A&P CH12-15

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Prokaryotic cells

"Before nucleus," primitive, no nucleus, ex. bacteria

chemical bond

An energy relationship holding atoms together; involves the interaction of electrons.

anion

An ion carrying one or more negative charges and therefore attracted to a positive pole.

Hydroxyl ion (OH-)

An ion liberated when a hydroxide (a common inorganic base) is dissolved in water.

Anterior and Posterior

Anterior( ventral)- toward the front of the body posterior( dorsal) -toward the back of the body

Organic compound

Any compound composed of atoms (some of which are carbon) held together by covalent (shared electron) bonds.

Length and Tension Changes

Can contract when between half and twice its resting length

What is the Axonal Terminal?

Branched terminus of an axon.

Membrane potential changes are produced by:

Changes in membrane permeability to ions Alterations of ion concentrations across the membrane

Covalent bond

Chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms.

ionic bond

Chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms.

Decomposition reaction

Chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms.

Displacement (exchange) reaction

Chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms.

Exchange (displacement) reaction

Chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms.

reduction

Chemical reaction in which electrons and energy are gained by a molecule (often accompanied by gain of hydrogen ions) or oxygen is lost.

Combination (synthesis) reaction

Chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones.

Endergonic reaction

Chemical reaction that absorbs energy, e.g., an anabolic reaction.

Exergonic reaction

Chemical reaction that releases energy, e.g., a catabolic or oxidative reaction.

buffer

Chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions.

Inorganic compound

Chemical substances that do not contain carbon, including water, salts, and many acids and bases.

Transversus abdominis

Constricts abdomen and supports abdominal viscera

Gray Matter

Contains mostly nerve cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers.

Abdominal Cavity

Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver, and other organs

Nerve Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)

Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus Is the major biosynthetic center Is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal processes Has no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature) Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER) Contains an axon hillock - cone-shaped area from which axons arise

Pelvic Cavity

Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

Growth cone

Growing tip of an axon that has a prickly, fanlike structure that gives an axon the ability to interact with its environment.

Hair Growth

Growth phase (weeks to years) followed by regressive stage and resting phase (1-3 months), Growth phase varies (6-10 years in scalp, 3-4 months in eyebrows)

Protraction

Nonangular anterior movements in a transverse plane, (ex: jut out jaw)

coenzyme

Nonprotein substance associated with and activating an enzyme, typically a vitamin.

element

One of a limited number of unique varieties of matter that composes substances of all kinds; e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.

adenine (A)

One of the two major purines found in both RNA and DNA; also found in various free nucleotides of importance to the body, such as ATP.

guanine (G)

One of two major purines occurring in all nucleic acids.

indicated by movements of the eyes under the lids;dreaming occurs

REM

What is a Nerve Cell?

Structural units of the nervous system. Composed of a body, axon and dendrites. Long lived, amitotic, and have a high metabolic rate.

hypoglossal foramen

What is this foramen

Cuboidal

cubelike, 6 sides, nucleus near the center (could be oval), little dimension

Period of Relaxation

final phase, lasting 10-100ms, is initiated by reentry of Ca2+ into the SR; muscle tension decreases to zero and tracing returns to baseline

Eukaryotic cells

"True nucleus," has a nucleus that is membrane bound, ex. ALL plants & animals

What is Hyperpolerization?

#6 The inside of the membrane becomes more negative then the resting potential.

Dendrites of Motor Neurons

'messenger' cells that receive stimulus anchor the cell body relay signal to cell body

Action Potentials (APs)

'neuron firing' +35mV Action potentials are only generated by muscle cells and neurons They do not decrease in strength over distance They are the principal means of neural communication

receptor

(1) A cell or nerve ending of a sensory neuron specialized to respond to particular types of stimuli; (2) protein that binds specifically with other molecules, e.g., neurotransmitters, hormones, paracrines, antigens.

colloid

(1) A mixture in which the solute particles (usually proteins) do not settle out readily. (2) Substance in the thyroid gland containing thyroglobulin protein.

Draw an action potential***

- label voltages (-55mV, -70mV, +30mv) - know what channels open and closes at each step

Presynaptic neuron

A neuron conducting impulses toward the synapse

Postsynaptic neuron

A neuron on the receiving end of a synapse

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A nucleic acid found in all living cells; it carries the organism's hereditary information.

enzyme

A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction.

substrate

A reactant on which an enzyme acts to cause a chemical action to proceed.

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction

A reaction that couples the oxidation (loss of electrons) of one substance with the reduction (gain of electrons) of another substance.

uracil (U)

A smaller, single-ring base (a pyrimidine) found in RNA.

Synaptic Cleft

A space between two connecting neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Chemical equilibrium

A state of apparent repose created by two reactions proceeding in opposite directions at equal speed.

base

A substance capable of binding with hydrogen ions; a proton acceptor.

polymer

A substance of high molecular weight with long, chainlike molecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units.

reactant

A substance taking part in a chemical reaction.

acid

A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when in solution (compare with Base); a proton donor.

proton donor

A substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid.

proton acceptor

A substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts. Commonly referred to as a base.

Chemical Synapses

A synapses that is specialized to release and the reception of chemical neurotransmitters.

molarity

A way to express the concentration of a solution; moles per liter of solution.

Structural (fibrous) proteins

Consist of extended, strandlike polypeptide chains forming a strong, ropelike structure that is linear, insoluble in water, and very stable; e.g., collagen.

neutral fats

Consist of fatty acid chains and glycerol; also called triglycerides or triacylglycerols. Commonly known as oils when liquid.

Cardiac Muscle

Description: Branching striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated discs) Function: as it contracts it propels blood into the circulation, involuntary control Location: the walls of the heart

Nonpolar molecules

Electrically balanced molecules.

Pectoralis minor

Elevates 3rd-5th ribs during forced inspiration

External intercostals

Elevates the rib cage

Trapezius

Elevates, depresses, retracts, and rotates the scapula; rotates the arm

excretion

Elimination of waste products from the body.

Tendon Sheath

Elongated Bursa that wraps completely around a tendon

Developmental Aspects of Bones

Embryonic skeleton ossifies predictably so fetal age easily determined from X rays or sonograms, At birth, most long bones are well ossified (except epiphyses); Nearly all bones completely ossified by age 25, Bone mass decreases with age beginning in 4th decade, Rate of loss determined by genetics and environmental factors , In old age, bone resorption predominates

Types of nerve connective tissue coverings

Endoneurium Perineurium Epineurium

Electrical energy

Energy formed by the movement of charged particles across cell membranes.

chemical energy

Energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances.

Third Degree Burns

Entire thickness of skin damaged Gray-white, cherry red, or black, No initial edema or pain (nerve endings destroyed), Skin grafting usually necessary

Second Degree Burns

Epidermal and upper dermal damage, Blisters appear

First Degree Burns

Epidermal damage only, Localized redness, edema (swelling), and pain

Developmental Aspects: Old Age

Epidermal replacement slows, skin becomes thin, dry, and itchy, Subcutaneous fat and elasticity decrease, leading to cold intolerance and wrinkles, Increased risk of cancer due to decreased numbers of melanocytes and dendritic cells

Friction Ridges

Epidermal ridges lie atop deeper dermal papillary ridges to form friction ridges of fingerprints

Growth in Length of Long Bones

Epiphyseal plate cartilage organizes into four important functional zones: Proliferation (growth), Hypertrophic, Calcification, Ossification (osteogenic)

Operation of a Voltage-Gated Channel

Example: Na+ channel Closed when the intracellular environment is negative Na+ cannot enter the cell Open when the intracellular environment is positive Na+ can enter the cell

Operation of a Gated Channel

Example: Na+-K+ pump Closed when a neurotransmitter is not bound to the extracellular receptor Na+ cannot enter the cell and K+ cannot exit the cell Open when a neurotransmitter is attached to the receptor Na+ enters the cell and K+ exits the cell

ketosis

Excess levels of ketone bodies in blood. Called ketoacidosis if blood pH is low.

Paget's Disease

Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull; Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization, Unknown cause (possibly viral), Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphonates

What are Neurons?

Excitable cells that transmit electrical signals.

What is EPSP?

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials.

Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis

Extend and Abduct Hand at Wrist Joint

Extensor Pollicis Longus

Extends Distal Phalanx of Thumb at Metacarpophalangeal and Interphalangeal Joints

Extensor Pollicis Brevis

Extends Proximal Phalanx of Thumb at Metacarpophalangeal Joint

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris

Extends and Adducts Hand at Wrist Joint

Iliocostalis group of erector spinae

Extends and laterally flexes vertebral column

Longissimus group of erector spinae

Extends and laterally flexes vertebral column

Extensor digitorum

Extends fingers and the wrist

Triceps brachii

Extends forearm

Spinalis group of erector spinae

Extends vertebral column

Extensor carpi radialis longus

Extends wrist and abducts hand

Latissimus dorsi

Extends, adducts, and medially rotates the arm; draws the shoulder downward and backward

S (synthetic)

DNA replicates itself, enduring that the two daughter cells will receive identical copies of the genetic material (type of interphase)

Repolarizing phase

Decrease in Na+ permeability and an increase in K+ permeability

Stratum Basale (Basale Layer)

Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to the dermis, Single row of stem cells, Also called stratum germinativum: cells undergo rapid division, Journey from basal layer to surface Takes 25-45 days, 10 - 25% made of melanocytes

Endoneurium

Delicate connective tissue immediately surrounding the neurilemma cells and axons

Cartilage: hyaline

Description: Amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers form an imperceptible network; chonodroblasts produce the matrix and when mature (chondrocytes) lie in lacunae Functions: Supports and reinforces; has resilient cushioning properties; resists compressive stress Location: Forms most of the ends of the embryonic skeleton; covers the ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilage of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and larnyx

Cell that store nutrients

Fat cell - produced by a large lipid droplet in its cytoplasm; (cells that ...)

Triglycerides

Fats and oils composed of fatty acids and glycerol; are the body's most concentrated source of energy fuel; also known as neutral fats.

Cells that connect body parts or cover and line organs

Fibrolast - elongated shape of this cell extends along the cablelike fibers that it secretes; Erthrocyte (red blood cell) - carries the respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide; Epithelial cell - some are gland cells (cells that ...)

What is Acetylcoline?

First neurotransmitter identified and best understood. Released at the neuromuscular junction. Synthesized and enclosed in the synaptic vesicles. Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (ACheE). Released by all neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle and some neurons of the ANS.

Bursae

Flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes , Contain synovial fluid, Commonly act as "ball bearings" where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together

Diaphragm

Flattens on contraction increasing the volume of thorax during inspiration

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis

Flexes Proximal Interphalangeal Joints and Secondarily Metacarpophalangeal joints and Wrists

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

Flexes and Adducts Wrist

Flexor carpi ulnaris

Flexes and adducts wrist

Biceps brachii

Flexes and supinates forearm

Brachialis

Flexes elbow

Brachioradialis

Flexes elbow

Palmaris longus

Flexes wrist

Flexor carpi radialis

Flexes wrist and abducts hand

Deltoid

Flexes, medially rotates, and abducts arm

Proximal and Distal

For these terms the point of attachment is the reference point. These terms apply to appendages Proximal: closer to the point of attachment Distal: farther from the point of attachment

The Overload Principle

Forcing a muscle to work hard promotes increased muscle strength and endurance; Muscles adapt to increased demands; Muscles must be overloaded to produce further gains

myelin sheath

Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS The Schwann cell: -Envelopes an axon in a trough -Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane -Has concentric layers of membrane that make up the myelin sheath

Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering - Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails - Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D

Smooth Muscle

Found in walls of most hollow organs (except heart); Usually in two layers (longitudinal and circular); lack coarse connective tissue sheath; smooth muscle fibers SR is less developed then that of skeletal muscle and lacks specific pattern relative to myofilaments (no sacromeres, myofibrils or t tubules)

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Function: secretion and absorption Location: Kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary surface Tip: Associate with kidney and salvary glands

Sacromere

Functional unit of contraction in skeletal muscle fiber; Shorten when myosin heads in thick myofilaments form cross bridges with actin molecules in thin myofilaments

Nodes of Ranvier (Neurofibral Nodes)

Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann cells They are the sites where axon collaterals can emerge

1. Articular Cartilage

Glassy-smooth hylaine cartilage covers the opposing bone surfaces

steroids

Group of chemical substances including certain hormones and cholesterol; they are fat soluble and contain little oxygen.

Musclular Dystrophy

Group of inherited muscle-destroying diseases; Muscles enlarge due to fat and connective tissue deposits; Muscle fibers atrophy

Sodium potassium pump

Helps establish a difference in charge across the membrane (membrane potential) moves ions and molecules against the concentration gradient (takes energy)

Stages in healing of Fracture

Hematoma Forms, Fibrocartilaginous Callus Forms, Bony Callus Forms, Bone Remodeling Occurs

suspension

Heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out.

What is the role of the Sodium Potassium Pump?

Ionic redistribution back to resting conditions is restored by this. Restores at hyperpolerization.

When gated channels are open:

Ions move quickly across the membrane Movement is along their electrochemical gradients An electrical current is created Voltage changes across the membrane

Radioisotope

Isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior.

Macromolecules

Large, complex molecules containing from 100 to over 10,000 subunits.

Larger vs Shorter Neurons

Larger neurons conduct APs faster

Teres minor

Laterally rotates arm; one of the "rotator cuff" muscles

Infraspinatus

Laterally rotates shoulder; stabilizes the head of the humerus in glenoid cavity; one of the "rotator cuff" muscles

Perineurium

Layer of dense connective tissue that encloses a fascicle of nerve fibers, providing an effective barrier against penetration of the nerve fibers by foreign substances

Stratified Columner Epithelium

Limited distribution in body, Small amounts in pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts; Also occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia

fatty acids

Linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbon chains) with an organic acid group at one end. A constituent of fat.

Pedicle

Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.

Spinous process

Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.

Coronal suture

Name this suture.

Lambdoid suture

Name this suture.

Sagittal suture

Name this suture.

Squamous suture

Name this suture.

electron

Negatively charged subatomic particle; orbits the atom's nucleus.

Bipolar Neurons

Neruons having two processes

What are Action Potentials?

Nerve Impulses. Electrical impulses that are carried along the lengths of the axons. Always the same regardless of the stimulus.

Cell that gathers information and controls body functions

Nerve cell (neuron) - has long processes for receiving messages and transmitting them to other structures in the body; (cells that ...)

Nerves and Blood Vessels

Nerve fibers detect pain, monitor joint position and stretch, Capillary beds produce filtrate for synovial fluid

What are long axons called?

Nerve fibers.

Germ Layers

Nerve tissue arises from ectoderm, Muscle and connective tissues arise from mesoderm, Epithelial tissues arise from all three germ layers

What are processes called in the PNS?

Nerves.

Connective Tissue Proper: loose connective tissue, reticular

Network of reticular fibers in a typical loose ground substance, reticular cells lie on the network Function: Fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that supports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells, and macrophages Location: Lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen)

Multipolar Neurons

Neurons having three or more processes.

Why are neurotransmitter activities normally rapidly terminated?

Neurotransmitter activity is rapidly terminated 1) by removal or inactivation of neurotransmitter or 2) moved back into presynaptic cell In order for activity to last longer, stimulation most occur continuously.

Neural Regulation

Neurotransmitter binding [Ca2+] in sarcoplasm; either graded (local) potential or action potential; Response depends on neurotransmitter released and type of receptor molecules

Bony Callus Forms

New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus, Bony callus formation continues until firm union is formed in ~2 months

cytosine (C)

Nitrogen-containing base that is part of a nucleotide structure.

Retraction

Nonangular posterior movements in a transverse plane (ex: retracted jaw when brought back)

Dipole (polar molecule)

Nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms.

Polar molecules

Nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms.

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Nucleic acid that contains ribose and the bases A, G, C, and U. Carries out DNA's instructions for protein synthesis.

What is Required to Maintain Life?

Nutrients - needed for energy and cell building Oxygen - necessary for metabolic reactions Water - provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions Normal body temperature - necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates Atmospheric pressure - required for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs

Bone Deposit

Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed; Requires a diet rich in protein; vitamins C, D, and A; calcium; phosphorus; magnesium; and manganese

extrinsic

Of external origin.

Sebum

Oily holocrine secretion, Bactericidal , Softens hair and skin

Diverging circuits

One incoming fiber triggers responses in ever-increasing numbers of neurons farther along in a circuit.

isomer

One of two or more substances that has the same molecular formula but with its atoms arranged differently.

