden display or noise. Many lepidoptera use eye spots for startling predators
Inka cells
scattered as a diffuse network throughout the tracheal surface
Life history:
schedule of organisms life
Ecology
scientific study of the abundance and distribution of organisms in relation to other organisms and environmental conditions
Digestive (columnar cells)
secrete enzymes into the lumen of the midgut that digest protiens carbohydrates and fats and absorb the nutrients -short lived and needs constant replacement
spore
seed
segemented body
segments-bodies built from a series of repeated modules
sexual selection
selection of behaviors, morphologies etc that affect mating success
host plant resistance
selective breeding to create plants with inherited qualities that make them less susceptible to insect damage -avoidance -resistance -tolerance
Behavioral avoidance
selectively choose hostplants. Feeding/oviposition choice
Hypogcerebral ganglion
sends axons to CC and VG
Apolysis
separation of old cuticle from epidermis, formation of space
columnar cactus
shaped like a column
What are the types of transmission cycles?
single and secondary
suffrutescent
somewhat shrubby; slightly woody at the base
Predation and parasitism involve interactions in __ and ___ between ____/___ foraging and ___
space and time predator/parasite prey
Oliogophagy and Monophagy are
specialists
commensalism
species interaction where one species benefits, the other is neither benefited nor harmed
hyperparasitoids
species that are parasitoids of other parasitoids
k-sepected
species with traits that increase competitive abilility
r-selected
species with traits that increase population growth rates
Sporophyte
spore producing, diploid phase in the plant life cycle. Whole plant
Mechanical resistance
squirt-gun
Petiole
stalk of a leaf connection the blase to the stem
Co-evolution:
stepwise reciprocal adaptive changes between the interacting species.
spine
stiff, slender, sharp-pointed structure arising from below the epidermis, representing a modified leaf or stipule, any structure with the appearance of a true spine
The location in a leaf that regulates CO2 and water exchange between the plant and its environement is called A) chlorpoast B) rubisco C) stomata D) xylem
stomata
Warning coloration
strategy where distastefulness evolves in association with very conspicuous colors and patters- this can be exploited
Async/Myogenic muscles
stretching of muscle when it is relaxed induces it to contract again -can create much higher wing beat frequencies than neurogenic ones -each nerve impulse triggers a series of muscle contractions
Phylogenetics
study of evolutionary relationships between taxa -use morphological and DNA data to construct and evaluate potential lineages
Phenology
study of recurring life cycles like migration, flowering etc to change in weather and climate
Climax community
successional endpoint-a community that replaces itself indefinitely in the absence of future disturbance -more useful if communities tend toward equilibrium and most often exist in a dynamic steady state (responding to environmental variatio)
n-dimensional hypervolume
sum of all environmental factors acting on a species
SIR model
susceptible-infected-recovered b=rate of transmission between individuals g= rate of recovery and developmental immunity -ratio of new infections to recoveries is the reproductive ratio R0=SXlXg/lXb If R0>1, the infection will spread (each individual produces >1 new infected individual) If R0<1, the infection fails to spread (each individual produces <1 new infected individual)
Integrated pest management
sustainable approach to managing pests by combing biological, cultural, and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks.
Pinchot goal of conservation biology?
sustainable use, resource conservation equity efficiency ethic,
Insect flight muscle categories based on response to neural input
synchronous or neurogenic asynchronous or myogenic
Physiological ____ and ______ determines the response to simultaneous selection on life history traits
synergism, antagonism
Agonist
synthetic chemical capable of activating a receptor to induce the same effects as the ligand
Antagonist
synthetic chemical that counteracts the effects of the ligand
pheromone-based control suppression through mating disruption
synthetic pheromone blend specific to targeted pest is slow-releasing into the area using dispensers -normal mate searching of males is disrupted and females are unmated -commercial use against lepidopteran pests
Sclerotization
tanning -hardening of the cuticle by chemical interactions among components -hardening is NOT a function of the amount of chitin
diploid
term used to refer to a cell that contains two sets of homologous chromosomes
One large patch better
than divided patches of equal si
Round is better
than long and narrow
What is the crises of conservation?
