5: Protecting The Environment

Decisions for the Global Ecosystem 1

Each day, you make many decisions. To make decisions, you must determine priorities among the risks, costs, and benefits involved. Decisions may include which shoes to wear or when to shut the water off in the shower.

A Global Agenda

In 1992, the United Nations had a meeting of all member nations in Rio de Janeiro. This meeting was called the Earth Summit. The countries attending this meeting addressed such issues as biodiversity, global warming, sustainable development, and relationships between developed and developing nations relating to environmental matters. Although these issues were addressed, many feel that more substantial action must be taken at this level. A summary of the major outcomes of the meeting is presented in the table.

Community 2

In addition, the utility companies provide homeowners with access to energy-saving bulbs. Some communities are meeting their electrical demands by using alternatives to fossil fuels. In some communities, trash is being burned to generate the steam needed to produce electricity. Several communities in California now require solar hot water systems in all new housing.

Local Policies 5

In many communities, issues concerning environmental policies may be put on local ballots at election time. Such issues are often related to pollution, land management, and the quality of health. One example would be a vote on a bond issue to pay for improving a sewage-treatment system.

Local Policies 6

Land-management policies at the state and local levels address both land use and pollution. Land-use policies may require that, before land can be developed, environmental impact studies must be performed. Conducted by ecologists, other scientists, and engineers, these studies predict how a proposed project may affect the biotic and abiotic factors in the environment.

Development and Environmental Protection 3

Look at the map. Half of India was once covered by forests. Today, in its race to meet economic needs, India has removed all but about 15 percent of its protective forests. Deforestation along the Ganges River has led to greater runoff and, consequently, to massive flooding in Bangladesh, located at the mouths of the Ganges.

Community 1

Many communities are implementing programs or practices designed to reduce energy consumption or provide alternatives to fossil-fuel use. Many utility companies now provide free home energy audits to show customers how to reduce their energy use.

Local Policies 2

Many environmental problems are not spontaneous events. Instead, a potentially harmful condition persists, sometimes unnoticed, over an extended period of time during which a health hazard arises. The problem that occurred in Love Canal, New York, is a good example.

International Policies

Most scientists, environmentalists, and concerned citizens' groups agree that there is a need for international cooperation if a sustainable future is to be achieved. However, while cooperation is desirable, is it possible or even practical on a global scale?

Native American Nations

Native American nations involved in the fishing rights treaties are concerned with environmental issues and the livelihood of their communities. Attempts are being made between these nations and the federal government to develop policies that encourage a sustainable use for the fishing resources. For now, however, the controversies and conflicts continue—and probably will until new agreements are reached that settle these difficult issues.

Social Studies

Often, the general public does not view environmental risks the same way that professionals such as scientists, doctors, and government officials do. For example, while the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) may consider risks from indoor air pollution to be high, the general public may consider indoor air pollution to be only a low health risk. Many social scientists relate this behavior to the way the general public is informed through the media.

1977 1

President Jimmy Carter instructed the Council on Environmental Quality and the State Department to study changes in population, resource depletion, pollution, and land management through the year 2000.

Cost Benefit Analysis 1

The analysis of social costs versus social benefits. Cost/benefit analysis is a way of identifying the positive and negative impacts of environmental activities and determining the costs of these impacts. Next, the analysis reflects whether or not the benefits are greater than the costs.

Development and Environmental Protection 2

The argument is that developed nations dominate decision-making and policy-making to benefit themselves within international organizations such as the United Nations. Developing nations feel that such practices widen the economic gap between countries and encourage resentment and mistrust.

Cost Benefit Analysis 2

The goal is to determine how to increase benefits and reduce costs. The graph shows the costs of controlling pollution compared to environmental costs. A cost/benefit analysis shows that the most favorable level of pollution control is one that provides a balance between protection costs and health risks.

Shared Resources 1

The market concept only applies to resources that can be owned and purchased. Many resources, such as air and water, are part of global cycles, and must be shared by all people.

Supply and Demand 4

Some things appear to have no direct economic value. Air, space, and warmth are basic requirements of all living organisms. The growing human population has demanded, and will continue to increase its demand for, these resources. People must consider the supply of these resources, because human activity not only depletes resources, it can damage them as well.