Cells of reproduction

Oocyte (female) ; Sperm (male); (cells that ...)

effector

Organ, gland, or muscle capable of being activated by nerve endings.

Carbohydrate

Organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes starches, sugars, cellulose.

amino acid

Organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; building block of protein.

lipid

Organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol.

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

Organic molecule that stores and releases chemical energy for use in body cells.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Organic molecule that stores and releases chemical energy for use in body cells.

Valence shell

Outermost electron shell (energy level) of an atom that contains electrons.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Paired spinal and cranial nerves Carries messages to and from the spinal cord and brain

Motor or Efferent

Part of the (PNS) that carry impulses away from the (CNS)

Sensory or Afferent

Part of the (PNS) that carry impulses towards the (CNS)

molecule

Particle consisting of two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds.

What is the Nerve Cell Body?

Perikaryon or Soma. Contains the nucleus and nucleolus, has well developed nissl-bodies (rough er), contains an axon hillock.

visceral

Pertaining to an internal organ of the body or the inner part of a structure.

organic

Pertaining to carbon-containing molecules, such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.

parietal

Pertaining to the walls of a cavity.

systemic

Pertaining to the whole body.

Carpal

Pertaining to the wrist

Microglia functions

Phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons

Reflex

Rapid, automatic responses to stimuli, in which a particular stimulus always causes the same response.

Myofilaments in Smooth Muscle

Ratio of thick to thin filaments (1:13) is much lower than in skeletal muscle (1:2); Thick filaments have heads along their entire length; No troponin complex; protein calmodulin binds Ca2+; Myofilaments are spirally arranged, causing smooth muscle to contract in a corkscrew manner; Dense bodies: proteins that anchor noncontractile intermediate filaments to sarcolemma at regular intervals

Complementary base

Refers to how a given nitrogenous base of DNA or RNA bonds to another nitrogenous base. For example, adenine (A) is the complementary base of thymine (T). The result is base pairing.

Electrical Current

Reflects the flow of ions rather than electrons

active site

Region on the surface of a functional (globular) protein where it binds and interacts chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge.

Electron shells (energy levels)

Regions of space that consecutively surround the nucleus of an atom.

White matter

Regions of the brain and spinal cord containing a dense collection of myelinated fibers.

T Tubules

Regularly spaced infoldings of sarcolemma that branch extensively throughout the muscle fiber; At numerous junctions, make contact with calcium storing membranous network known as sarcoplasmic reticulum

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

Inflammation

Release of inflammatory chemicals, Dilation of blood vessels, Increase in vessel permeability, Clotting occurs

Action Potential: Role of the Sodium-Potassium Pump

Repolarization -Restores the resting electrical conditions of the neuron -Does not restore the resting ionic conditions

Response to Stretch

Responds to stretch only briefly, then adapts to new length; Retains ability to contract on demand; Enables organs such as the stomach and bladder to temporarily store contents

Special Features of Smooth Muscle Contraction

Response to stretch, length and tension changes, and hyperplasia

Sol-gel transformation

Reversible change of a colloid from a fluid (sol) to a more solid (gel) state.

What are the 9 Regions of the Abdominopelvic Cavity?

Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac

What are the 4 Abdominal Quadrants?

Right upper quadrant (RUQ) Right lower quadrant (RLQ) Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

Nail

Scalelike modification of the epidermis on the distal, dorsal surface of fingers and toes

Developmental Aspects: Adolescent to Adult

Sebaceous gland activity increases, Effects of cumulative environmental assaults show after age 30, Scaling and dermatitis become more common

PNS Functional Divisions

Sensory (afferent) division Motor (efferent) division

Nervous System Functions

Sensory input - monitoring stimuli Integration - interpretation of sensory input Motor output - response to stimuli

Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus)

Sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb, Stimulated by bending a hair

Excitation-Contraction Coupling

Sequence of events that convert s action potentials in a muscle fiber to a contraction; Action potential travels across entire sarcolemma; occur during hidden (laten) period, between AP initiation and the beginning of mechanical activity (contraction); electrical signal does not act directly on myofilaments (it causes rise in intracellular calcium ion concentration that allows filaments to slide)

Telodendria

Series of fine, terminal extensions branching from the axon tip.

Single Unit Smooth Muscle

Sheets contract rhythmically as a unit (gap junctions); Often exhibit spontaneous action potentials; Arranged in opposing sheets and exhibit stress-relaxation response

What are Dendrites?

Short, tapering, and diffusing branched processes. They are the receptive, or input regions of the neuron.

Biogenic Amines

Simple hormones; water soluble; derived from amino acids; e.g, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine

thymine (T)

Single-ring base (a pyrimidine) in DNA.

Cells that produce movement and move body parts

Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells - elongated and filled with abundant actin and myosin filaments, so they can shorten forcefully (cells that ...)

What are Axons?

Slender processes of uniform, diameter arising from the hillock. Generate and transmit actions potentials. Secrete neurotransmitters from axonal terminals.

Contraction of Smooth Muscle

Slow, synchronized contractions ; Cells are electrically coupled by gap junctions; Some cells are self-excitatory (depolarize without external stimuli); act as pacemakers for sheets of muscle ; Rate and intensity of contraction may be modified by neural and chemical stimuli; Sliding filament mechanism; Final trigger is high intracellular Ca2+; Ca2+ is obtained from the SR and extracellular space; Very energy efficient (slow ATPases); Myofilaments may maintain a latch state for prolonged contractions Relaxation requires: Ca2+ detachment from calmodulin Active transport of Ca2+ into SR and ECF Dephosphorylation of myosin to reduce myosin ATPase activity

Nodes of Ranvier

Small gaps in the myelin sheath of medullated axons

Microglia

Smallest neuroglial cells; phagocytic cells that engulf cellular debris, waste products and pathogens. increase in number as a result of infection or injury

atom

Smallest particle of an elemental substance that exhibits the properties of that element; composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Arrector pili

Smooth muscle attached to follicle, Responsible for "goose bumps"

Hyperplasia

Smooth muscle cells can divide and increase their numbers

Depolarization

Sodium rushes into neuron through membrane, potassium ruses out; results in a change in charge

Motor Division: Two Main Parts

Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

when nightmares are likely to occur

Stage 3 and 4

Astrocytes

Star shaped cells found throughout the CNS, cleaning up debris in the extracellular space and removing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft, connects neurons to nearby capilaries, components of the blood-brain barrier

acidosis

State of abnormally high hydrogen ion concentration in the extracellular fluid.

alkalosis

State of abnormally low hydrogen ion concentration in the extracellular fluid.

Tissue Repair

Steps of tissue repair: Inflammation sets the stage, Organization restores the blood supply, Regeneration

What are the elements of homeostatic control system?

Stimulus: produce a change in the variable in the body **Three Components of Control Mechanisms:** - Receptor: monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli) - Control center: determines the set point at which the variable is maintained, Receives input from receptor and Determines appropriate response - Effector: provides the means to respond to stimuli

potential energy

Stored or inactive energy.

proton

Subatomic particle that bears a positive charge; located in the atomic nucleus.

compound

Substance composed of two or more different elements, the atoms of which are chemically united.

Catalyst

Substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself becoming chemically changed or part of the product.

mass number

Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

metabolism

Sum total of the chemical reactions occurring in the body cells.

Superficial and Deep

Superficial: toward or at the body surface Deep: away from the body surface or internal

Superior and Inferior

Superior: toward the head end Inferior: away from the head

Supinator

Supinates Forearm (i.e., rotates radius to palm anteriorly)

Astrocytes functions

Support and brace neurons Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies Guide migration of young neurons Control the chemical environment

Schwann cells

Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.

Satellite cells

Surrounds the neuron cell bodies in ganglia of PNS little is known of their function (PNS)

Axodendritic synapses

Synapses between the axon endings of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons.

Metabolic Functions

Synthesis of vitamin D precursor and collagenase Chemical conversion of carcinogens and some hormones

Triad Relationships

T tubules conduct impulses deep into muscle fiber ; Integral proteins protrude into the intermembrane space from T tubule and SR cisternae membranes; T tubule proteins: voltage sensors; SR foot proteins: gated channels that regulate Ca2+ release from the SR cisternae

Axon

The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

What is Depolarization?

The inside of the membrane becomes less negative.

What is the Relative Refractory Period?

The interval following the absolute refractory period when sodium gates are closed, potassium gates are open, repolarization is occurring. The threshold level is elevated, allowing strong stimuli to increase the frequency of action potential events.

pH unit

The measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

What is Repolarization?

The membrane returns to its resting membrane potential.

Alpha (α)-helix

The most common type of secondary structure of the amino acid chain in proteins; resembles the coils of a telephone cord.

Hyperpolarization

The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction.

2. Joint Cavity

a feature unique to synovial joints, space that contains small amount of synovial fluid

Retinaculum

a fibrous band forming the carpal canal through which pass the tendons of the flexor muscles of the hand and fingers.

Fulcrum

a fixed point; like a stabilizer

Cytoskeleton

a flexible, fibrous structure that changes in accordance with the activities of the cell, comprised of microtubules, intermediate fibers, & microfilaments

Macrophage

a giant cell that eats debris, dead cells, & outside invaders

actin

a globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically around each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells--interacts with myosin

Myogram

a graphic recording of contractile activity; line recording activity is called tracing

Cytoplasm

a jelly-like liquid that fills cells, everything inside the membrane except the nucleus

I Bands

a lighter, less dense area that contains the rest of the thin filaments but no thick filaments

Cytosis

a mechanism for bringing nutrients into the cell and ejecting waste

Endocytosis

a method of cytosis that enables large particles, liquid substances, and entire cells to be taken into a cell by engulfing

Exocytosis

a method of cytosis where cells may export substances from the intracellular environment into the extracellular space

Filtration

a passive membrane process that relies on hydrostatic pressure to "push" a substance through a membrane

Peripheral Protein

a protein that temporarily adheres to the biological membrane, either to the lipid bilayer or to integral proteins by a combination of hydrophobic, electrostatic, and other non-covalent interactions

Myoglobin

a red pigment that stores oxygen; similar to hemoglobin (transports oxygen in blood)

Striations

a repeating series of dark and light bands; evident along the length of each myofibril

Load

a resistance

double helix

The secondary structure assumed by two strands of DNA, held together throughout their length by hydrogen bonds between bases on opposite strands.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The section of the nervous system lying outside the brain and spinal cord

solute

The substance that is dissolved in a solution.

Octet rule (rule of eights)

The tendency of atoms to interact in such a way that they have eight electrons in their valence shell.

Refractory period

The time after a neuron fires or a muscle fiber contracts during which a stimulus will not evoke a response

Glial cells

These neurons are associated closely with much smaller cells., Cells that provide basic support systems for neurons and perform a variety of maintenance functions

The majority of synapses are chemical synapses.

They are proteins or neurohormones that are made in the cell body then travels via axonal transport to a synaptic vesicle

Endocrine System

This is the slow-acting control system of the body - Secretes regulatory hormones - Growth - Reproduction - Metabolism

Somatic Nervous System

This nervous system conduct impulses from the (CNS) to skeletal muscles.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

This nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

This nervous system regulate the activity of smooth muscles.

What is the Absolute Refractory Period?

Time from the opening of the Na+ activation gates until the closing of inactivation gates. Prevents the neuron from generating an action potential. Ensures that each action potential is separate. Enforces one way transmission of nerve impulses.

Synaptic Vesicles

Tiny sacs in a terminal button that release chemicals into the synapse.

What are processes called in the CNS?

Tracts.

Lever

a rigid bar that moves on a fixed point called the fulcrum, when a force is applied to it; allows a given effort to move a heavier load; [in body the joints are the fulcrums and your bones act as levers] ( a lever belongs to one of 3 classes)

What are Passive, or Leakage Channels?

Type of plasma membrane ion channel that is always open.

What is a Voltage Gated Channel?

Type of plasma membrane ion channel that opens and closes in response to membrane potential.

What is a Mechanically Gated Channel?

Type of plasma membrane ion channel that opens and closes in response to physical deformation of receptors.

What is a Chemically Gated Channel?

Type of plasma membrane ion channel that opens with a binding of a specific neurotransmitter.

Connective Tissue Proper

Types: Loose Connective tissue and Dense Connective tissue Loose: Aerolar, Adipose, Reticular Dense: Dense regular, Dense irregular, Elastic

neutron

Uncharged subatomic particle; found in the atomic nucleus.

Rules of Nines

Used to estimate the volume of fluid loss from burns

Membrane Potentials: Signals

Used to integrate, send, and receive information

hydrogen bond

Weak bond in which a hydrogen atom forms a bridge between two electron-hungry atoms. An important intramolecular bond.

Lever

a rigid, moving structure; all bones are these mechanically

What is the Myelin Sheath?

Whittish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath around most long axons. Protects axons. Electrically insulates fibers from one another. Increases speed of nerve impulse transmissions. Formed by Schwann cells.

Glycocalyx

a 'sugar coating' that covers the external surface of some cells, it is unique to each cell & improves cell-to-cell adhesion

Cortex

a bulky layer surrounding the medulla, consists of several layers of flattened cells

Mucin

a complex glycoprotien that dissolves in water when secreted

Depolarization Phase Threshold

a critical level of depolarization (-55 to -50 mV) At this point, the process becomes self-generating

cross section

a cut running horizontally from right to left, dividing the body or an organ into superior and inferior parts

Bases are proton...

acceptors

serves the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles

accessory

Reticular Layer

accounts for 80% of the thickness of the dermis, it is coarse, irregularly arranged, and dense fibrous connective tissue. Collagen fibers provide strength and resiliency, Elastic fibers provide stretch-recoil properties

Excitation-Contraction Coupling: Step 1

action potential travels across entire sarcolemma and are rapidly conducted to interior of muscle fibers by transverse tubules

Sweat Glands

aka sudoriferous glands, are distributed all over the body, except nipples and parts of external genetelia. up to 3 million per person. Two types of glands, eccrine and apocrine.

Tactile Cells

are present at the epidermal-dermal junction. Shaped like a spiky hemisphere. Each cell is associated with a disclike sensory nerve ending. (touch receptors)

Ceruminous Glands

modified specialized apocrine glands found in the lining of the external ear canal. Secretion mixes with sebum and produces cerumen or earwax.