the 6th extinction
Negative Feedbacks:
the action of internal response mechanism that restores a system to a desired state, or set point when the system deviates from that state -Maintain diversity in communities
Define Fitness
the amount of offspring an individual has that survives
Genetic Polymorphism
the heritable portion of phenotypic variation
If R0<1,
the infection fails to spread (each individual produces <1 new infected individual)
If R0>1
the infection will spread (each individual produces >1 new infected individual)
Mechanical Transmission
the pathogen is transmitted between hosts without amplification or development within the vector, usually by contaminated mouthparts. VERY RARE! -ingest small amount that immune system can fight it off
Assimilation efficiency:
the percentage of consumed energy that is assimilated (i.e., material that is not egested, such as bones assimilation efficiency=assimilated energy (J)/consumed energy (J) Assimilation efficiency varies among trophic levels; primary consumers tend to have lower efficiencies than secondary consumers because prey tissues are more digestible than plant tissues
Consumption efficiency:
the percentage of energy or biomass in a trophic level that is consumed by the next higher trophic level. Consumption efficiency= consumed energy (J)/net production energy of the next lower trophic level (j)
acacia
the plant genus of the ant-plant mutualism of reciprocal positive interactions
Random dispersion
the position of each individual is independent of other individuals; not common due to nonrandom environmental heterogeneity.
An increase in the prey population allows an increase in?
the predator population
A decrease in the predator population allows an increase in?
the prey population
An increase in the predator population causes a decline in?
the prey population
An increased number of predators causes a decline in
the prey population
Secondary Cycle
the primary host of the pathogen is not human. Example - West Nile virus
meiosis
the process that creates haploid gametes from diploid parent cells.
Conservation control
the protection and enhancement of native natural enemies
Realized niche:
the range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species can persist. -where an organism is actually found
Fundamental Niche:
the range of abiotic conditions (temperature, humidity, salinity) under which a species can persist. Competitors, predators, and pathogens may prevent a population from persisting in a area.
Net primary productivity (NPP):
the rate of energy that is assimilated by producers and converted into producer biomass in an area; includes all energy that is not respired
S-shaped curve
the shape of the curve when a population is graphed over time using the logistic model
Augmentation
the supplementation of existing native or introduced natural enemies of a pest
fitness
the survival and reproduction of an individual
overstory
the top layer of trees that form the canopy
What happens when individuals frequently disperse among subpopulations?
the whole population functions as a single structure; all subpopulations increase and decrease in abundance synchronously.
What are the 3 hormones in Ecdysis phase?
this phase is shedding old cuticle, regulated by EH, ETH, and CCAP
what are the 3 hormones in the Pre-ecdysis preparatoty phase?
this phase is the initation of new cuticle formation and old cuticle digestion, regulated by PTTH, MH, and JH
duration of growth period
timing of the critical weight and ICG
sheath
tissue enclosing the base of the fasicle, present in most pines with fascicled leaves
GST
catalyzing conjugation with GSH. Detox DDT, OP and Py.
Envelope of SOFT insects
don't have to molt to get bigger. -grow within an instar -envelope is heavily pleated and stretches out as larva grows
What are insects with direct flight muscles?
dragonflies, roaches, grasshoppers,
Herbivory
eating plants
Material benefits
physical items that a male can provide a female including a site for raising offspring, a high-quality territory, or abundant food.
Dispersal mutualism-seed dispersal:
plant / ant system
Secondary defense of plants:
tradeoffs, less toxic more frequent, more toxic less frequent
Hamiltons rule
C <rB c=cost of the individual r=relatedness of individual and recipient B=benefit to the recipient
What makes vectorial capacity go up?
-Increase in mosquito population -Increased human biting rate by the mosquitos -longer lifespan on the female mosquito
What are components of the epicuticle?
-Inner epicuticle -Envelope -Cement -Wax
What type of selection would be used for interspecific competition?