Hearing a Single Voice 1

The policies made at local, federal, and international levels may involve scientists, powerful politicians, and business leaders, but those policies usually begin with a single voice. For example, a high school student in the United States became concerned about the number of dolphins captured and killed by fishing boats using tuna nets.

Supply and Demand 3

Supply and demand for a resource are controlled by different factors. Supply is not merely the availability of a resource. Business or political control can make a resource unavailable. Government policies may also subsidize development of a resource, increasing its availability. Demand is based on people's desire for a resource which is affected by their values.

Local Policies 1

The words of a single voice must be informed and organized in order to be well heard. These words may be spoken through boycotts, letters, protests, court action, or voting. Personal concerns become community concerns when more people recognize the concern and understand that they all share it.

Making Policies 1

There are questions involving time and money, and questions concerning whether changes need to be made. No one wants to change business or agricultural practices when there is no definite idea of the costs involved, or whether it is necessary, or if there will be any real benefits from the change.

The Global Ecosystem

There are various approaches to applying a sustainable ethic to natural resources. Such concepts involve conservation, recycling, and source reduction. While it is essential to understand the theories behind recycling and conservation, it is equally important to understand how such plans can be applied effectively.

Hearing a Single Voice 2

This student began a writing campaign to heads of corporations that processed tuna products. As public pressure grew and boycotts threatened the tuna industry, several companies changed their fishing practices to reduce the threat to dolphins.

Making Policies 2

To regulate practices and activities with respect to their impact on the global ecosystem, policies are developed. A policy is an outline of actions, incentives, penalties, and rules that a company, group, or government follows concerning a particular issue. Developing an environmental policy involves making decisions based on risk assessment and cost/benefit analysis. Risk assessment and cost/benefit analysis are based on educated estimates and predictions.

Supply and Demand 1

Two main concepts in economics are the ideas of supply and demand. Supply is the amount of a resource available to consumers. Demand is the amount of a resource that people are willing to purchase.

Shared Resources 2

Water can be owned and sold on the market, but the global cycle that recharges aquifers cannot. Such resources are difficult to assess using the economic concepts of supply and demand. Scientists and economists are trying to determine the true value of such ecosystem functions.

Which tactic is not used by individuals and groups to influence environmental decisions?

boycotting Senate hearings

People can collectively cause a reduction in the amount of resources they extract by _____.

demanding fewer products

Which was not an issue discussed at Earth Summit, the international environmental conference?

economic development

A student successfully pressured tuna companies to stop capturing dolphins by doing something that one person of any age can do from any location. The method used by the student was _____.

letter-writing

The goal of an environmental impact study is to _____.

predict how a project may affect the environment

Environmental Protection Agency

responsible for managing and investigating environmental concerns so that effective federal legislation may be developed. Matters dealing with the environment, except those related to nuclear energy, fall under the EPA's control. Nuclear energy is regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). There are many divisions of the EPA, including the Office of Policy and Resources Management, Office of Compliance, Office of Environmental Justice, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, Office of Water, and the Office of Atmospheric Programs.

One reason why drawing up cost/benefit analyses of environmental policies is so difficult is that _____.

the benefits are difficult to quantify

Courts have found that Native American fishing rights must be honored because _____.

treaties must be upheld

Economics and Values

Human behavior as it relates to resources can be modeled using economic concepts. Human values as they relate to resources, however, are not easily modeled. Our values regarding the environment reflect religious, cultural, and economic considerations.

Supply and Demand 2

If demand is high, people will be willing to pay a high price. High prices will encourage those who control resources to place more of them on the market. However, high prices may also inspire consumers to conserve resources or find other, alternative resources. Market prices are determined by the balance of supply and demand.

1977 2

In 1980, the results of the Global 2000 Report concluded that "If present trends continue, the world in 2000 will be more crowded, more polluted, less stable ecologically, and more vulnerable to disruption than the world we live in now . . . unless the nations of the world act decisively to alter current trends."