Thyroid Hormone

modulates the activity of growth hormone , ensuring the skeleton has proper proportions as it grows

Insertion

movable bone, moves towards the immovable or less movable bone

Uniaxial Movement

movement in one plane

Multiaxial Movement

movement in or around all three planes of space and axes

Biaxial Movement

movement in two planes

Abduction

movement of limb away from the midline or median plane of the body, along the frontal plane

Opposition

movement of saddle joint betwenn metacarpal 1 and the trapezium of thumb

Special Movements

movements which don't fit into any of the above catergories

Circumduction

moving a limb so that it describes a cone in space

Depression

moving elevated part inferiorly

absolute refractory period

neuron cannot fire time from the Na+ activation gates until the closing of inactivation gates

Ossification

new bone formation occurs when calcified spicules erode

Excretion

nitrogenous wastes and salt in sweat

Vellus (Hair Type)

pale, fine body hair of children and adult females

Occipital

pertaining to the posterior aspect of the elbow

Perineal

pertaining to the region between the anus and external genitalia

Sacral

pertaining to the region between the hips (overlying the sacrum)

Sternal

pertaining to the region of the breastbone

Scapular

pertaining to the scapula or shoulder blade area

Fibular (peroneal)

pertaining to the side of the leg

Plantar

pertaining to the sole of the foot

Femoral

pertaining to the thigh

Pollex

pertaining to the thumb

the structure that allows pressure in the middleear to be equalized with atmospheric pressure is the

pharyngotympanic tube

Osteogenic Cells

primitive stem cells that give rise to the osteoblasts

you are in a completely dark room and reaching toward the light switch

proprioceptor, mechanoreceptor

the portion of the fibrous layer that is white and opaque is the

sclera

Sutures

seams; occur only between bones of the skull, Rigid, interlocking joints containing short connective tissue fibers Allow for growth during youth, In middle age, sutures ossify and are called synostoses

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

second most common, Involves keratinocytes of stratum spinosum, Most common on scalp, ears, lower lip, and hands, Good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgically

Response to Mechanical Stress

second set of controls regulating bone remodeling; Wolffs Law

Perforating Canals/ Volkmann's Canal

second type of canals, lie at right angles to the long axis of the bone and connect the blood and nerve supply of periosteum to those in the central canals and medullary cavity

Osteoblasts

secrete bone matrix elements, and osteoclasts

Mammary Glands

secrete milk

Eccrine Sweat Glands

secreting glands, are far more numerous and are abundant on palms, soles of feet and forehead. Each is a simple, coiled, tubular gland. Ducts connect to pores. Sweat: 99% water, NaCl, vitamin C, antibodies, dermcidin, metabolic wastes.

the neural machinery of the spinal cord is at the

segmental level

conduction of sound from the middle ear to the internal ear occurs via vibration of teh

stapes in the oval window

Sliding Filament Model of Contraction

states that during contraction the thin actin and myosin filaments slide past the thick ones so that actin and myosin filaments overlap to a greater degree; During contraction, myosin heads bind to actin, detach, and bind again, to propel the thin filaments toward the M line; As H zones shorten and disappear, sarcomeres shorten, muscle cells shorten, and the whole muscle shortens

Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

sticky glycoproteins that cover the surfaces of almost all of the cells in mammals (1 of the 2 families that make up the glycocalyx)

Subthreshold Stimulus

stimuli that produce no observable contractions

Glycsomes

stores sugar in the form of glycogen, which is a long branching chain of glucose molecules, the cells main energy source

snesory impulses transmitted over the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves are involved in the sensation

taste

The rate of diffusion is effected by...

temperature

Isometric Contractions

tension may build to the muscles peak tension producing capacity, but the muscle neither shortens nor lengthens; occur when a muscle attempts to move a load that is greater then the force (tension) the muscle is able to develop

brain area through which all the sensory input is relayed to get to the cerebral cortex

thalamus

stimulus intensity

the CNS determines stimulus intensity by the frequency of impulse transmission

Excitability

the ability of a cell to react to a stimulus (nerve cell, special sensory cells)

Conductivity

the ability of a cell to transmit an impulse from one paint in the cell to another (nerve cells, cardiac cells)

Extensibilty

the ability of muscle tissue to be stretched or extended

Reproduction

the ability to produce more cells

Kinetic energy

the activity of molecules moving, gyrating, & bouncing into one another

Osmotic pressure

the amount of pressure needed to stop osmosis from happening

Cell function determines...

the anatomy

Effort

the applied force; used to move load

Catilaginous Joints

the articulating bones are united by cartilage, they lack joint cavity and not highly movable, 2 types of cartilaginous joints are synchondroses and symphyses

sarcomere

the basic contractile unit of striated muscle; the segment of a myofibril between two adjacent z-lines

Perforating (Sharpey's) Fibers

tufts of collagen fibers that extend from its fibrous layer into bone matrix, which secure periosteum to underlying bone

Intermediate fibers

woven, ropelike fibers that possess high tensile strength & are able to resist pulling forces on the cell, toughest & most permanent fibers

Bone Anatomy and Bending Stress

body weight transmitted to the head of the femur threatens to bend the bone along the indicated arc, compressing it on one side (converging arrows on the right) and stretching it on the other side (diverging arrows on left). Because these two forced cancel each other internally, much less bone material is needed internally then superficially

neuron characteristics

body, axon & dendrites long, lived, high metabolic rate do not undergo mitosis

sinus (ex sinus in the frontal portion of skull)

bone cavity, filled with air and lined with mucous membrane

Bone Remodeling

bone deposit and bone resorption

Osteoclasts

bone destroying cells

Endochondral Bone

bone developed by replacing hyaline cartilage in process called Endochondral Ossification

Membrane Bone

bone developed from fibrous membranes in a process called intramembranous ossification

Closed (external) Reduction

bone ends are coaxed into position by the physicians hands

Open (Internal) Reduction

bone ends are secured together surgically with pins or wires

Syndesmoses

bones are connected by ligaments, cords, or bands of fibrous tissue, Movement varies from immovable to slightly movable and depends on length and amount of fibers

Fibrous Joints

bones are joined by fibrous tissue, namely dense fibrous connective tissue, and no joint cavity is present, mostly immovable. 3 types of fibrous joints (sutures, syndesmoses,and gomphoses)

Bone Markings

bones display projections, depressions, and openings that serve as sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment, as joint surfaces, or as conduits for blood vessels

during embryonic development the lens of the eye forms

from the surface ectoderm overlying the optic cup

Cross Bridge Cycle: Step 3

cross bridge detachment: Link between mysoin head and actin weakens when another ATP ataches to myosin head; Myosin head detaches

Cross Bridge Cycle: Step 1

cross bridge formation:Activated myosin head binds to actin forming a cross bridge; Inorganic phospahte released; Bond between myosin and actin becomes stronger

Period of Contraction

cross bridges are active, from the onset to the peak of tension development, and the myogram tracing rises to a peak

Oblique Sections

cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes

the primary motor cortex, Broca's area, and the premotor cortex are located in which lobe

frontal

First class lever

fulcrum between applied force and resistance; if resistance is closer to the applied force there is a mechanical disadvantage; see-saw is an example

cerebral cortex

gray matter

cingulate and precentral gyri

gray matter

cranial nerve nuclei

gray matter

medial and lateral nuclear groups

gray matter

red nucleus

gray matter

Unmyelinated Axons

grey matter neurons Schwann cells are present but myelin sheath is not b/c they do not coil around axons

Tissues

group of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function

level of structural organization: tissue

groups of cells having a common function.

Canaliculi

hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and to the central canal

Convergent Fascicular Muscle

has a broad origin, and its fascicles converge toward a single tendon of insertion; triangular or fan shaped

Structural Classification of Joints

focuses on the material binding the bones together and whether or not a joint cavity is present. There are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints

Hair Follicles

fold down from the epidermal surface into dermis. Two-layered wall: outer connective tissue root sheath, inner epithelial root sheath, Hair bulb: expanded deep end

Actin

has kidney shaped polypeptide subunits, called globular actin, or G actin, which bear the active sites to which the myosin heads attach during contraction

a patient has suffered a cerebral hemorrhage that has caused dysfunction of the precentral gyrus of his right cerebral cortex. as a result

he cannot voluntarily move his left arm or leg

Rhomboids Major

helps to hold the scapula (and thus the upper limb) onto the ribcage. It also acts to retract the scapula, pulling it towards the vertebral column, and downwardly rotates the scapula with respect to the glenohumeral joint.

pain itch and temperature receptors

free nerve endings

Diarthroses

freely movable joints, predominate in the limbs (ex: synivial joints)

Costal groove

Name this specific part of the rib bone.

Manubirum

Name this specific part of the sternum.

Xiphoid process

Name this specific part of the sternum.

Body

Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.

Hallux

pertaining to the great toe

Inguinal

pertaining to the groin

Manus

pertaining to the hand

Cephalic

pertaining to the head

Calcaneal

pertaining to the heel of the foot

Coxal

pertaining to the hip

Crural

pertaining to the leg

Oral

pertaining to the mouth

Umbilical

pertaining to the navel

Cervical

pertaining to the neck region

Nasal

pertaining to the nose

Palmar

pertaining to the palm of the hand

Pelvic

pertaining to the pelvis region

Acromial

pertaining to the point of the shoulder

Foramen ovale

Name this foramen.

Foramen rotundum

Name this foramen.

Foramen spinosum

Name this foramen.

Incisive foramen

Name this foramen.

Infraorbital foramen

Name this foramen.

Jugular foramen

Name this foramen.

Mental foramen

Name this foramen.

Optic foramen

Name this foramen.

Supraorbital foramen

Name this foramen.

hypophyseal fossa

Name this fossa

Superior orbital fissure

Name this opening of the sphenoid bone.

Inferior orbital fissure

Name this opening.

Internal auditory meatus

Name this opening.

Mental foramen

Name this opening.

Superior orbital fissure

Name this opening.

Vertebral foramen

Name this opening.

Anterior fontanel

Name this part of the fetal skull.

Anterolateral fontanel

Name this part of the fetal skull.

Sella turcica

Name this region of the sphenoid bone.

Coccyx

Name this specific bone.

Body

Name this specific bony landmark of the sternum.

Inferior articular process

Name this specific part of C1.

Dens

Name this specific part of C2.

Inferior articular facet

Name this specific part of C2.

Inferior articular process

Name this specific part of C2.

Head

Name this specific part of the costal bone.

Neck

Name this specific part of the costal bone.

Posterior fontanel

Name this specific part of the fetal skull.

Posterolateral fontanel

Name this specific part of the fetal skull.

Pedicle

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.

Spinous process

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.

Superior articular facet

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.

Superior articular process

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.

Inferior articular process

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebrae.

Superior articular facet

Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.

Superior articular process

Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.

Transverse process

Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.

Activation energy

The amount of energy required to push a reactant to the level necessary for action.

What are the different glial cells and their functions?

- Provide support - Outnumber neurons 10-50 to 1 A)PNS has 2 types: 1.Schwann cells- wrap around neuron (speed up electrical impulse) 2. Satellite cells- supportive capsules around nerve cells in ganglia (cluster of nerve bodies found outside of CNS) B) CNS has 4 types 1. oligodendrocytes- like Schwann cells in PNS 2. microglia- immune cells in CNS 3. astrocytes- take up and release chemicals 4. ependymal cells- one source of stem cells Schwann and oligodendrocytes support and insulate axon by forming myelin (nodes of ranvier)

Body Planes

- Sagittal: divides the body into right and left parts - Midsagittal or Medial: sagittal plane that lies on the midline - Parasagittal: not on midline - Frontal or Coronal: divides the body into anterior and posterior parts - Transverse or Horizontal (cross section): divides the body into superior and inferior parts - Oblique section: cuts made diagonally

What is the difference between anatomical study and physiological study?

- anatomy studies the structures of body parts and their relationship to each other. - physiology studies the functions of the body; how the parts of the body work together and carry out their life-sustaining functions.

3. Articular Capsule

2 layers enclose the joint cavity. External layer is tough fibrous capsule (composed of dense irregular connective tissue) [strenghtens joint so that bones are not pulled apart. Inner layer is a synovial membrane (composed of loose connective tissue) [covers all internal joint surfaces that are not hyaline cartilage]

Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer)

20 to 40 cell layers of dead, flat keratinized, membranous sacs, accounts for up to 3 quarters of epidermal thickness. Functions: Protects from abrasion and penetration, Waterproofs, Barrier against biological, chemical, and physical assaults

Metaphase

2nd stage of mitosis; chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell; (type of phase)

Depolarized

30 (for action potential to occur)

Anaphase

3rd stage and the shortest of mitosis, chromosomes split (type of phase)

Body Fluid breakdown

40% intracellular, 20% extracellular

Covering and Lining Membranes

A body membrane that incorpotates more then one type of tissue. 3 types: Cutaneous, Mucous, and Serous

Wolff's law

A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it; Observations supporting Wolff's law: (1) Handedness (right or left handed) results in bone of one upper limb being thicker and stronger (2)Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle (3)Trabeculae form along lines of stress (4)Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach

Axon collaterals

A branch of an axon

neuroblast

A cell from which a nerve cell develops.

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acids.

Synthesis (combination) reaction

A chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones.

dipeptide

A combination of two amino acids united by means of a peptide bond.

section

A cut through the body (or an organ) that is made along a particular plane; a thin slice of tissue prepared for microscopic study.

cellulose

A fibrous carbohydrate that is the main structural component of plant tissues.

Ependymal Cell

A glial cell that lines membranes within the brain and spinal cord and helps form cerebrospinal fluid

Visceral organs (viscera)

A group of internal organs housed in the ventral body cavity.

Hydrogen ion (H+)

A hydrogen atom minus its electron and therefore carrying a positive charge (i.e., a proton).

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

glycerol

A modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol); a building block of fats.

mole

A mole of any element or compound is equal to its atomic weight or its molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) measured in grams.

Pectoralis major

Adducts and medially rotates the arm; flexes and extends humerus

Peristalsis

Alternating contractions and relaxations of smooth muscle layers that mix and squeeze substances through the lumen of hollow organs; (Longitudinal layer) contracts; organ dilates and shortens ; (Circular layer) contracts organ constricts and elongates

cation

An ion with a positive charge.

Neuropathy

Any disease of nervous tissue, but particularly degenerative disease of the nerves.

What is the synaptic cleft and what happens at the synapse?

Area between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic membrane. The presynaptic and postsynaptic cells makes the synapse.

neuron processes

Armlike extensions from the soma

Role of Calcium (Ca2+) in Contraction

At low intracellular Ca2+ concentration: (Tropomyosin blocks the active sites on actin) (Myosin heads cannot attach to actin) (Muscle fiber relaxes) At higher intracellular Ca2+ concentrations: [Ca2+ binds to troponin ] [Troponin changes shape and moves tropomyosin away from active sites] [Events of the cross bridge cycle occur] [When nervous stimulation ceases, Ca2+ is pumped back into the SR and contraction ends]

ion

Atom with a positive or negative electric charge.

level of structural organization: chemical

Atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules.Molecules combine in specific ways to form organelles, which are the basic unit of living cells.

Somatic nervous system

Conscious control of skeletal muscles

Dorsum sellae

Name this bony landmark of the sphenoid bone.

Lamina

Name this bony landmark of the vertebra.

Alveolar process

Name this bony landmark.

Angle of mandible

Name this bony landmark.

Angle of the mandible

Name this bony landmark.

Articular tubercle

Name this bony landmark.

Coronal suture

Name this bony landmark.

Coronoid process

Name this bony landmark.

Cribriform plate

Name this bony landmark.

Crista galli

Name this bony landmark.

Dorsum sellae

Name this bony landmark.

External auditory meatus

Name this bony landmark.

Mandibular fossa

Name this bony landmark.

Mastoid portion

Name this bony landmark.

Mastoid process

Name this bony landmark.

Acids are proton...

donors

Middle nasal concha

Name this bony landmark.

Occipital condyle

Name this bony landmark.

Palatine process

Name this bony landmark.

Styloid process

Name this bony landmark.

Plantar Flexion

pointing the toe

adrenergic fibers

s

Brevis

short

Supraorbital margin

Name this bony landmark.

mandibular condyle

Name this bony landmark.

Sacrum

Name this entire bone.

Transverse foramen

Name this foramen of the atlas (C1).

Mandibular foramen

Name this foramen of the mandible.

Optic foramen

Name this foramen of the sphenoid bone.

Carotid foramen

Name this foramen.

Foramen lacerum

Name this foramen.

Foramen magnum

Name this foramen.

Body

Name this part of the hyoid bone.

Greater horn

Name this part of the hyoid bone.

Lesser horn

Name this part of the hyoid bone.

Coronoid process

Name this part of the mandible.

Mandibular notch

Name this part of the mandible.

Ramus

Name this part of the mandible.

mandibular condyle

Name this part of the mandible.

Greater wing

Name this part of the sphenoid bone.

Hypophyseal fossa

Name this part of the sphenoid bone.

Lesser wing

Name this part of the sphenoid bone.

Tuberculum sellae

Name this part of the sphenoid bone.

Zygomatic process

Name this part of the temporal bone.

Temporal process

Name this part of the zygomatic bone.

Anterior arch

Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).

Posterior arch

Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).

Superior articular process

Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).

Transverse process

Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).

Appositional Growth

(1st type of cartilage growth) cartilage forming cells in surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external face of the existing cartilage tissue.

Interstitial Growth

(2nd type of cartilage growth) lacunae-bound chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within.

Red Marrow

(Hematopoitec Tissue) typically found within the trabecular cavities of spongy bone of long bones and in the diploe of flat bones

Ossification

(Osteogenisis) the process of bone formation; formation of the bony skeleton in embryos and bone growth goes in until early adulthood as body continues to increase in size

Perichondrium

(around the cartilage) acts like a girdle to resist outward expansion when the cartilage is compressed. Contains blood vessels from which nutrients diffuse through matrix to reach the cartilage cells

groove (ex groove of the ramus of the mandible)

(depressions and opening s for passage of blood vessels and nerves) furrow

fissure (ex inferior orbital fissure)

(depressions and opening s for passage of blood vessels and nerves) narrow slit-like opening

foramen (ex infraorbital foramen)

(depressions and opening s for passage of blood vessels and nerves) round or oval opening through a bone

notch (ex supraorbital notch)

(depressions and openings for passage of blood vessels and nerves) indentation at the edge of a structure

(Synovial) Condyloid Joints

(ellipsoidal joints) the oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary depression in another. Important characteristic is that both articulating surfaces are oval. Permits all angular motions

What is anatomical position?