-disruptive selection
What were winglets for?
-thermoregulation -camouflage -sexual display -gliding -protection
What is the hypotheses for wing evolution?
-Paranotal origin of wings -limb exite origin of wings -Tracheal gill origin of wings
What are the 4 midgut cell types?
-digestive cells -regenerative cells -endocrine cells -goblet cells
Resistance
(constancy)-capacity of an ecological system to resist perturbation
haploid
(genetics) an organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes
waterproofiing
-thickness and melting point are habitat dependent -cuticular water loss=80%
Primary productivity (photosynthesis) determines:
(1) number of trophic levels (2) herbivore &predator abundanc
What kind of fish is hyposmotic? Why?
(b) Saltwater fish are hyposmotic: they have a lower salt concentration in their body than exists in the surrounding water. To maintain salt balance, they must excrete large amounts of solutes, so their gills and kidneys actively exclude solutes.
Absorption of nutrients in midgut
-Passive diffusion -active transport -uptake of specific molecules
How to attract pollinators?
-color -fragrance -shape
Abundance of insects
1 x 10^8 1/3 of all animal biomass
What are the odds of an introduced species becoming established? Spreading?
5-15 -1 can be invasive
What percentage of freshwater exceeds long-term accessible water?
5-25
Community
: Association of interacting populations defined by nature of their interactions or the place in which they live. Boundaries are not rigid, and often artificially defined for research purpose
Glial cells
: Non-conducting supporting cells that surround neurons and help to protect neurons and maintain stable ionic environment
c
: capture efficiency
Gross primary productivity (GPP)
: the rate at which energy is captured and assimilated by producers in an area
Endoparasite
A parasite that lives inside an organism.
The ecological conscience-Aldo Leopold
A system of conservation based solely on economic self interest is hopelessly lopsided, it assumes falsely that the economic parts of the biotic clock will function without the uneconomic parts -the oldest task in human history: to live
sod
A thick mass of grass roots and soil.
How is an action potential generated at the axon hillock of an axon? How is an action potential propagated along the axon?
Action potential is progated along the axon by a local current that flows away from the action potential point in both directions. The action potential is only generated if ∑EPSPs -∑IPSPs ≥ Na+ gate threshold
sensory neuron
Afferent (sensory) neurons --bipolar or multipolar cells have dendrites that are associated with sense organs. They carry information TOWARD the central nervous system (CNS).
Wher are motor neurons and interneurons?
Aggregate in Ganglion
Guard cells:
Allow stomata to close and open
Dominant
An allele that masks the expression of the other allele
Estimate
Any quantity that is computed or estimated from sample observations, sometimes called statistics -sometimes distinguished from the parameter they estimate by a "hat"
Resource
Any substance or factor that is consumed or used by an organism that supports increased population growth as its availability increases
What are the type of chemical defenses?
Apparency Aposematic coloration
Migration
Behavior response to season (move)
If insect vectors pick up and transmit diseases by feeding the blood of an infected person, why can't all infectious diseases be transmitted by blood-feeding insects (e.g. AIDS, Ebola)?
Biological transmission requires the pathogen to invade and reproduce inside the vector insect. Pathogens must evolve the capacity to do that, and cannot usually survive in the insect gut.
Eusociality has evolved in what orders?
Blattodea, hymenoptera
What is coral reefs threatened by?
Bleaching
What is the source of EH?
Brain
Interspecific competition
Competition among individuals of different species.
What is the one main difference between the endocuticle and the exocuticle?
Endocuticle is soft and the exocuticle is hardened
character state couplet
For dichotomous key
Succession: Long term Example
Glacier Bay Alaska Retreating since 1774 1.Pioneers (Lichens) 2.Shrubs (Dyras) 3.Small trees (Alder) 4. Large Trees (spruce)
Class 1 of chemical defenses
Noxious chemicals that irritate, hurt, or poison individual predators -negative experience
Haplo-diploidy in Hymenoptera
In Hymenoptera, unfertilized eggs become male, and fertilized eggs become female. Males have no genetic connection to their fathers.
