5.1 Migration as a component of population change

What is the Stark's model?

This model is about how a families economic situation may change as a child migrates from a rural to an urban area in LEDCs. He argues that Todaro's model only considers the individual migrating, but that most migrants think of their family as well. Their families act together to spread the cost and all benefits eventually - economic diversification.

What is stepped migration?

When a rural migrant initially heads to a familiar small town and then after a period of time moves on to a larger urban settlement. Over many years, the migrant may take a number of steps up the urban hierarchy.

What is intra-urban migration?

When people move within an urban area.

What is the definition of economic migration?

When someone moves to another place to improve their standards of living e.g. a better or more highly paid job.

What are the human caused of the forced migration in Mongolia?

A change to Mongolian economic activity and lifestyle. Until the fall of the Soviet Union, Mongolia was a communist country so herding was managed by the government: - livestock owned by collectives - restrictions on the number of animals in each herd - officials decided where you lived - officials kept a central supply of fodder encase dzud came Communism ended - 1990 - herders could own as many animals as they liked - live where they want - livestock increased from 20 million to 70 million - no state support - no central supply of fodder - private traders - have to move closer to market - more animals grazing on less land Under communism - herders could move to find better grasslands, but they could not migrate to the city. When communism ended - people allowed to leave herding (move to city), whether or not they were affected by the worsening climate. Migrants stay in contact with their family/friends in rural areas - this increases migration in the future because they share information and migration strategies. General push and pull factors.

What is the gravity model?

A model taken from Newton's law of gravity, and used to predict the degree of migration interaction between two places. The farther apart the two locations are, the less movement between them.

What is the definition of a refugee?

A person who has been forced to leave their country of origin in fear of their lives. Someone who has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular group or political opinion

What is the definition of an asylum seeker?

A person who has left their country of origin for fear of persecution. They have asked permission to stay in another country permanently and are waiting for a decision on this.

What is the push pull model?

A theory that considers the push factors, pull factors and barriers to migration.

What are remittances?

A transfer of money, often by a foreign worker to an individual in his or her home country.

What are intervening obstacles?

An environmental or cultural feature that hinders migration.

What are the physical causes of the forced migration in Mongolia?

Climate change Over past 70 years, average temperature in Mongolia has risen by 2.07 degrees. This has caused terrible weather - dzud - unusually dry summers (drought) and unusually cold/ severe winters. - dry summers (can get to 50 degrees C) - hard to grow and harvest grass - less fodder to feed the cattle over the winter - more likely to die - cold winters (can get to -50 degrees C) - requires an even bigger supply of fodder Desert-like - less rain, dried riverbeds Herding is a way of life for over a third of Mongolians. Dzuds from 1999 to 2002, killed 11 million animals. One family lost almost all their animals - 39/40 cows and almost 300 sheep's died. Nearly 9,000 families saw their entire herds freeze or starve to death and another 30,000 lost half their livestock. Livestock die - herders are forced to move to Ulaanbaatar to find work.

What are examples of push factors?

Economic Lack of job opportunities, only unskilled jobs available Low wages Risk of famine if crop fails Social Low standard of living Poverty Poor medical care Poor schooling Poor quality of life, e.g. poor housing Bullying Poor chances of finding a partner Forced off land by landowner Boredom Work of farm is too hard Insufficient land - overpopulation Political Conflict, war and/or political oppression. Not being able to practice religion Environmental Pollution Natural Disasters Floods destroy crops and livestock

What are the barriers/obstacles to migration?

Closing up costs - refers to the cost of 'closing up' your affairs in your origin location. For example, selling your house incurs estate agents fees and you must pay to have your goods transported. Actual transport costs - this will depend on the mode of transport used and the time taken for the journey. Opening up costs - if there are fees on buying a new property in the destination location this can be a barrier. Other legal costs may also be involved. Distance and landscape - the distance between the origin and the destination is a barrier, including any physical landscapes barriers such as seas and deserts that must be crossed. Human danger along borders - refers to any human dangers presented during the migration journey. Government immigration laws - most countries require visas to enter and remain in the country and these are often not granted. Skills required for visas - in some countries such as Canada, a skills test is required, and only certain trades and professions will be allowed entry into the country.

What are some examples of constraints, obstacles and barriers?

Journey Physical dangers - mountains, bodies of water, deserts, flood, drought, landslides Human dangers - friendliness/unfriendliness of people encountered on the journey, ethnic tensions Cost Closing-up cost at origin - refers to the cost of closing-up affairs in your origin location e.g. selling house Cost of journey/moving - cost of both personal transport and transport of possessions - depends of mode of transport and time taken for the journey Opening-up cost at destination - e.g. buying house Legal restraints (e.g. immigration laws) Insufficient documentations - visa/ID papers Immigration applications

What is the difference between legal migration and illegal migration?

Legal migration - A person who enters a country with permission. Illegal migration - A person who enters a country without permission.

What is the difference between immigration/ emigration and in-migration and out-migration?

Immigration/ emigration - refers to international migration. Immigration - When someone move into a country. Emigration - When someone leaves a country. In-migration/ out-migration - refers to internal migration.