- Body erect - feet slightly apart, palms facing forward - thumbs point away from body

Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma (2)

(generation and propagation of the action potential); [neuron send AP through axon] end plate potential ignites AP that spreads in all directions from neuromuscular junction across sarcolemma; this depolarization (end plate potential) spreads to adjacent membrane areas and opens voltage gated sodium channels; Na+ enters and reaches voltage threshold (+30), and an action potential is generated. AP is propegated along length of sarcolemma as depolarization wave spreads to adjacent areas of sarcolemma and opens voltage gated sodium channels there; again, Na+ difusses into cell

Gomphoses

(gomphosis)a peg-in-socket fibrous joint (ex: articulation of a tooth with its bony alveolar socket), Fibrous connection is the periodontal ligament

Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma (1)

(local depolarization and generation of an end plate potential); Binding of ACh molecules to ACh receptors at neuromuscular junction opens (ligand) gated ion channels that allow Na+ and K+ to pass; More Na+ diffuses in then K+ diffuses out and interior of sarcolemma becomes less negative (depolarization [local electrical event called, end plate potential)

Epimysium

(outside muscle) an overcoat of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the whole muscle

ramus (ex ramus of the mandible)

(projection that help form joints) (arm like) arm-like bar of bone

Head ( ex head of a rib)

(projection that help form joints) bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

condyle (ex condyle of the mandible)

(projection that help form joints) rounded articular projection (fits in a joint or is where a bone joins another)

facet (ex articular facet of rib)

(projection that help form joints) smooth, nearly flat articular surface

tuberosity (ex tibial tuberosity)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) Large round projection; may be roughened

process (ex spinous process of the vertebra)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) any bony prominence

line (ex intertrochanteric line of the femur)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) narrow ridge of bone; less prominent that a crest

crest (ex iliac crest)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) narrow ridge or bone; usually prominent

epicondyle (ex medial epicondyle of the femur)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) raised area on or above a condyle

spine (ex ischial spine of the ischium)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) sharp, slender, often pointed projection

tubercle (ex adductor tubercle of the femur)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) small rounded projection or process

trochanter (the only examples are on the femur)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process

Bone Resorption

(removal) osteoclasts secrete lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix) and acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms). Dissolved Matrix is transcytosed across osteoclast, enters interstitial fluid and then blood

Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma (3)

(repolarization); sarcolemma is restored to intitial polarized state; Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open; K+ efflux rapidly restores the resting polarity; Fiber cannot be stimulated and is in a refractory period until repolarization is complete; Ionic conditions of the resting state are restored by the Na+-K+ pump

Excitabilty

(responsiveness, irritability); the ability of muscle tissue to recieve and respond to a stimulus, that is any change in the environment either inside or outside the body

Sesamoid Bone

(shaped like a sesame seed) are special type of short bones that form in tendons . Vary in sizes and numbers in individuals. Some alter directions of pull of tendon other their functions are unknown

Synchondroses

(synchondrosis)site where bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites bone (ex: epiphyseal plate in children and coastal cartilage of first rib and manibrium of sternum)

Resistance Exercise

(typically anaerobic) results in Muscle hypertrophy (due to increase in fiber size), Increased mitochondria, myofilaments, glycogen stores, and connective tissue

Endomysium

(within muscle) a whispy sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle fiber

level of structural organization: organ

- made up of discrete structures that are composed of at least two groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function in the body. - a group of organs that work closely together to accomplish a specific purpose

Trigger zone (aka threshold)

-55 mV; If the stimulus reaches the trigger zone then the action potential happens.

Polarized

-70 (resting plasma potential)

Types of nerves

-Cranial: exit the cranial cavity through the foramina in the cranium -Spinal: exit the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramina

Peripheral Nervous System

-consists of nerve fibers and cell bodies outside the CNS that conduct impulses to or away from the CNS -Also, organized into nerves that connect the CNS with peripheral structures

Phases of the Action Potential

1 - resting state 2 - depolarization phase 3 - repolarization phase 4 - hyperpolarization

What are the Body Cavities and the organs that they contain?

1) DORSAL CAVITY 2) VENTRAL CAVITY: 3) THORACIC CAVITY: 4) ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY:

Examples of Homeostasis:

1) Temperature control (N) 2) waste removal 3) rate and depth of breath (N) 4) O2 and CO2 levels in blood (N) 5) oxytocin production during birth (P) 6) blood clotting (P)

What are the levels of structural organization?

1) chemical level 2) cellular level 3) tissue level 4) organ level 5) organism level

What are examples of Positive Feedback?

1) generation of nerve impulses 2) oxytocin production during birth 3) blood clotting 4) lactation

Functions of Plasma Membrane

1) provides protective barrier against substances and forces outside the cell, 2) some act as receptors, 3) determines what goes in and out

What are examples of Negative Feedback?

1) regulation of heart rate 2) regulation of blood pressure 3) regulation of depth of breath 4) blood levels of O2, CO2 and minerals

Steps in Homeostasis:

1) stimulus produces a change 2) change is detected by receptor 3) input: info is sent along afferent pathway to control center 4) reaches control center 5) output: info sent along efferent pathway to effector 6) response of effector feeds back to influence the magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis.

Requirements for Skeletal Muscle Contraction

1. Activation: stimulation by nerve ending so that change in membrane potential occurs 2. generate and propegate an electrical current, called an action potential, along its sarcolemma 3. a short lived rise in intercellular calcium ion levels that is the final trigger for contraction must occur

Characteristics of Connective Tissue

1. Common Origin ( all connective tissue arise from mesenchyme [an embryonic tissue] and hence have a kinship) 2. Varying Degrees of vascularity (all vascular except for cartilage) 3. Extracellular matrix (cells seperated by nonliving extracellular matrix [ground substances and fiber])

Classification of Bones

1. Long Bones 2. Short Bones 3. Flat Bones 4. Irregular Bones

Functions of Integumentary System

1. Protection 2. Body Temperature Regulation 3. Cutaneous Sensation 4. Metabolic Functions 5. Blood Reservoir 6. Excretion

(2) Cell Types

1. Squamous 2. Cuboidal 3. Columner

Functions of Bones

1. Support (for body and soft organs), 2. Protection (for brain, spinal cord and vital organs, 3. Movement (levers for muscle action), 4. Storage (minerals [calcium and phosphorus] and growth factors), 5. Blood Cell Formation (occurs in marrow cavities of certain bones), 6. Triglyceride (Fat) Storage (fat is stored in bone cavities and represents a source of stored energy for the body)

Passive membrane processes

1. diffusion, 2. facilitated diffusion, 3. osmosis, 4. filtration

Extracellular fluid is found...

1. intravascular space 2. interstitial space 3. cerebrospinal or synovial spaces (transcellular fluid)

3 factors that determine if a molecule can diffuse...

1. size of the molecule, 2. lipid solubility, 3. molecular charge

The Skin

1.5-4.0 millimeters (mm), composed of two distinct regions, the epidermis and dermis

Special Charactersistics of Epithelium

1.Polarity 2. Specialized Contacts (cell close together/cell sheets) 3. Supported by connective tissue 4. Avascular but innervarted 5. Regeneration

Adductor Pollicis

Adduction of the thumb is bringing it back into the plane of the palm of the hand from its previously abducted position. This muscle, however, also brings the thumb to the side of the palm and index finger.

Direct Phosphorylation

ATP producing way; Metabolic Pathway; chemical reaction where CP (creatine phosphate) and ADP are used. Phosphate from CP is taken and put into ADP and turns to ATP; 1 to 1 ration; energy last for less then 10 seconds; does not require Oxygen;first stage body goes to to make energy; occurs in cytoplasm of cell

Serratus anterior

Abducts and protracts the scapula

Supraspinatus

Abducts arm; stabilizes the head of the humerus in glenoid cavity; one of the "rotator cuff" muscles

What are the 2 major neurocrines secreted by the nervous system, what types of receptors do they have, and where are those receptors?

Acetylcholine (cholinergic; nicotonic- skeletal muscles, autonomic neurons, CNS | muscarinic- smooth and cardiac muscle, endocrine and exocrine glands, CNS) and norephinephrine (adrenergic; smooth and cardiac muscle, endocrine exocrine glands, CNS)

What are the main kinds of Neurotransmitters?

Acetylcholine, Biogenic Amines, Amino Acids, Peptides, Novel Messengers.

What is the All Or None Phenomenon?

Action potentials either happen completely or not at all.

Adductor Pollicis

Adducts Thumb towards Middle Digit

What are the processes of the nervous system?

Axons and dendrites. Arm-like extensions from the Soma.

Spinous process

Name this specific part of the axis (C2).

Hyperpolarizing graded potentials

Becomes more negative... so is inhibitory

Depolarized graded potentials

Becomes more positive.... so is excitatory

Axosomatic synapses

Between axon endings of one neuron and cell bodies of other neurons

peptide bond

Bond joining the amine group of one amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid with the loss of a water molecule.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord Integration and command center

histology

Branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic structure of tissues.

nucleotide

Building block of nucleic acids; consists of a sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group.

Interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Role of Calcium Ions

Ca2+ binds to and activates calmodulin ; Activated calmodulin activates myosin (light chain) kinase; Activated kinase phosphorylates and activates myosin ; Cross bridges interact with actin

Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

Calcium is necessary for Transmission of nerve impulses, Muscle contraction, Blood coagulation, Secretion by glands and nerve cells, Cell division

What is the role of calcium at the end of a neuron?

Calcium triggers exocytosis of the synaptic vesicle contents (in that the synaptic vesicle fuses with the membrane) and therefore signaling the release of neurocrine neurotransmitters at the synapse.

Osteoporosis Treatment

Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements, Weight-bearing exercise throughout life, Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss , Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins) increase bone mineral density

What are Biogenic Amines?

Catecholamine - dopamine, norepinephrine (NE), and epinephrine. Indolamines - seratonin and histamine. Broadly distributed in the brain. Play roles in emotional behaviors and our biological clock.

Neurons

Cells specialized for transmitting nerve impulses.

What are Supporting Cells?

Cells that surround and wrap neurons.

What are Neurotransmitters?

Chemicals used for neuronal communication with the body and the brain. Over 50 have been indentified.

nucleic acid

Class of organic molecules that includes DNA and RNA.

Serous fluid

Clear, watery fluid secreted by cells of a serous membrane.

Ammonia (NH3)

Common waste product of protein breakdown in the body; a colorless volatile gas, very soluble in water and capable of forming a weak base; a proton acceptor.

protein

Complex substance containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; composes 10-30% of cell mass.

Skeletal System

Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments - Protects and supports body organs - Provides the framework for muscles - Site of blood cell formation - Stores minerals

Urinary System

Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra - Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body - Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH (acid/base) balance of the blood

Female Reproductive System

Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina - Main function is the production of offspring - Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones - Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus - Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn

Muscular System

Composed of muscles and tendons - Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression - Maintains posture - Produces heat

Male Reproductive System

Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens - Main function is the production of offspring - Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones - Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract

Lymphatic System

Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels - Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood - Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream - Houses white blood cells involved with immunity

Nervous System

Composed of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves (cranial and spinal nerves) - This is the fast-acting control system of the body - Sends electrical impulses - Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands

Cardiovascular System

Composed of the heart and blood vessels ( arteries, veins, capillaries) - The heart pumps blood - The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body - Bring O2 and nutrients to cells - Carry CO2 and waste from cells

Respiratory System

Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs - Alveoli are sites of gas exchange in the lungs - Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide - Has role in Acid/Base balance

Digestive System

Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and accessory organs which are liver, gallbladder and pancreas - Breaks down food into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood - Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces

External oblique

Compresses abdomen; laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column

Internal oblique

Compresses abdomen; laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column

Rectus abdominis

Compresses abdominal cavity and flexes vertebral column

What is an Axon Hillock?

Cone shaped area from which axons arise.

Body

Name this specific part of the costal bone.

saltatory conduction

Current passes through a myelinated axon only at the nodes of Ranvier avoiding fats Action potentials are triggered only at the nodes and jump from one node to the next Much faster than conduction along unmyelinated axons Na+ channels are concentrated at these nodes

Perikaryon

Cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus of a neuron

Medial Pterygoid

Description: Deep two headed muscle that runs along internal surface of mandible and is largely concealed by that bone Origin and Insertion: (medial surface of lateral pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone, maxilla, and palatine bone) [medial surface of mandible near its angle] Action: acts with the lateral ptyergoid muscle to protrude (protract) mandible and to promote side to side (grinding) movements; synergist of temporalis and messeter muscles in elevation of the mandible Nerve Supply: trigeminal nerve

Connective Tissue Proper: loose connective tissue, aerolar

Description: Gel-like matrix with all three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells Function: Wraps and cushions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid Location: Widely distributed under epithelia of body, ex: forms lamina propria of mucous membranes; packages organs; surrounds capillaries

Connective Tissue Proper: loose connective tisse, adipose

Description: Matrix as in Aerolar, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells, have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet Function: Provides reserve a food fuel; insulates against heat lose; supports and protects organs Location: Under skin in the hypodermis; around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts

Cartilage: fibrocartilage

Description: Matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate Function: Tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock Location: Intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint

Connective Tissue Proper: dense connective tissue: dense irregular

Description: Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast Function: able to withstand tension exerted in many directions; provides structural strenght Location: fibrous capsules of organs and of joints; dermis of the skin; submucosa of digestive tract. Can also be found in dermis layer of skin

Cartilage: elastic

Description: Similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix Function: Maintains the shapes of a structure while allowing great flexibility. Location: Supports the external ear (pinna); epiglottis

Smooth Muscle

Description: Spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets Function: propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control Location: mostly in the walls of hollow organs

Orbicularis Oris

Description: complicated, multilayered muscle of the lips with fibers that run in many different directions; most run circulatory Origin and Insertion: (arises indirectly from maxilla and mandible; fibers blended with fibers or other facial muscles associated with the lips [encirlces mouth; inserts into muscle and skin at angles of mouth] Action: closes lips; purses and protrudes lips; kissing and whistling muscle Nerve Suppply; facial nerves

Lateral Pterygoid

Description: deep two headed muscle; lies superior to medial ptyergoid muscle Origin and Insertion: (greater wing and lateral pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone) [condyle of mandible and capsule of temporomandibular joint] Action: provides forward sliding and side to side grinding movements of lower teeth; protrudes mandible (pulls anteriorly) Nerve Supply: facial nerve (cranial vii)

Connective Tissue Proper: dense connective tissue, elastic

Description: dense regular connective tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers Function: allows recoil of tissue following stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration Location:

Temporalis

Description: fan shaped muscle that covers parts of the temporal, frontal, and parietal bones Origin and Insertion: (temporal fossa) [coronoid process of mandible via a tendon that passes deep to zygomatic arch] Action: closes jaw; elevates and retracts mandible; maintains position of the mandible at rest; deep anterior part may help protract mandible Nerve Supply: trigeminal nerve

Genioglossus

Description: fan shaped muscle; forms bulk of inferior part of tongue; its attachment to mandible prevents tongue from falling backward and obstructing respiration Origin and Insertion: (internal surface of mandible near symphysis) [inferior aspect of the tongue and body of hyoid bone] Action: protracts tongue; can depress or act in concert with other extrinsic muscles to retract tongue Nerve Supply: hypoglossal nerve (cranial xii)

Hypoglossus

Description: flat, quadrilateral muscle Origin and Insertion: (body and greater horn of hyoid bone) [inferolateral tongue] Action: depresses tongue and draws its sides downward Nerve Supply: hypoglossal nerve

Others: bone (osseous tissue)

Description: hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae. Very well vascularized Function: bone supports and protects (by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium and other minerals and fat; marrow inside bones is the site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) Location: (bones)

Skeletal Muscle

Description: long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious stritations Function: Voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control Location: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin

Zygomaticus

Description: muscle pair extending diagonally from cheekbone to corner of mouth Origin and Insertion: (zygomatic bone) [ skin and muscle at corner of the mouth] Action: raises lateral corners of mouth upward (smiling muscle) Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Mentalis

Description: one of the muscle pair forming a v-shaped muscle mass on chin Origin and Insertion: (mandible below incisors) [ skin of chin] Action: wrinkles chin; protrudes lower skin Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Masseter

Description: powerful muscle that covers lateral aspect of mandibular ramus Origin and Insertion: (zygomatic arch and zygomatic bone) [angle and ramus of mandible] Action: prime mover of jaw closure; elevates mandible Nerve Supply: trigeminal nerve (cranial v)

Connective Tissue Proper: dense connective tissue. dense regular

Description: primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastic fibers; major cells type is the fibroblast Function: attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction Location: Tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses

Others: blood

Description: red and white blood cells in a fluid matrix (plasma) Function: Transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances Location: contained within blood vessels

Transitional Epithelium

Description: resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columner; surface cells dome shaped or squamous like, depending on degree of organ stretch Function: stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine Location: lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra

Pseudostratified Columner Epithelium

Description: single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching the free surface; nuclei seen at different levels; may contain mucous-secreting cells and bear cilia (gives appearance that their are many different layers of cells) Function: secretion, particularly of mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action; known for absorption Location: Nonciliated type in makes sperm carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract. Also asscociate with lungs

Risorius

Description: slender muscle inferior and lateral to zygomaticus Origin and Insertion: (lateral fascia associated with masseter muscle) [skin at angle of mouth] Action: draws corners of lips laterally; tenses lips; synergist of zygomsticus Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Styloglossus

Description: slender muscle running superiorly to and at right angles to hypoglossus Origin and Insertion: (styloid process of temporal bone) [inferolateral tongue] Action: retracts (and elevates) tongue Nerve Supply: hypoglossal nerve

Depressor Anguli Oris

Description: small muscle lateral to depressor labii inferioris Origin and Insertion: (body of mandible below incisors) [skin and muscle at angle of mouth below insertion of zygomaticus] Action: draws corners of mouth downward and laterally, zygomaticus antagonist Nerve Supply: facial nerves

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Description: thick memabrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columner and metablically active; in the keratinized type the surface cells are full of keratin and dead; basal cells are active in the mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers Function: protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion Location: Nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane

Levator Labii Superioris

Description: thin muscle between orbicularis oris and the inferior eye margin Origin and Insertion: (zygomatic bone and the infraorbital margin of maxilla) [ skin and muscle of lower lip] Action: opens lips; raises and furrows the upper lip Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Orbicularis Oculi

Description: thin tripartite sphincter muscle of the eyelid; surrounds rim of the orbit Origin and Insertion: (frontal and maxillary bones and ligaments around orbit) [tissue of eyelid] Action: closes eye; various parts can be activated individually; produces blinking, squinting, and draws eyebrows inferiorly Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Buccinator

Description: thin, horizontal cheek muscle; principal muscle of cheek; deep to masseter Origin and Insertion: (molar region of maxilla and mandible) [orbicularis oris] Action: compresses cheeks; as in whistling and sucking; trampoline like action holds food between teeth during chewing; draws corner of mouth laterally; well developed in nursing infants Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Platysma

Description: unpaired, thin, sheetlike superficial neck muscle; not strictly a head muscle, but plays a role in facial expression Origin and Insertion: (fascia of chest {over pectoral muscles and deltoid}) [ lower margin of mandible; and skin and muscle at corner of mouth] Action: tenses skin of neck (ex: during shaving); helps depress mandible; pulls lower lip back and down, produces downward sag of mouth

Depressor Labii Inferioris

Descritption: small muscle running from mandible to lower lip Origin and Insertion: (body of mandible lateral to its midline) [skin and muscle of lower lip] Action: draws lower lip inferiorly (as in pout) Nerve Supply: facial nerves

2 Key Parameters that influence speed of AP

Diameter of the neuron (larger --> faster) and the Resistance of the axon to ion leakage (more myelination --> faster)

isotopes

Different atomic forms of the same element, vary only in the number of neutrons they contain; the heavier species tend to be radioactive.

Neutralization reaction

Displacement reaction in which mixing an acid and a base forms water and a salt.

Serous Membranes by Body Cavity:

Dorsal Body Cavity: - Cranial cavity: Meninges - Vertebral Cavity: Meninges Thoracic Cavity: - Heart: Pericardium - Lungs: Pleura Ventral Body Cavity: - Abdominoplevic Cavity: Peritoneum

Internal intercostals

Draws the ribs together and depresses rib cage

What is the difference between the absolute refractory period and the relative refractory period?

During the absolute refractory period, no stimulus can trigger another action potential. During the relative refractory period, only a large than normal stimulus can initiate a new action potential.

Rough ER

ER with ribosomes on the surface, involved in the production of protein

How does a Voltage Gated Channel Work?

EX: Na- Channel. Closed when intracellular environment is negative. Na- cannot enter the cell. Open when the intracellular environment is positive. Na- can enter the cell.

How does a Gated Channel Work?

EX: Na-/K+ Gated Channel. Closed when a neurotransmitter is not bound to the extracellular receptor. Na- cannot enter the cell and K+ cannot exit the cell. Open when a neurotransmitter is attached to the receptor. Na- enters the cell and K+ exits the cell.

Developmental Aspects: Fetal

Ectoderm - epidermis , Mesoderm - dermis and hypodermis , Lanugo coat: covering of delicate hairs in 5th and 6th month, Vernix caseosa: sebaceous gland secretion; protects skin of fetus

Angle

Name this specific part of the mandible.

What is plasticity?

If a cell body still exists, plasticity allows neurons to make new connections and relearn how to function.

Bone Remodeling Occurs

In response to mechanical stressors over several months, Final structure resembles original

Sensory (afferent) division

In the PNS, sensory afferent fibers carry impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain (aka CNS)

Motor (efferent) division

In the PNS, transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs

What are Amino Acids?

Include: GABA - Gamma aminobutyric acid, Glycine, Aspartate, Glutamate. Is found only in the CNS.

What are Peptides?

Include: Substance P - mediator of pain signals. Beta Endorphin, dynorphin, and enkephalins. Act as a natural opiate; reduce pain perception. Binds to the same receptors as opiates and morphine. Gut-brain peptides - Somatostain, and cholectokinin.

Depolarizing phase

Increase in Na+ permeability and reversal of membrane potential.

Growth

Increase in the size of a cell

What is IPSP?

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials.

Formation of Cross Bridge

Initaited when calcium ions released from SR bind to troponin (This causes tropinin to change shape); Tropomyosin moves away from myosin binding sites on actin allowing myosin head to bind actin and form a cross bridge; Myosin head has to be activated before a cross bridge cycle can begin; ATP combines with myosin head and is hydrolized to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Energy from hydrolozied Atp activates myosin head forcing It to be in cocked position)

Body

Name this specific part of the mandible.

Disaccharide

Literally, double sugar; e.g., sucrose, lactose.

Polysaccharide

Literally, many sugars, a polymer of linked monosaccharides; e.g., starch, glycogen.

Multiunit Smooth Muscle

Located in large airways, large arteries, arrector pili muscles, and iris of eye; Gap junctions are rare; Arranged in motor units; Graded contractions occur in response to neural stimuli

Naming of Skeletal Muscles

Location, Shape, Size, Direction of Fibers, Number of Origins, Location of Attachments, and Action

Cell that fight disease

Macrophage (phagocytic cell) - extends long pseudopods to crawl through tissue to reach infection sites; (cells that ...)

Electrical Synapses

Made of connexons- tubular proteins that allow passage of an impulse in 2 directions at once- are located in gap junctions where 2 cells come together- more rapid than a chemical synapse

Graded Potentials

Magnitude varies directly with the strength of the stimulus Short-lived, local changes in membrane potential Decrease in intensity with distance Sufficiently strong graded potentials can initiate action potentials Current is quickly dissipated due to the leaky plasma membrane Only travel over short distances

glycogen

Main carbohydrate stored in animal cells; a polysaccharide.

Hormones and Local Chemical Factors

May bind to G protein-linked receptors; May either enhance or inhibit Ca2+ entry

Medial, Lateral and Intermediate:

Medial: toward or at the midline of the body Lateral: away from the midline of the body Intermediate: between a more medial and more lateral structure

Teres major

Medially rotates and adducts the arm

cofactor

Metal ion or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity.

Phospholipid

Modified lipid, contains phosphorus.

Exocrine Glands

More numerous than endocrine glands, secrete products into ducts and secretion released onto the body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities to reduce friction ex: mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands

Skin Cancer

Most skin tumors are benign (do not metastasize), Risk factors: Overexposure to UV radiation, Frequent irritation of the skin. Some skin lotions contain enzymes in liposomes that can fix damaged DNA 3 types: Basal Cell Carcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Melanoma

contractility

Muscles ability to shorten/contract

Mandibular notch

Name this specific part of the mandible.

Developmental Aspects of Muscles

Muscular development reflects neuromuscular coordination; Development occurs head to toe, and proximal to distal; Peak natural neural control occurs by midadolescence; Athletics and training can improve neuromuscular control; Female skeletal muscle makes up 36% of body mass; Male skeletal muscle makes up 42% of body mass, primarily due to testosterone; Body strength per unit muscle mass is the same in both sexes; With age, connective tissue increases and muscle fibers decrease; By age 30, loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia) begins; Regular exercise reverses sarcopenia; Atherosclerosis may block distal arteries, leading to intermittent claudication and severe pain in leg muscles

Significance of multiple sclerosis

Myelin breaks apart, slowing down AP's causing disease --> fatigue, muscle weakness, difficulty walking a) APs appear to jump from one node of ranvier to the next b) In demyelinating diseases, conduction slows due to current leakage out of the previously insulated regions between the nodes.

Resting State

Na+ and K+ channels are closed

Action Potential: Resting State

Na+ and K+ channels are closed Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+ and K+ Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated gates

relative refractory period

Na+ gates are closed, K+ gates are open repolarization is occurring threshold level is elevated, allowing strong stimuli to increase the frequency of action potential events

Action Potential: Depolarization Phase

Na+ gates are opened; K+ gates are closed Cell becomes more positive

Atlas

Name the entire bone indicated by the arrow.

Axis

Name the entire bone indicated by the arrow.

Middle nasal concha

Name these bony landmarks of the ethmoid bone.

Superior nasal concha

Name these parts of the ethmoid bone.

Body

Name this area of the mandible.

Orbit

Name this area of the skull.

Frontal bone

Name this bone (superior view).

Ethmoid bone

Name this bone of the skull (lateral view).

Ethmoid bone

Name this bone of the skull (superior view).

Frontal bone

Name this bone.

Inferior nasal conchae

Name this bone.

Lacrimal bone

Name this bone.

Mandible

Name this bone.

Maxilla

Name this bone.

Nasal bone

Name this bone.

Occipital bone

Name this bone.

Palatine bone

Name this bone.

Parietal bone

Name this bone.

Sphenoid bone

Name this bone.

Temporal bone

Name this bone.

Vomer

Name this bone.

Zygomatic bone

Name this bone.

Crista galli

Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (lateral view).

Crista galli

Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (posterior view).

Cribriform plate

Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (superior view).

Crista galli

Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (superior view).

Types of Synovial Joints

Plane, Hinge, Pivot, Condyloid, Saddle, Ball-and Socket

Neurilemma

Portion of the Schwann cell which includes the exposed part of its plasma membrane.

Action Potential: Hyperpolarization

Potassium gates remain open, causing an excessive efflux of K+ The neuron is insensitive to stimulus and depolarization during this time

Dehydration synthesis

Process by which a large molecule is synthesized by removing water and covalently bonding smaller molecules together.

Chemical reaction

Process in which molecules are formed, changed, or broken down.

hydrolysis

Process in which water is used to split a substance into smaller particles.

oxidation

Process of substances combining with oxygen or the removal of hydrogen.

Muscle Functions

Produce Movement, Maintain Posture and Body Position, Stabalize Joints, Generate Heat

Hair

Produced by hair follicles, consists of dead keratinized cells. 3 Layers of keratinized cells (medulla, cortex, cuticle) Functions: Alerting the body to presence of insects on the skin Guarding the scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, and sunlight Distribution: Entire surface except palms, soles, lips, nipples, and portions of external genitalia Contains hard keratin; more durable than soft keratin of skin Hair pigments: melanins (yellow, rust brown, black) Gray/white hair: decreased melanin production, increased air bubbles in shaft

Pronator teres

Pronates forearm and assists in flexing the elbow

myelin sheath functions

Protect the axon Electrically insulate fibers from one another Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission

Neuralgia functions

Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons Segregate and insulate neurons Guide young neurons to the proper connections Promote health and growth

Oligodendrocytes

Provides myelination in CNS, electrically insulates certain axons, & speeds up rate of electrical signals

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Quite rare in body, Found in some sweat and mammary glands, Typically two cell layers thick

Cutaneous Sensations

Temperature, touch, and pain

cisterna

Terminal cisternae are enlarged areas of the sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounding the transverse tubules. These discrete regions within the muscle cell store calcium (increasing the capacity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium) and release it when an action potential courses down the transverse tubules, eliciting muscle contraction.

mechanical energy

The energy directly involved in moving matter; e.g., in bicycle riding, the legs provide the mechanical energy that moves the pedals.

kinetic energy

The energy of motion or movement, e.g., the constant movement of atoms, or the push given to a swinging door that sets it into motion.

atomic weight

The average of the mass numbers of all the isotopes of an element.

Organization and Restored Blood Supply

The blood clot is replaced with granulation tissue Epithelium begins to regenerate, Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge the gap, Debris is phagocytized

Dendrites

The branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

energy

The capacity to do work; may be stored (potential energy) or in action (kinetic energy).

Adductor Pollicis longus

The chief action of abductor pollicis longus is to abduct the thumb at the carpometacarpal joint, thereby moving the thumb anteriorly. By its continued action it helps to abduct the wrist.

Potential difference

The difference in electrical charge between two points in a circuit expressed in volts.

potential on either side of membranes when:

The number of ions is different across the membrane The membrane provides a resistance to ion flow

Avogadro's number

The number of molecules in one mole of any substance, 6.02 x 1023.

atomic number

The number of protons in an atom.

atomic symbol

The one- or two-letter symbol used to indicate an element; usually the first letter(s) of the element's name.

Unicellular Exocrine Gland

The only important unicellular gland is the goblet cell. Unicellular glands are sprinkled into the epithelial linings of the intestinal and respiratory tracts amid columner cells with other functions

Axolemma

The plasma membrane of the axon

White Matter

The portions of the central nervous system that are abundant in axons rather than cell bodies of neurons. The colour derives from the presence of the axon's myelin sheaths

What is Resting Membrane Potential?

The potential difference (-70mV) across the membrane of a resting neuron.

radioactivity

The process of spontaneous decay seen in some of the heavier isotopes, during which particles or energy is emitted from the atomic nucleus; results in the atom becoming more stable.

Apoenzyme

The protein portion of an enzyme.

Regeneration and Fibrosis

The scab detaches, Fibrous tissue matures; epithelium thickens and begins to resemble adjacent tissue, Results in a fully regenerated epithelium with underlying scar tissue

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

a series of flattened tubes stacked on one another & bent into a crescent shape, 2 types: rough & smooth

Epithelial Tissue

a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity. Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception epithelium (plural: epithelia), (epithe = laid on, covering) (2 main types: Covering and Lining and Glandular Epithelium

muscle fiber

a single muscle tissue cell

axon terminals

a small swelling at the end of an axon, designed to release neurotransmitters onto other neurons, muscle cells, or glands.

Epineurium

a thick connective tissue sheath that surrounds and encloses a bundle of fascicles, forming the outermost covering of the nerve -includes fatty tissue, blood vessels, and lymphatics

myosin

a type of protein filament (thick) that interacts with actin filaments to cause cell contraction.

What are the anatomic and functional categories of neurons?

a)unipolar neurons have a single process called the axon. During development, the dendrite fused with the axon. b) Bipolar neurons have 2 relatively equal fibers extending off the central cell body. c) Axaxonic CNS interneurons have no apparent axon. d) Multipolar CNS interneurons are highly branched but lack long extensions. e) A typical multipolar efferent neuron has 5 to 7 dendrites, each branching 4 to 6 times. A single long axon may branch several times and end at enlarged axon terminals.

Nerve fibers consist of:

a. bundle of nerve fibers outside the CNS (or a "bundle of bundled fibers" or fasicles) b. the connective tissue coverings that surround and ind the nerve fibers and fascicles together c. blood vessels (vasa nervorum) that nourish the nerve fibers and their coverings

M Line

bisect each H Zone; formed by molecules of the protein muomesin

collateral sympathetic ganglia are involved with the innervation of the

abdominal organs

Elasticity

ability of muscle cell to recoil and resume its resting length after being stretched

Contractility

ability of muscle tissue to shorten forcibly when adequetly stimulated

What is Homeostasis and it's significance?

ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world. - keeps the body from experiencing sudden changes in the body. - needed to regulate blood pressure, pH levels, temperature, etc. - Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones

Resilience

ability to spring back to original shape after being compressed

Hypertrophy

abnormal increase in the size of a cell

What can be added to IV fluids to adjust ionic balances?

additives such as bicarbonate (anions) or potassium (cations)

Rhomboids Minor

adducts and laterally rotates the scapula. It also retracts the scapula, rotates lower pole of scapula medially, depresses the glenoid cavity, and fixes the scapula to the thoracic wall.