Whether metamorphic changes occur or not depends on whether __ is present when ___ is prsent
JH, MH
Rosaceae
Life from: herbs, shrubs, trees, with rhizomes, Flowers and Inflorescence: perfect and regular, often showy -Leaves with stipules and usually toothed -5 sepals forming hypanthium -5 free clawed petals; corolla often showy -more than 15 stamens -fruit a follicle drupe, pome, achene; may be aggregate or accessory
What were the consequences of these changes in forest structure?
Light surface fires became catastrophic wildfires
_____ is a method to estimate population abundance with survey data through mark-recapture
Lincoln peterson
Lokta Volterra Predator Prey
Look at exam
Midgut detoxification
Many plants contain bad chemicals that have adverse effects on herbivores
What are adaptions to decrease water loss in plants?
Modified photosynthetic pathways such as C4 and Cam plants. They reduce leaf area to root area ratio. Dormancy/leaf loss during drought. Create boundary layers such as spins and hair but still air traps moisture and reduces evaporation.
How do we know when insets arose?
Molecular clock -uses rates of molecular change over time to deduce the time in geological history when two related groups of organisms diverged from a common ancestor -insect divergence from crustaceans
Contact Poison
Most insecticides enter through the cuticle
Estuaries
Mouth of river, bordered by salt marshes Very productive ecosystems Very productive ecosystems -High nutrient loads -Low water stress
Solutions to having too many deer or elk•
Move them to somewhere else •Kill them, outside or even inside park •Keep them from reproducing •Re-introduce predators (preferred, but not always always feasible
In terms of reproductive strategies, what is the evolutionary advantage of iteroparity? A) Big bang reproduction increases likelihood of cross pollination and reduces inbreeding potential B) Cross-pollination with other species increases fitness C) there is no evolutionary advantage; iteroparity is maladaptive D) multiple reproductive events spread risk in variable environments
Multple reproductive events spread risk in variable environments
NPP=
NPP=GPP- Respiration [units of Joules (J) / m2 / year]
Defense mutualism-
Plant guard: plant / ant or parasitoid system
What is the source of energy combatting entropy?
Sun
Line-transect surveys
Surveys that count the number of individuals observed as one moves along a line.
Area- and volume-based surveys
Surveys that define the boundaries of an area or volume and then count all of the individuals in the space.
Photoperiod
The amount of light that occurs each day.
Stratification
The condition of a lake or pond when the warmer, less dense surface water floats on the cooler, denser water below.
Adiabatic cooling
The cooling effect of reduced pressure on air as it rises higher in the atmosphere and expands. -lower rates of molecules colliding
Hypolimnion
The deeper layer of water in a lake or pond.
Sympatric speciation
The evolution of new species without geographic isolation.
Albedo
The fraction of solar energy reflected by an object. -Some surfaces have higher albedo than others; light-colored surfaces reflect more light than dark-colored surfaces
Adiabatic heating
The heating effect of increased pressure on air as it sinks toward the surface of Earth and decreases in volume. -higher rates of molecules colliding .
What does the high albedo of snow cause?
The high albedo of snow at poles decreases average temperatures.
Dispersal
The movement of individuals from one area to another. -reduces intraspecific competition, creates gene flow, and is limited at some scale
Nitrogen cycle is driven by
The nitrogen cycle is a renewable resource driven by bacteria.
Selection
The process by which certain phenotypes are favored to survive and reproduce over other phenotypes.
Demography
The study of populations.
Parameter
True value of some population attribute which is almost always unknown
Solution of alteration of sheet flow
Trying to reduce agriculture, and restore sheetflow, but number ofagencies involved and conflictingdemands makes management very difficult.**Major point: management can not focus only inside park
Which functional response is the most realistic?
Type III
Pinchot legacy
USFS, founded Yale school of forestry
Chemical resistance
Various toxic compounds
Why is there unequal heating on earth?