Outcomes of the Earth Summit

Agenda Item Resolution The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development Statement of principle governing worldwide policy on the environment and development. Agenda 21 Action plan for environmental protection and sustainable development. Biodiversity Convention Concerned with the extinction of species; requires signatory nations to inventory and protect endangered species. Global Warming Convention Commitment by nations to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. Statement on Forest Principles A statement relating to the protection of the world's forests.

National Quality of Life 1

Although the responsibility for maintaining environmental quality lies largely with local and state governments, the federal government must intervene on behalf of the people when the actions of one state affect the quality of life in another state.

Development and Environmental Protection 1

At present, there is a widening gap between the economic and political needs and interests of developed nations and those of developing nations. A common view among developing nations is that developed nations have already obtained wealth and consumed much of Earth's resources for their own needs. This comes at a time when developing countries, under pressure to obtain wealth through the sale of their resources, are cautioned by developed countries to conserve and better manage these resources.

Decisions for the Global Ecosystem 2

At this level, most people can easily come to a decision. However, when the decision must take into account risks, costs, and benefits concerning human health and the environment, matters become complicated. Who takes on the risks? Who benefits? Who pays the costs?

Community 3

Awareness of issues in the global ecosystem is essential. Solving environmental problems at the state and local levels requires the education of citizens. Educated citizens are prepared to take responsible actions.

Local Policies 4

Concerned citizens are often the first to vocalize the dangers of harmful environmental conditions. These people may sponsor discussions to enlighten the public about practices they feel affect their health and their environment. These people may choose to challenge existing policies.

National Quality of Life 2

Consider, for example, that a great deal of pollutants enter the Mississippi River at various points within the river's watershed. Because of the flowing nature of water, these pollutants have an impact on all the states located along the river. Resolution of such problems takes place most often in the form of environmental legislation.

Risk Assessment

Determining how much risk is acceptable

Cost Benefit Analysis 3

A cost/benefit analysis must be detailed and specific so that interest groups may assess the results of the analysis. Different interest groups may assign different values to items on the lists of costs and benefits, resulting in different decisions.

Federal Policies

Federal policies involve a more complicated decision-making process than local policies. Whereas specific local issues are dealt with by local residents and local policies, federal policies must consider the local issues of many communities and states. Something that benefits one region of a nation may be a disadvantage to another region.

Cost Benefit Analysis 4

For example, a developer who wants to build a mall can buy the land for it at market price. However, people living in the area may value the scenic nature of the undeveloped land, and feel that the advantages of a nearby mall do not outweigh the costs of losing the natural surroundings.

How do group interests influence the risks, costs, and benefits involved in environmental policy-making?

For example, environmental groups may argue that having less toxic waste in streams will reduce health risks and health-care costs for the people who use or live near the stream.

What is cost/benefit analysis?

It is a way of identifying the positive and negative impacts of environmental activities and determining the costs of these impacts. The analysis reflects whether or not the benefits are greater than the costs.

Local Policies 3

Problems related to the health hazard in Love Canal began in 1954. The company responsible for the dump maintains that local officials were aware of potential problems. However, it took until the late 1970s before local residents became aware of the toxic chemical dump under their feet.

Local Policies 7

Recycling is only one of the ways that state and local governments are dealing with environmental issues. Prior to 1972, most environmental concerns were dealt with at the federal level. But since that time, the emphasis for environmental responsibility has been shifted back to state and local communities. This shift in focus is largely the result of individual states' preference to maintain control over their own environmental situations.

Rick Assessment 2

Risk assessment can become subjective. Independent researchers or research groups must provide definite research results in order to receive funding. Researchers who work with particular industries sometimes are encouraged to provide results that support the efforts of these industries.

Rick Assessment 1

Scientists conduct laboratory studies, examine historical events, and develop models to determine the relationship between causes and effects. In many cases, assessing the risks involved in using a particular product, technology, or activity is quite difficult. Money for research may be insufficient, and real-life cause-and-effect models for new products and new technology are limited.

Supply-Demand Curve

Shows how price varies with respect to supply and demand

Why are federal policies more complicated than local policies?

They must consider the concerns of many communities.