Basal Lamina

adjacent to basal surface, noncellular adhesive sheet consisting of glycoprotiens secreted by epithelial cells. Functions: acts as a selective filter that determines which molecules diffusing from the underlying connective tissue are allowed to enter epithelium

Force of Muscle Contraction

affected by, (1) the number of muscle fibers stimulated [more motor units the greater the muscle force], (2) the relative size of the fibers [the bulkier the muscle the more tension it can develop and the greater its strength, (3) the frequency of stimulation [more frequency allows time for more effective transfer of tension to noncontractile components] , and (4) the degree of muscle stretch [Length-tension relationship—muscles contract most strongly when muscle fibers are 80-120% of their normal resting length]

the transmission of sound vibrations through the internal ear occurs chiefly through

air

action potentials

aka nerve impulses Electrical impulses carried along the length of axons Always the same regardless of stimulus the underlying functional feature of the nervous system

Schwann cells

aka neurolemmocytes surround fibers of the PNS help regulate how neuron fires

Endochondral Ossification

all bones (except clavicles) of the skeleton below base of skull form by this process; begins in 2nd month of development and uses hyaline cartilage as models for bone construction

Fractures (2)

all fractures can be describes in terms of location, external appearance, nature of the break

taste buds are found on the

all of these

which of the following is important in maintaining the balance of the body?

all of these

Directional Terms

allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another

Leptin

also been known to influence density by inhibiting osteoblast

Circular muscle

also called sphincters; open and close to guard entrances of body; ex: orbicularis oris muscle of the mouth

passive, or leakage, channels

always open

T-tubule

an extension of the sarcolemma or cell membrane that penetrates into the interior of the muscle which allows the depolarization of the membrane to quickly penetrate to the interior of the cell. allows for a uniform contraction of the muscle.

Rickets

analogous disease in children. Bowed legs and deformities of the pelvis, skull, and rib cage are common. Because epiphyseal plates cant be calcified they continue to widen and the ends of long bones become visibly enlarged and abnormally long. caused by insufficient calcium in diet and by vitamin D deficiency.

Troponin

another major protien in thinn filaments; globular three polypeptide complex; one of its polypeptides is an inhinitory subunit that binds to actin; the third binds calcium ions

Diploe

another name for spogny bone is flat bones

Stratum Lucidum (Clean Layer)

appears as a clear translucent band just above the stratum granuosum. 2 to 3 rows of flat, dead keratinocytes

Third class lever

applied force between resistance and fulcrum; greater force moves smaller resistance; maximizes speed and distance; most common levers in body; all these levers work at a mechanical disadvantage

Apocrine Sweat Glands

approx. 2000 of them are confined in axillary and anogenital areas. Release product by exocytosis. They are larger and lie deeper in the dermis, and ducts empty into hair follicles. Sebum: sweat + fatty substances and proteins. Functional from puberty onward (as sexual scent glands?)

Projections

are bulges that grow outward from the bone surface include head, trochanters, spines, and others.

Cross Bridges

are formed when tail of myosin molecule, which consists of 2 intertwined helical polypeptide heavy chains, contract and link the thick and thin filaments together; the gobular heads, are business end of myosin;

Serous Membranes

are the moist membranes found in closed ventral body cavities. Consisits of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of loose connective (aerolar) tissue. Serosae—membranes (mesothelium + areolar tissue) in a closed ventral body cavity. Parietal serosae line internal body walls Visceral serosae cover internal organs

Epidermal Dendritic Cells

arise from bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis. Also called Langerhans cells. Functions: they imgest foreign substances and are key activators of pur immune system

Symphyses

articlar surfaces of the bones are covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage, and is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage [acts as shock absorber cause resiliency], strong flexible amphiathroses

(Synovial) Plane Joints

articular surfaces are flat and allow only short nonaxial gliding movements

Fused or Complete Tetanus

as the stimulation frequency continues to increase, muscle tension increases until a maximal tension is reached; at this point all evidence of muscle relaxation dissapears and the contractions fuse into a smooth, sustained contraction plateau

fiber tracts that allow neurons within the same cerebral hemisphere to communicate are

association tracts

Origin

attachment of muscle to the immovable (or less movable bone)

Insertion

attachment of muscle to the movable bone [Muscle contraction causes the insertion to move toward the origin; Movements occur along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes]

two types of neuron processes

axons and dendrites

of the neurons in the retina, the axons of which of these form the optic nerve?

bipolar cells

Functional Classification of Joints

based on the amount of movement allowed at the joint

Flexion

bending movement along sagittal plane, that decrease the angle of the joint, and brings articulating bones closer together

Epiphyseal Line/Plate

between diaphysis and epiphysis of an adult bone. A disc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood to lengthen bone. sometimes called metaphysis

muscles that flex the wrist and digits (2 nerves)

brachial, median

elbow joint

brachial, median, musculocutaneous, radial, ulnar

anterior arm muscles that flex forearm

brachial, musculocutaneous

muscles that extend the wrist and digits

brachial, radial

skin and extensor muscles of the posterior arm

brachial, radial

Oligodendrocytes

branched cells that wrap CNS nerve fibers help regulate how neuron fires

Fractures

breaks; excessive intake of vitamin A appears to increase fracture risk in some; Classifications: (1) Position of the bone ends after fracture [nondisplaced fractures - the bone ends retain their normal position, displaced fractures - bone ends are out of normal alignment], (2) Completeness of Break [ complete - broken all the way through, incomplete - not broken all the way through], (3) Orientation of the break to the long axis of the bone [linear - break parallels long axis, transverse - break perpendicular to bones long axis, (4) Whether bone ends penterate the skin [Open - bone ends penetrate the skin, Simple - bone ends do not penetrate the skin

Convergent muscles

broad area converges on attachment site (tendon, aponeurosis, or raphe); muscle fibers pull in different directions, depending on stimulation; ex: pectoralis muscles

Fascicles

bundles of fibers; most common fascicle arrangement are circular, convergent, parallel, and pennate; arrangements of these determine a muscles range of motion

Excitation-Contraction Coupling (3)

calcium binds to tropinin and removes the blocking action of tropomyosin; when Ca2+ binds, troponin changes shape, exposing binding sites for myosin on the thin filaments

meatus (ex external auditory meatus)

canal-like passageway

afferent

carrying to or toward the center

Depression

cavities that indent the bone, usually serve to allow passage of nerves and blood vessels

dorsal root ganglia contain

cell bodies of sensory neurons

Apical-Basal Surface

cells regions near the apical surface differ from those near the basal surface in both structure and function

Supporting cells

cells that surround and wrap neurons

Medulla

central core of hair, consists of large cells and spaces. Soft keratin absent in fine hairs.

brain area most concerned with equilibrium body posture and coordination of motor activity

cerebellum

the diaphragm

cervical, phrenic

Ions

charged particles contained in fluid

cerbrospinal fluid is formed by

choroid plexus

Telophase

chromosomal movement stops, a new nuclear membrane forms (type of phase)

Ependymal cells

ciliated cells that range in shape from squamous to columnar line the central cavities of the brain and spinal column

Nucleosome

cluster of DNA and histones

Terminal (Hair Type)

coarse, long hair of eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic regions (and face and neck of males)

which of the following is not a possible cause of conduction deafness

cochlear nerve degeneeration

Z-Disc

coin-shaped sheet of proteins (connectins) that anchors the thin filaments and connects myofilaments to one another

Nucleus

collection of nerve cell bodies in the CNS

Lamella

column like matrix tube of an osteon (compact bone often times called lamellar bone)

Mucus

comes to be after Mucin is dissolved; a slimy coating that both protects and lubricates surfaces

Irregular Bones

complicated shapes that fit none of the preceding classes (include vertebrae and hip bones)

Stratified Epithelia

composed of 2 or more layers of cells (if stratified, name according to top layer of cells) locations: common in high abrasion areas, such as the skin surface and the lining of the mouth

Epidermis

composed of epithelial cells, is the outermost protective shield of the body. A keratinized stratified squamous epithelium consisting of 4 distinct cell types and 4 or 5 distinct layers

Elastic Filament

composed of the giant protien titin; extends from the Z disc to the thick filament, and then runs within the thick filament (forming its core) to attach to M line; holds thick filaments in place, and maintains organization of A band, and helps muscle cell to spring back into shape after being streched

Electrolytes

conduct electrical impulses in solution; ions, acids, & bases

Smooth ER

connected to rough ER, no ribosomes on the surface, makes & transports carbohydrates, lipids, & steroids

Simple Epithelia

consists of a single layer of cells locations: typically found where absorption, secretion, and filtration occur

Appendicular Skeleton

consists of bones of the upper and lower limbs and girdles (shoulder bones and hip bones) that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.

Gland

consists of one or more cells that make and secrete (export) a particular product. This product, called secretion, is an aqueous (water based) fluid that usually contains proteins ex: some glands release a lipid or steroid rich secretion

Acetylcholinesterase

enzyme located in synaptic cleft; acetic acid and choline which break down ACh

Dermal Papillae

contain Capillary loops, Meissner's corpuscles (touch receptors), Free nerve endings (pain receptors). Indent overlying epidermis.

Thin Filaments

contain actin, and extend across the I band and partway into the A band

Elastic Cartilages

contain more stretchy elastic fibers, able to stand up to repeated bending. Found in external ear and the epiglottis (flap that bends to cover the opening of the larynx each time we swallow)

Thick Filaments

contain myosin, and extend the entire length of the A band; composed primarily of protien myosin; each myosin molecule consists of two heavy and 4 light polypeptide chains, and has rodlike tail attchaed by flexible hinge to two gobular heads; each contains about 300 myosin molecules

Periosteal Bud

contains a nutrient artery and vein, lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers, red marrow elements, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts

Avascular

contains no blood vessels

Medial Mediastinum

contains the pericardial cavity

Excitation-Contraction Coupling (4)

contraction begins; myosin binding to actin forms cross bridges and contraction begins; at this point E-C coupling is over

activation of the sympathetic nervous system causes

contraction of the dilatior puppillae muscles

Control of Remodeling

controlled by Hormonal mechanisms that maintain calcium homeostasis in the blood, and Mechanical and gravitational forces

Recruitment (Multiple Motor Unit Summation)

controls force of contraction; achieved by delivering shocks of increasing voltage to the muscle, calling more and more muscle fibers to play

damage to the medial recti muscles would probably affect

convergence

relay stations for visual and auditory stimuli input; found in midbrain

corpora quadrigemina

Visceral Serosa

covers the internal organs

A Bands

dark and perfectly aligned lines in muscle fiber

Z Disc

dark midline interruption in light I Bands; coin shaped sheet composed largley of the protien alpha-actinin, anchors the thin filaments

Condensed chromatin

dark regions that contain tightly coiled strands of DNA

A bands

darker crossbands on the myofibril composed of overlapping actin and myosin myofilaments

Atrophy

decrease in the size of a cell

Reticular Lamina

deep to the basal lamina, layer of extracellular materials (collagen fibers)

Hypoplasia

defective development of a cell or tissue

Endosteum

delicate connective tissue membrane that covers internal bone surfaces

Nucleoli

dense spherical (non-membrane structure-bounded) bodies; site of ribosome subunit manufacture (part of the nucleus)

3 events that cause Changes in Membrane Potential

depolarization repolarization hyperpolarization

Flexure Lines

dermak folds that occur at or near joints, where the dermis is tightly secured to deeper structures (deep creases in palm)

Articular Surfaces

determines what movements are possible at a joint (minor role)

Mitosis

division of the nucleus; mitosis is said to have four consecutive phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (overall term)

Nuclear envelope

double-membrane structure; pierced by the pores; continuous with the cytoplasmic ER; separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm; regulates passage of substances to and from the nucleus (part of the nucleus)

Diffusion moves which way on the concentration gradient?

down

myelin sheath presence

dramatically increases impulse speed

Endocrine Glands

ductless glands that secrete hormones that travel through lymph or blood to target organs directly into blood and lymphatic system

Classification of Epithelia

each epithelium is given two names the first indicates (1) how many cell layers and the second (2)describes the shape of the cell

Skeletal Muscle

each is a discrete organ, made up of several kinds of tissues; skeletal muscle fibers predominate, but blood vessels, nerve fibers, and substantial amounts of connective tissue are also present

Fulcrum

each joint is a fixed point mechanically; also called...

generally short-duration action

p

Second-Class Lever

effort is applied at one end of the lever and the fulcrum is located at the other, with the load between them (ex: wheelbarrel)

First-Class Levers

effort is applied at one end of the lever and the load is at the other, with the fulcrum somewhere between (ex: seesaws and scissors)

Electrochemical Gradient

electrical and chemical gradients taken together Ions flow along their chemical gradient when they move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration Ions flow along their electrical gradient when they move toward an area of opposite charge

Action Potential

electrical charge which occurs along the entire surface of the sarcolemma; 3 steps involved for this to occur

Neuron plasma membrane functions

electrical signaling cell-to-cell signaling during development

T Tubules

elongated tube; formed by the cell interior in sarcolemma of cell muscle that protrudes deep into cell interior; increase muscle fibers surface area

Pericardial Cavity

encloses the heart and also surrounds the the remaining thoracic organs (esophagus, trachea, and others)

Gland Classification

endocrine( internally secreting) or exocrine (externally screting) depending on where they release their product, and as unicellular (one celled) or multicellular (many celled) based on relative cell number making up the gland

anabolism

energy-requiring building phase of metabolism in which simpler substances are combined to form more complex substances

Stained

enhances contrast

Neurons

excitable cells that transmit electrical signals structural unit of the nervous system

you are enjoying and ice cream cone

exteroceptor, chemoreceptor, thermoreceptor

you bump (lightly) into someone

exteroceptor, mechanoreceptor

you have just scalded yourself with hot coffee

exteroceptor, nociceptor, thermoreceptor

the retinas of your eyes are stimulated

exteroceptor, photoreceptor

is impaired in bells palsy

facial

contain parasympathetic motor fibers (4 nerves)

facial, glossopharyngeal, oculomotor, vagus

Aplasia

failure of a cell or tissue to develop

Glandular Epithelium

fashions the glands of the body

Chromatin

fibers in the nucleoplasm of the nucleus made up of DNA & histones

Parallel Muscles

fibers parallel to the long axis of muscle; depends on the total number of myofibrils; directly relates to cross section of muscle; ex: biceps brachii

Cell Adhesion Protiens

fibronectin, laminim, and others. Serve mainly as a connective tissue glue that allows connective tissue cells to attach themselves to matrix elements

Perimysium

fibrous connective tissue; surrounds each fasicle (grouped muscle fibers that resemble bundles of sticks)

Ependymal cells functions

filters for CSF

Microvilli

finger like extensions of the plasma membrane

Developmental Aspects of Tissue

first event of embryonic develpoment is the formation of three primary germ layers. (Superficial to deep) ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. These germ layers specialize to form the four primary tissues (epithelium, connective, nervous, and muscle)

Squamous

flat, disclike, nucleus in center, slight bump

Sarco

flesh

increases gastric motility and secretion of lacrimal, salivary, and digestive juices

p

Effort

force applied to a lever

Axial Skeleton

form long axis of body and includes bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. In general these bones are involved in protecting, supporting, or carrying other body parts.