What are the main constraints, obstacles and barriers for internal and international migration?

Internal migration - usually no legal restrictions - distance and cost International migration - immigration laws - distance and cost

What is the difference between internal migration and international migration?

Internal migration - When a person moves to another place within the same country. International migration - When a person moves to a different country for at least a year.

What is relay migration?

It occurs when at different stages in a family's life cycle different people take responsibility for migration to improve the financial position of the family.

What is an example of forced migration?

Mongolia - forced internal migration Landlocked country between Russia to the North and China to the East, South and West.

How is forced migration in Mongolia being managed? What are the responses?

Mongolia's National Emergency Management Agency partnered with the UN development programme and NGOs such as Save the Children to provide fodder and other support to the worst affected areas. Save the Children - Sukhaatar - paid for worst-affected families to replace their dead livestock - very successful - made some families who migrated to the city return Home-schooling programmes for children in remote areas and far from school. Migration from the countryside was banned from 2017 to 2018 Government tackling issues to do with ger areas - cadaster implementation, supplying energy-efficient low-pressure boiler stoves and water kiosk networks

What is the definition of migration?

Movement of people (or animals) from one place to another, involving a permanent (1 year +) change of address.

What is Ravanstein's laws?

Not necessarily a model but a set of observations that led to a number of migration laws. 1. Most migrants move only a short distance. 2. Each migration flow produces a compensating counter-flow. 3. Long-distance migrants go to one of the great centers of commerce (trading) and industry. 4. Natives of towns are less migratory than those from rural areas. 5. Females are more migratory than males. 6. Economic factors are the main cause of migration.

What is the Todaro model?

People migrating from a rural area to an urban areas are expected to experience short term difficulties, meaning that in the short term they might not be better off but, weighing up the odds, the likelihood was that their socio-economic standing would improve in the long term. People are willing to endure short-term difficulties in the hope of better standard of living in the future, if not for themselves then for their children.

What are examples of pull factors?

Positive High wages Improved standard of living More job opportunities, better jobs available Better living conditions Political and/or religious freedom Better medical care Better education Security Family links Better chances of finding a partner Better entertainment Negative People may speak a different language

What were the effects of forced migration in Mongolia on the destination/host area?

Positive effects Cheap labour Skilled labour Cultural diversity Negative Effects 60% of cities population (mainly migrants) live in Ger (tent) districts on the edge/ outskirts of the city - never been properly integrated into the cities planning/ development programmes. - these tents are seen as temporary settlements. Ger districts do not have modern infrastructure and cannot access services such as: - sanitation facilities - less than 30 percent of the ger residents have access to sanitation - causes pollution of groundwater - schools - social welfare services - health services - electricity/ water - don't have pipes that supply drinking or hot water - have to obtain water at public water kiosks - heating systems - 85% of the ger residents use wood or coal-burning stove for heating Migrants live in ger districts because without any skills, experience or knowledge they cannot get a job, so they cannot get a bank loan, so they cannot get an apartment - have to live in ger districts Pollution - air pollution - caused by power plants, industry, domestic heating and transport - causes respiratory diseases and hepatitis Overcrowded schools - sometimes teachers run three shifts a day Different lifestyle - in the countryside you didn't need to buy anything - food/ drink from livestock - have to buy everything in city - even water - herders cannot get jobs in the city because they don't have the experience/ level of knowledge/ skills - cannot find a job/ unemployment over 60% Discrimination Social/civil pressure (housing, health, education) - may cause the prices of these services to rise

What are pull and push factors?

Push factor - factors that make people leave a place Pull factor - factors that attracts people to a place

What are some examples of migration theories/models?

Ravenstein's Laws Step/stepwise model Push pull model Todaro model Stark's model Gravity model Relay model Lee's model Chain model Distance-decay model

What is the difference between rural-urban migration and urban-rural migration?

Rural-urban - When someone moves from the countryside to the city - urbanisation. Urban-rural - When someone moves from the city to the countryside.

What is the step/stepwise model?

Suggests migration occurs in a series of movements. For example, moving to a town larger than the home town, but not directly to one of the city regions. Home town -> small town -> city. Over many years, the migrant may take a number of steps up the urban hierarchy.

What is the destination (receiving area)?

The country where a migrant settles (moves to).

What is net migration?

The number of migrants entering a region or country minus the number of migrants who leave the same region or country. May be positive or negative.

What is the country of origin (source area)?

The place from which a migration starts. The place the migrant has come from. The place where someone/ something is made or created (born).

What were the effects of forced migration in Mongolia on the origin/source area?

Two-thirds of Mongolia's population lived in the countryside in 1960, under one-third now. Positive Remittances - higher quality of life/standard of living Migrant workers bring back knowledge and skill Negative Loss of skilled labour Away from friends/ family Population stalls and demand for some goods and services fell.

What is the difference between voluntary migration and forced migration?

Voluntary migration - When the individual or household has a free choice about whether or not to move. Forced migration - When the individual or household has little or no choice but to move.

What is chain migration?

the social process by which migrants from a particular town follow others from that town to a particular destination. The destination may be in another country or in a new location within the same country.