When the Sun is directly over the equator, its rays travel through less atmosphere and are spread over a smaller area. Near the poles, however, the rays of the Sun must travel through more atmosphere and are spread over a larger area.
tiller
a basal or subterranean shoot which his more or less erect
1. What is the relationship between genes and alleles? Question options: a. Alleles are different forms of a particular gene. b. Alleles are genes linked to one physical trait. c. Alleles are groups of genes that determine a particular trait. d. Several alleles combine to make a complete gene.
a. Alleles are different forms of a particular gene.
Thermal inertia Question options: is the resistance to change in temperature due to a large body volume. means that individuals with small surface area to volume ratios run a greater risk of overheating. means that ectotherms are less likely than endotherms to have large body sizes. all of the above.
all of the above.
natural enemy
an organism that feeds on or competes with another species in a way that reduces population densities of the latter
clonal selection
avoid extinction by producing offspring more rapidly than new deleterious mutations arise, so that some individuals would always retain the nonmutated parental genotype and produce the next generation
How to reduce interspecific competition?
avoiding competition ( by consuming different resources) improves fitness for all and should be selected for -Dispersal
Which process will decrease the magnitude of phenotypic variation between generations? Question options: a. disruptive selection b. stabilizing selection c. directional selection d. None; they all increase phenotypic variation.
b. stabilizing selection
Which cold biome is treeless with low precipitation and frozen soil? Question options: a. temperate seasonal forest b. tundra c. boreal forest d. cold desert/temperate grassland
b. tundra
standing crop
biomass of producers present in a given area of an ecosystem at a particular moment in time. ecosystems with high primary productivity may not have a high standing crop;consumers may eat it as quickly as it grows
dichotomous
branched or forked into two or more or less equal divisions
What are insects with indirect flight muscles?
coleoptera, diptera, lepidoptera
Parasitoids
consume and kill only one prey (host) during juvenile development
Neurons have extensions called __________ and __________. __________ brings information to the soma and _________takes information away from the soma.
dendrites, axons. Dendrites, axon
ovule
develop into seeds, are not enclosed in an ovary
r:
exponential growth rate of prey
physiognomy
facial character
Foregut and ______________ are formed through invagination of the integument from the two body ends and thus secrete cuticles towards the gut lumen, whereas midgut is not originated from the integument and therefore secrete ______________ instead of cuticle.
hidgut, enzymes
Source
high-quality patches that produce a large number of individuals that disperse to other patches
What does more niche overlap mean?
higher competition and lower fitness for all competitors
Proteins in hard cuticles
histidens are in right position to participate in sclerotization -or to be involved in water binding capacity of cuticle
Oxidative damage
in vertebrates PO2 in muscles at rest in 5kPa and in active muscles 0.5 kPa -by comparsion when spiracles are fully open PO2 is 19kPa-very high -high potential for oxidative damage
Arachnida
includes scorpions, spiders, mites, ticks, -two main body parts -abdomen and cephalothorax -8 legs -mouth parts contai chlicerae rather than mandibles -no antennae or wings -terrestrial
What were the consequences of fire suppression?I
increase in understory trees and woody debis
temperature-dependent sex determination.
incubation temperature determines sex organisms. Phenotypic Plasticity
Polyethism
individuals of same caste differ in behavior
P450
involved in metabolism and resistance to all classes of insecticides
niche partitioning
leads to succession of insects
The digestive track is divided into ______________, ______________ and ______________.
midgut, foregut, hindgut
Reduction
not common
Temperate-gated channels:
open in response to high or low temperatures
Bursicon
peptide, tanning of cuticle
vein:
sclerotised tube
C3
the most common photosynthetic pathway even though it is not very efficient
coexistence
the outcome when interspecific competition is weaker than intraspecific competition
Biological Transmission
the pathogen has an obligate developmental or amplification period within the vector. - the pathogen co-opts the blood-feeding insect to transport it between hosts. VERY COMMON!
Spatial structure:
the pattern on density and spacing of individuals in a population
Xylem
water transport, "straw"
Adaption
○ Evolutionary process by which a population becomes suited to its habitat