Fribrocartilaginous Callus Forms

formation of granulation tissue or soft callus, capillaries grow into hematoma and phagocytic cels invade area and clean up debris, Osteoblast and and fibroblast begin to reconstruct bone. Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone within 1 week, Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect bone ends; This Mass of repair tissue now called fibrocartilaginous callus spints broken bone

Terminal Cisternae

formed by SR (On portion of t tubule and adjacent terminal cisternae); saclike bulges where it abuts t tubules

Neuromuscular Junction

formed by curling branches of axons; each muscle fiber has only one; Site where motor neuron excites a skeletal muscle fiber; Chemical synapse consisting of points of contact between axon terminals of motor neuron and motor end plate od skeletal muscle fiber

Triads

formed by t tubules that run between the paired teminal cisternae of SR; organelles come into closest contact here; encircle each sarcomere

Basement Membrane

formed together by Basal and Reticular laminae Functions: reinforces the epithelial sheet, helping it to resist stretching, and tearing forces

Bipennate muscle

forms an angle with a tendon; do not move as far as parallel; contains more myofibrils than parallel muscles; develop more tension than parallel muscles; fibers on both sides of tendon; ex: rectus femoris

Unipennate muscle

forms an angle with a tendon; do not move as far as parallel; contains more myofibrils than parallel muscles; develop more tension than parallel muscles; fibers on one side of tendon ex: extensor digitorum muscle

Multipennate muscle

forms an angle with a tendon; do not move as far as parallel; contains more myofibrils than parallel muscles; develop more tension than parallel muscles; tendon branches within the muscle; ex: deltoid

Covering and Lining Epithelium

forms the outer layer of the skin, dips into and lines the open cavities of the cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory systems, and covers the walls and organs of the closed ventral body cavity

Connective Tissue

found everywhere in the body, it is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue type. 3 main elements: ground substance, fibers, and cells. (ground fibers and cells make up the extracellular matrix 4 main types/classes (Connective Tissue Proper, Cartilage, Bone Tissue, Blood) Major Functions: binding and support, protection, insulation, and as blood transportation

Smooth Muscle Tissue

found in the walls of hollow visceral organs, such as the stomach, urinary bladder, and respiratory passages; forces fluids and other substances through internal body channels; elongated "fibers"; not striated; not voluntary

Areolar Connective Tissue

functions: supporting and binding other tissues (the job of the fibers), holding body fluids (ground substances role), defending against infection (via the activity of white blood cells and macrophages), and storing nutrients as fat (in fat cells)

Axial

fundamental division of our body. Makes up the main axis of our body, includes the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular

fundamental division of our body. relating to the limbs and their attachments to the axis.

nucleoplasm

gel-like fluid in the middle of the nucleus similar to cytosol

axon functions

generate & transmit action potentials secrete neurotransmittters from the axon terminals

blockage of the scleral venous sinus might result in

glaucoma

a reflex that causes reciprocal activation of the antagonist muscle is the

golgi tendon

contains receptor endings wrapped around thick collagen bundles

golgi tendon organ

Types of signals

graded potentials and action potentials

Histones

granular, threadlike material composed of DNA and histone proteins; blueprints of the cell

Glycosomes

granules of stored glycogen that provide glucose during periods of muscle cell activity

Muscle Tissue

highly cellular, well vascularized tissues that are responsible for most types of body movement. Muscle cells contain mayofilaments, elaborate versions of actin and myosin filaments that bring about movement or contraction in all cell types.

Fibrocartilages

highly compressible and have great tensile strength, consist of chondrocytes and thick collagen fibers. In sites with heavy pressure and strength, such as padlike cartilages of knee and discs between vertebrae

Connective Tissue Sheaths

hold together and wrap around individual muscle fibers; support each cell and reinforce the muscle as a whole

VENTRAL CAVITY:

houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions separated by diaphragm - Thoracic - Abdominopelvic

Isotonic

if the muscle tension developed overcomes the load and muscle shortening occurs; amount of muscle shortening is measured

Unfused or Incomplete Tetanus

if the stimulus strength is held canstant and the muscle is stimulated at an increasingly faster rate, the relaxation time between the twitches become shorter and shorter, the concentration of Ca2+ in the cytosol higher and higher, and the degree of wave sumation greater and greater, progressing to a sustained but quivering contraction

Temporal/Wave Summation

if two identical stimuli (electrical shocks or nerve impulses) are delivered to muscle in rapid succession, the second twitch will be stronger then the first; temoral or wave summation is this second twitch; this occurs because second contraction occurs before the muscle has completely relaxed; primary function is to produce smooth continous muscle cells

Synarthroses

immovable joints (ex: fibrous joints)

serves the tongue muscles

hypoglossal

control of temperature autonomic nervous sysytem reflexes hunger and water balance

hypothalamus

Isometric

if muscle tension develops but the load is not moved; increasing muscle tension is measured

otoliths (ear stones) are

important in equilibrium

Trabeculae

in spongy bone, align along lines of stress, no osteons, Contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi, Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients

gray matter

in the CNS, mostly soma and unmyelinated fibers 'slower' than white matter

white matter

in the PNS, dense collections of myelinated fibers 'faster' than gray matter

Interphase

in which the sell grows and carries on its usual activities; divided into, G1, S, G2 (type of phase)

Organic Components

include cells (osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts) and osteoid (organic part of the matrix)

Skin Appendages

include nails, sweat glands, sebacous (oil) glands, and hair follicles and hair.

Osteomalacia

includes a number of disorders in which the bones are inadequatly mineralized. Osteoid is produced, but calcium salts are not deposited, so bones soften and weaken. caused by insufficient calcium in diet and by vitamin D deficiancy.

Interstitial Lamellae

incomplete lamellae that lie between intact osteons, either fill gaps between forming osteons or are remnants of osteons that have been cut through by bone remodeling

Hyperplasia

increase in the number of cells within a tissue

Angular Movements

increase or decrease the angle between two bones (flexion, extesnion, abduction, aduction, circumduction)

Velocity and Duration of Contraction

influenced by muscle fiber type, load, and recriutment

intramural ganglia

p

all of the following characterize the ANS except

innervation of skeletal muscles

Membrane receptors

integral proteins and glycoproteins that act as binding sites on the cell surface, role in cell-to-cell recognition, involved in chemical signaling (1 of the 2 families that make up the glycocalyx)

Central Nervous System

integrates and coordinates incoming and outgoing neural signals and carries our higher learning functions (thinking and learning)

pitch is to frequency of sound as loudness is to

intensity

Spongy Bone

internal to compact bone, a honeycomb of small needle-like or flat pieces called trabeculae

you feel uncomfortable after a large meal

interoceptor, mechanoreceptor

Synergists

involve most movement; help prime movers by adding a little extra force to the same movement or reducing undesirable or unnecessary movements that might occur as the prime mover contracts

Interstitial Growth

length of long bones

G₂ (gap 2)

is brief; the enzymes needed for cell division are synthesized (type of interphase)

Outermost Cuticle

is formed from a single layer of cells that overlap one another from below the shingles on a roof. Provides strength and helps keep inner layers tightly compacted

ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY:

is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the diaphragm - It is composed of two subdivisions - Abdominal cavity - contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs - Pelvic cavity - lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

THORACIC CAVITY:

is subdivided into two pleural cavities, the mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity - Pleural cavities - each houses a lung - Mediastinum - contains the pericardial cavity; surrounds the remaining thoracic organs - Pericardial cavity - encloses the heart

Cutaneous Membrane

is your skin. Organ system consisting of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) firmly attached to a thick layer of dense irregular connective tissue (dermis). Dry membrane

Passive means...

it doesn't require energy

Active means...

it requires energy

Cells of the Epidermis

keratinocytes, melanocytes, epidermal dendritic cells, and tactile cells

Contractures

lack in ATP; states of continuous contraction because the cross bridges are unable to detach

which sequences best describes a normal route for the flow of tears from the eyes into the nasal cavity?

lacrimal canaliculi, nasolacrimal ducts, nasal cavity

Magnus

large

Major

larger

Maximus

largest

Mitochondria

largest of the organelles, powerhouse of the cell enclosed by 2 membranes

Nucleus

largest organelle in the cell, the "brain," maintains hereditary information, control cellular activities through protein synthesis

Simple Columner Epithelium

layer may contain mucous-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells) Function: absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action Location: Nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder, etc

Basal Cell Carcinoma

least malignant, most common, Stratum basale cells proliferate and slowly invade dermis and hypodermis, Cured by surgical excision in 99% of cases

Origin

less movable bone; typically lies proximal to the insertion

Mechanical Advantage

lever system when the load is close to the fulcrum and effort is applied far from the fulcrum, a small effort exerted over a relatively large distance can be used to move a large load over a small distance (power levers)

Mechanical Disadvantage

lever system when the load is far from the fulcrum and the effort is applied near the fulcrum, the force exerted by the muscle must be greater than the load to be moved or supported (speed levers)

Elevation

lifitng a body part superiorly

Dorsiflexion

lifting the foot so that its superior surface approaches the skin

I Bands

light and perfectly aligned lines in muscle fiber

Extended chromatin

light regions containing fine uncoiled strands of DNA

H Zone

lighter region in each dark A Bands midsection; each is bisected vertically by dark line called M Line

Columner

like a column, long linear cell, nucleus near the basal, never at top

Sarcolemma

like plasma membrane polarized; their is a potential voltage difference across the membrane and the inside is negative relative to the outer membrane face

Mucous Membranes

line body cavities that open to the exterior, such as those of the hollw organs of the digestive, respiratory and urogenital tracts. Wet or moist membranes.

Parietal Serosa

lines internal body walls

Circumferential Lamellae

located deep to periosteum and superficial to endosteum and extend around entire circumference of the diaphysis and resist twisting of long bone

Longus

long

Teres

long and round

Axons

long threadlike extensions of motor neurons, which travel bundled within nerves , to muscle cells they serve; ends are called axon terminals

Microtubules

long, hollow tubes that grow out from the cell center near the nucleus, act as railroad tracks for organelle travel

Elastic Fibers

long, thin fibers that form branching networks in the extracellular matrix. Contain rubber like protien, elastin, that allows them to stretch and recoil like rubberbands. ex: skin, lungs, blood vessels

Long Bones

longer then they are wide, has a shaft plus 2 ends [All limb bones except the patella (kneecap) and the wrist and ankle bones are long bones]

Longissimus

longest

anterior thigh muscles

lumbar, femoral

medial thigh muscles

lumbar, obturator

which lies closest to the exact posterior pole of the eye

macula lutea

static equilibrium receptors that report the position of the head in space relative to the pull of gravity are

maculae

Lactic Acid

made if their is no oxygen present or work is more then you can breathe; pyruvic acid is transformed to lactic acid; made either way by glucose or glycogen; liver can use or send back to be formed to pyruvic

Melanin

made in the skin. A polymer made of tryosine amino acids. Range in colors from yellow to tan to reddish-brown to black. Its synthesis depends on an enzyme in melanocytes called tyrosinase and it passes from malanocytes to the basal keratinocytes.

Skeletal Cartilage

made of variety of cartilage tissue, which consists primarily of water. Contains no blood vessels and is surrounded by a layer of dense irregular connective tissue, perichondrium. Contains all 3 types of cartilage: Hyaline, Elastic, and Fibrocartilage

Phospholipids

made up of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

Keratinocytes

main role is to produce keratin, the fibrous protein that helps give the epidermis its protective properties

Osteocytes

maintain the bone matrix, also act as stress or strain sensors in cases of bone deformation.

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

major role is ti regulate intercellular levels of ionic calcium; an elaborate smooth endoplasmic reticulum; interconnecting tubules surround each myofibril; most tubules run longitudially along the myofibril communicating at H Zone; mitochondrai and glycogen granules are closely associated with SR and both involved in producing energy used during contraction

Osteoid

makes up 1/3 of matrix, includes ground substances (composed of proteoglycans and glycoprotiens) and collagen (provide tensile strength and flexibility) fibers, secreted by osteoblasts

Dermis

makes up the bulk of the skin, is a tough leathery layer composed mostly of fibrous connective tissue. Only the dermis is vascularized

which of the following tracts convey vibration and other specific sensations that can be precisely localized

medial lemniscus

houses vital centers for control of the heart, respiration and blood pressure

medulla

region where there is a gross crossover of fibers of descending pyramidal tracts

medulla

discriminitive touch receptor in hairless skin (fingertips)

meissners corpuscle

Action Potential Threshold

membrane is depolarized membrane potential goes from resting state -70mV to -55mV

Organelles

membrane-bound structures within the cytoplasm that possess specialized cellular functions

Peroxisomes

membranous sacs containing enzymes found throughout the cell that use oxygen to detoxify harmful substances, reproduced by pinching in half

Anearobic Pathway (Glycolosis)

metabolic pathway without oxygen; produced 4 ATP; 10 step process; every step is a chemical reaction and changes everytime (10 times); 1st 5 steps are known as energy investment phase (they require energy) [2 ATPS to produce these 5 steps]; 2nd Stages known as Reinvestment stage; makes only 2 ATPs; this process occurs in cytoplasm of cell; 2 energy sources glucose and glycogen; makes 2 or 3 ATP + 2 Pyruvic acids

houses the substantia nigra and cerebral aquaduct

midbrain

Hydroxyapatites

mineral salts, 65% of bone by mass, Mainly calcium phosphate crystals, Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression

Artifacts

minor distortions that altered tissues contain

Microfilaments

minute fibers located throughout the cytoplasm of cells, composed of actin and functioning primarily in maintaining the structural integrity of a cell

Cells

mitotically active and secretory cells = blast (imature) [create more cells for that particular tissue]. Mature cells = cytes ( In all 4 types of connective tissue) Fibroblasts in connective tissue proper Chondroblasts and Chondrocytes in cartilage Osteoblasts and Osteocytes in bone (osteo means bone) Hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow Fat cells, white blood cells, mast cells and macrophages

cells in the olfactory bulb that act as local "integrators" of olfactory inputs are the

mitral cells

most active when you are swinging in a hammock

p

Astrocytes

most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells cling to one or more neurons and their synaptic endings, and cover capillaries

Ribosome

most common organelle composed of 2 globular subunits, primary function is protein synthesis

Melanoma

most dangerous, Involves melanocytes , Highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy, Treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by immunotherapy Characteristics (ABCD rule) A: Asymmetry; the two sides of the pigmented area do not match B: Border exhibits indentations C: Color is black, brown, tan, and sometimes red or blue D: Diameter is larger than 6 mm (size of a pencil eraser)

Growth Hormone

most important stimulus of epiphyseal plate activity released by the anterior pituitary gland

Clia

motile "hairs" occurring in large numbers that create waves of motion that propel fluid, mucus, & debris across the cellular surface

Flagella

motile "hairs" occurring singly that propel the cell forward by undulating-move cells through fluid

otic and ciliary ganglia

p

Graded Muscle Responses

muscle contraction can be graded in two ways: (1) by changing the frequency of stimulation and (2) by changing the strength of stimulation

Isotonic Contractions

muscle length changes and moves the load, the tension remains relatively constant through the rest of the contractile period; come in two flavors concentric and eccentric

contains intrafusal fibers and type Ia and II sensory endings

muscle spindle

Prime Mover

muscle that has the major responsibility for producing a specific movement

Internus

muscle that is deep

Externus

muscle that is visible at the body surface

Sarcolemma

muscles fibers plasma membrane

Origins

muscles have one fixed point of attachment called...

Insertions

muscles have one moving point of attachment called...

Intrinsic

muscles inside an organ

Extrinsic

muscles outside an organ

Applied force

muscles provide this to overcome resistance

Antagonists

muscles that oppose or reverse a particular movement; help to regulate action of prime mover by contracting slightly to provide some resistance

To maintain homeostasis the cell...

must decide the nature & concentration of substances to be lit in & to be let out of the cell

nearsightedness is more properly called

myopia

Somatic Motor Neurons

nerve cells that activate skeletal muscle fibers; reside in the brain of spinal cord

Nutrient Foramina

nerve fibers, lymphatic vessels, and blood vessels from periosteum enter the diaphysis from this opening

PNS neuron processes

nerves

preganglionic neurons develop from

neural tube cells

Erector Spinae

not just one muscle, but a bundle of muscles and tendons. It is paired and runs more or less vertically. It extends throughout the lumbar, thoracic and cervical regions, and lies in the groove to the side of the vertebral column.

Varicosities

numerous bulbous swellings in smooth muscle; release neurotransmitter into a wide synaptic cleft in the general area of the smooth muscle cells. Such junctions are called diffuse junctions

Lacunae

occupied by spider-shaped osteocytes at junctions of the lamelle

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

occurs only in the heart, where it constitutes the bulk of the heart walls; striated; not voluntary

causes pupillary constriction

oculomotor

Hypertrophic

older chondrocytes in stack that are closer to diaphysis, and lacunae enlarge

are purely sensory (2 nerves)

olfactory, optic

contralateral

on or relating to the opposite side (of the body)

the large onion-shaped receptors that are founnd deep in the dermis and in subcutaneous tissue and that respond to deep pressure are

pacinian corpuscles

Inclusions

packaged units of metabolic products or substances the cell has engulfed

myofibrils

one of the slender threads of a muscle fiber, composed of numerous myofilaments.

Nucleoli

one or more dark-staining patches contained in the nuclei

voltage-gated channels

open and close in response to membrane potential

mechanically gated channels

open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors

chemically gated channels

open with binding of a specific neurotransmitter

Antagonist

opposes movement of a particular agonist

Adduction

opposite of abduction, movement of a limb toward the body midline, or midline of hand or foot.

Joints

or articulations, are sites where 2 or more bones meet, weakest part of the skeleton, classified by structure and function. Less movable joints are more stable

Chemical Composition of Bone

organic and inorganic components; matrix, proper combination allows bones to be durable and strong without being brittle

Terminal Cisternae

other tubules that form larger, perpendicular cross channels at the A band - I band junction and they always occur in pairs

cortex

outer surface layer of an organ

craniosacral outflow

p

Lever Systems

partnerships between the muscular and skeletal systems

olfactory nerve filaments are found

passing through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone

Types of plasma membrane ion channels

passive or leakage channels chemically gated channels voltage-gated channels mechanically gated channels

the connective tissue sheath that surrounds a fascicle of nerve fibers is the

perineurium

Tarsal

pertaining to the ankle

Abdominal

pertaining to the anterior body trunk region inferior to the ribs

Patellar

pertaining to the anterior knee (kneecap) region

Antecubital

pertaining to the anterior surface of the elbow

Lumbar

pertaining to the area of the back between the ribs and hips; the loin

Vertebral

pertaining to the area of the spinal column

Brachial

pertaining to the arm

Axillary

pertaining to the armpit

Dorsum

pertaining to the back

Popliteal

pertaining to the back of the knee

Mammary

pertaining to the breast

Gluteal

pertaining to the buttocks or rump

Sural

pertaining to the calf or posterior surface of the leg

Buccal

pertaining to the cheek

Thoracic

pertaining to the chest

Mental

pertaining to the chin

Otic

pertaining to the ear

Orbital

pertaining to the eye socket (orbit)

Digital

pertaining to the fingers or toes

Pedal

pertaining to the foot

Antebrachial

pertaining to the forearm

Frontal

pertaining to the forehead

Pubic

pertaining to the genital region

the innermost layer of the meninges, delicate and closely apposed to the brain tissue is the

pia matter

Tropomyosin

polypeptide strands; a rod-shaped protien, spiral about the actin core and help stiffen and stabalize it; arrranged end to end along the actin filaments and in relaxed muscle fibe

Axial muscles

position head and spinal column; move rib cage; 60% of skeletal muscles

Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)

potential difference (-70 mV) across the membrane of a resting neuron

Caveolae

pouchlike infoldings that sequester bits of extracellular fluid containing a high concentration of Ca2+ close to the membrane; when calcium channels open here Ca2+ influx occurs rapidly

mitochondria

powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of atp (energy) production

the white rami communicates contain what kind of fibers>

preganglionic sympathetic

Fixed

preserved

atmospheric pressure

pressure exerted on your body by atmospheric gases, equal to 760 mm Hg at sea level, decreases as elevation increases

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

primarily involved in hormonal control; released when blood levels of ionic calcium decline, increased PTH stimulates osteoclasts to reabsorb bone, releasing calcium to blood. Osteoclast break down old and new matrix. As blood concentration of blood rises the stimulus for PTH release end.

Classification of Muscles

prime mover, antagonists, synergists, and fixators

Agonist

prime mover; produces a particular movement

Testosterone and Estrogen

promote adolescent growth spurts, end growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure

DORSAL CAVITY:

protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions: - Cranial cavity - within the skull; encases the brain - Vertebral cavity - runs within the vertebral column; encases the spinal cord

Proteoglycans

protein core and large polyssacharides (chrondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid). Trap water in varying amounts, affecting the viscosity of the ground substance

Fibers

provide support of connective tissue. 3 types: Collagen (white fibers), Elastic, Reticular

Hyaline Cartilage

provide support with flexibility and resilience. Are the most abundant of skeletal cartilages. Include: (1) articular cartilages: cover ends of most bones at movable joints, (2) costal cartilages: connect ribs to sternum (breastbone), (3) respiratory cartilages: form skeleton of larynx (voicebox), (4) nasal cartilages: support external nose

which sequence of reactions occurs when a person looks at a distant object?

pupils dilate, ciliary zonule becomes taut, lenses become less convex

axon collaterals

rare branching from the axon

Cross Bridge Cycle: Step 4

reactivation of myosin head: ATP hydrolized to ADP and inorganic phospahte; Energy released during hydrolizes reactivates myosin head returning it to cocked postion

Osteoporosis

refers to a group of diseases in which bone resorption outpaces bone deposit. The bones become so fragile that something like sneezing or stepping off curve can cause a break. Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture; Risk factors; Lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form; immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus

Contraction

refers to activiation of myosin's cross bridges, which are force generating sites; Shortening occurs when tension generated by cross bridges on the thin filaments exceeds forces opposing shortening

Primary Ossification Center

region of formation of long bone begins in center of hyaline cartilage shaft

5. Reinforcing Ligaments

reinforce and strengthen synovial joints. Most often they are capsular, or intristic, ligaments [thickened part of fibrous capsule], Extracapsular (outside capsule) or Intracapsular (deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane)

appendicular

relating to the limbs; one of the two major divisions of the body

Muscle Tone

relaxed muscles that are almost slightly contracted; its due to spinal reflexes that activate first one group of motor units then another in response to activation of stretch receptors in muscles

Secretion

removal of useful products

Excretion

removal of waste products

Excretion

removal of waste products from a cell

(Synovial) Saddle Joints

resemble condyloid joints, but they allow greater freedom of movement. Each articular surface has both concave and convex areas.

Second class lever

resistance between applied force and fulcrum; small force moves a large weight; uncommon in the body; all these levers work at a mechanical advantage; wheelbarrow is an example

Load

resistance moved by the effort

Muscle Twitch

response of a motor neuron to a single action potential of its motor neuron

Intremembranous Ossification

results in formation of cranial bones of the skull and the clavicles, flat bones mostly formed by this process, begins on fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by mesenchymal cells. 4 Steps

when the sleeper is easily awakened EEG shows alpha waves

stage 1

Extension

reverse of flexion and occurs at the same joints, invloves movement along the sagittal plane that increases angle between articulating bones, typically straight [Hyperextension - excessive extension beyond anatomical position]

Myofibrils

rodlike and run parallel to length of muscle fibers; 1-2 um in daimeter; densely packed in muscle fiber that mitochondria and other organelles appear to be squeezed between them

the phenomenon of dark adaptation is best explained by the fact that

rods exposed to intense light need time to generate rhodopsin

Myo or Mys

root words meaning "muscle"

Subscapularis

rotates the head of the humerus medially (internal rotation); when the arm is raised, it draws the humerus forward and downward.

Short Bones

roughly cube-shaped (bones of wrsit and ankle are examples)

rapidly adapting deep pressure receptor

ruffini endings

Central Canal/ Haversian Canal

runs through the core of each osteon and contain small blood vessels and nerve fibers that serve need of the osteons cells

active when you are running in the boston marathon

s

cervical ganglia

s

increases heart rate and blood pressure

s

innervates blood vessels

s

short preganglionic, long postganglionic fibers

s

fibularis muscles, tibialis anterior,and toe extensors

sacral, common fibular

muscles of the posterior leg

sacral, tibial

Multiple Sclerosis

scar tissue in myelin sheath causes too long of a jump resulting in muscle control spreads to diaghram & causes respiratory failure

Nuclear envelope/membrane

separates nucleus from cytosol, composed of 2 bilipid layers, covered with nuclear pores through which substances are able to move into and out of the nucleus

Abdominopelvic Cavity

seperated from thoracic cavity by the diaphram, a dome shaped muscle important in breathing. Has abdominal and pelvic cavities

Cleavage/ Tension Lines

seperations, or less dense regions. Invisible lines that run longitudinally in the skin of the head and limbs. Collagen fibers arranged in bundles form cleavage (tension) lines, Incisions made parallel to cleavage lines heal more readily

Cell life cycle

series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until it reproduces itself (type of cycle)

Motor Nerve

served each muscle; each motor nerve contains axons of up to hundreds of motor neurons

Startum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)

several cell layers thick, Cells contain a weblike system of intermediate prekeratin filaments attached to desmosomes, Abundant melanin granules and dendritic cells, the keratinocytes appear to have spines

Diaphysis

shaft of bone, forms long axis of bone, constructed of thick compact bone that surrounds meduallar cavity (contains fat/ yellow marrow)

fossa (ex medial cranial fossa)

shallow basinlike depression in a bone, often serving as an articular surface.

Factors influencing Stability of Synovial Joints

shapes of the articular sirface, the number and positioning of ligaments, and muscle tone

Reticular Fibers

short, fine, collagenous fibers with a slightly different chemistry and form. They are continous with collagen fibers and are higly branched forming delicate vessles. Abundant where connective tissue abuts other tissue types. Has ability to catch water. ex: basement membrane of epithelial tissues, and ground capillaries, high degree in plasma

Adipose (fat) Tissue

similar to Areolar Connective Tissue in structure and function, but nutrient storing ability is much greater. 90% of fat cells accounts for tissues mass.

Sebaceous (Oil) Glands

simple branched alveolar glands that are found all over the body except in the thick skin of palms and soles. Small on body trunk and limbs but large on face neck and upper chest. Secrete oily substance called sebum. Most develop from hair follicles, Become active at puberty

Endothelium

simple squamous epithelia in body which reflects its location. Provides a slick, friction - reducing lining in lymphatic vessels and in hollow organs of the cardiovascular system

Gliding Movements

simplest joint movements, occurs when one flat, or nearly flat, bone surface glides or slips over another (Intercarpal joints Intertarsal joints Between articular processes of vertebrae)

Simple Squamous Epithelium

simplest of epithelia Function: allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration, in sites where protections is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosae Location: Kidney glomeruli; air sacs of lungs; lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels; lining of ventral body cavity

Muscle Fibers

skeletal and smooth muscles; are elongated; diameter ranges from 10 to 100 um (10 times that of an avergage body cell); multiple nuclei

Types of Muscle Tissue

skeletal, cardiac, smooth; each served by one nerve, an artery, and one or more veins

Axons

slender processes that arise from hillock one unbranched per neuron

Sections

slices

Amphiartroses

slightly movable joints, mostly in axial skeleton

4. Synovial Fluid

slippery fluid which occupies all free spaces within the joint capsule. Lubricates joint surfaces and nurishes articular cartilage.

Nonaxial Movement

slipping movements only

Classification of Skeletal Muscle Cells

slow oxidative fibers, fast oxidative fibers, and fast glycolytic fibers

Minor

small

Synaptic Vesicles

small membranous sacs containing the neurotransmitter acetylocholine (ACh); inside the axon terminal

Centrioles

small, hollow cylinders composed of microtubules, organize spindle fibers during cell division

Microglia

small, ovoid cells with spiny processes

Synergist

smaller muscle that assists a larger agonist; helps start motion or stabilize origin of agonist

Myofilaments

smaller structure within sacromeres; the muscle equivalents of the actin or myosin containing microfilaments

Minimus

smallest

the stage when blood pressure and heart rate reach their lowest levels

stage 4

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

smallest to largest: myofilaments (actin and myosin) bundled to make myofibrils -> bundles of myofibrils wrapped in sarcolemma and wrapped in endomysium make up muscle fibers -> bundles of muscle fibers wrapped in perimysium make up fascicles -> bundles of fascicles wrapped in epimysium make up skeletal muscles (organs).

olfactory tract damage would probably affect your ability to

smell

Compact Bone

smooth and solid outer layer of every bone

which of the following are intrinsic eye muscles

smooth muscles of the iris and ciliary body

Action Potential: Repolarization Phase

sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+ gates open K+ exits the cell and cell becomes more negative, as usual

Eversion

sole of the foot faces laterally

Inversion

sole of the foot turns medially

Synaptic Cleft

space between axon terminal and muscle fiber, which is filled with a gel like extracellular substance rich in glycoprotiens and collagen fibers

Integral Protein

spans the entire membrane of a cell, sections of protein protrude through the cell wall inside or outside the cell, or in both directions, the protein molecule cannot function if it is not embedded within the membrane

the aspect of sensory perception by which the cerebral cortex identifies the site or pattern of stimulation is

spatial discrimination

motor end plate

specialized area of sarcolemma of the muscle fiber which contains receptor sites for neurotransmitters

glycosomes

specialized vasicules that store glycogen to provide glucose during periods of muscle cell activity.

Lysosomes

specialized vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus, contains powerful hydrolytic enzymes enclosed in a membrane, which fuses with vacuoles & digests them

Fixators

specific process when synergists immobilize a bone, or a muscle's origin so that the prime mover has a stable base on which to act on

2 Major Muscle Type Characteristics

speed of contraction: there are slow and fast fibers; difference in speed reflects how fast their myosin ATPases split ATP, and on the pattern of electrical activity of their motor neurons the major pathways for forming ATP: oxidative fibers rely mostly on the oxygen using aerobic pathways for ATP gerneration; glycolytic fibers rely more on anaerobic glycolisis

Golgi apparatus

stacks of flattened, cresent-shaped tubes, acts as a modification, packaging, & distribution center for molecules

basal nuclei involved in fine control of motor activities

striatum

Multicellular Exocrine Glands

structually more complex, and have two basic parts: an epitheliumderived duct and a sensory unit (acinus) consisting of secretory cells Classification: Duct Type (Simple : unbranched duct; Compound: branched ducts) and structure of their secretory units (tubular: secretory cells form tubes) (alveolar: secretory cells form small flasklike sacs) (tubuloalveolar: if they have both types of secretory units) Modes of Secretion: Merocrine (products are secreted by exocytosis)[ex: pancreas, sweat, and salivary galnds] and Holocrine (Products are secreted by rupture of gland cells)[ex: sebaceous glands]

Dystrophin

structural protien; links thin filaments to integral protiens of the sarcolemma

gustatory cells are stimulated by

substances in solution

Aerobic Exercise

such as swimming, jogging, fast walk, and biking; Leads to increased Muscle capillaries, Number of mitochondria, Myoglobin synthesis; Results in greater endurance, strength, and resistance to fatigue; May convert fast glycolytic fibers into fast oxidative fibers

the accesory glands that produce an oily secretion are the

tarsal glands

a professor unexpectedly blew a loud horn in his anatomy class the students looked up startled the reflexive movements of their eyes were mediated by the

superior colliculi

Innervated

supplied by nerve fibers

Appendicular muscles

support pectoral and pelvic girdle; support limbs; 40% of skeletal muscles

Neuroglia

supporting cells of the nervous system also called neuralgia or glial cells

Calcification

surrounding cartilage matrix calcifies and chondrocytes die

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) divisions

sympathetic and parasympathetic

proprioceptors include all of the following except

tactile discs

Epiphyses

the bone ends, exterior is made of compact bone and their interior contains spongy bone. Joint surface of each epiphysis is covered with thin layer of articular (hyaline) cartilage [cushions opposing bone ends during joint movement and absorbs stress]

Contractility

the capability of shortening in one direction (muscle cell)

Plasma membrane

the cell membrane that is made up of a phospholipid bilayer, it controls movement of molecules into and out of the cell

(Synovial) Hinge Joints

the cylindrical end of one bone conforms to a tough-shaped surface on another, motion is along a single plane and reselbles that of a mehanical hinge

Facilitated diffusion

the diffusion of certain large molecules & non-lipid soluble molecules that requires the assistance of integral proteins to cross the cellular membrane

Third-Class Levers

the effort is applied between the load and the fulcrum (ex: tweezers or forceps) [most skeletal muscles of body act in this lever system]

Direct/ Fleshy Attachments

the epimysium of the muscle is fused to the periosteum of a bone or perichondrium of a cartilage

Mesothelium

the epithelium found in serous membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs

Secretion

the export of useful products manufactured by the cell (hormones, proteins, etc.)

Oxygen Deficit

the extra amount of oxygen that the body must take in for these restorative processes

Hypertonic

the extracellular fluid is more concentrated than the intracellular fluid

Pennate Fascicular Pattern

the fascicles are short and they attach obliquely to a central tendon that runs the length of the muscle

Prophase

the first and longest stage of mitosis; early prohase - the mitotic spindle forms and later prophase - centrioles continue to move away from each other (type of phase)

Latent Period

the first few milliseconds following stimulation when excitation-contraction coupling is occuring; during this period, muscle tension is beggining to increase

G₁ (gap 1)

the first part of interphase, cells are metabolically active, make proteins rapidly, and grow vigorously (type of interphase)

The plasma membrane regulates...

the flow of fluid and nutrients into & out of the cell

Muscle Tension

the force exerted by a containing muscle on an object

Hydrostatic pressure

the force that pushes liquid in filtration

Which organ is responsible for generating hydrostatic pressure in the blood vessels?

the heart

Chromosomes

the highest level of chromatin organization; each contain a single, very long molecule of DNA

Depolarization

the inside of the membrane becomes less negative

Hyperpolarization

the inside of the membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential

Hypotonic

the intracellular fluid is more concentrated than the extracellular fluid

One of the best examples of filtration in the animal body is...

the kidneys

axon diameter

the larger the diameter, the faster the impulse

Knee Joint

the largest and most complex joint in the body, conisists of three joints

Aerobic Endurance

the length of time a muscle can continue to contract using aerobic pathways

Parallel Fascicular Pattern

the long axes of the fascicles run parallel to the long axis of the muscle; straplike, or spindle shaped with expanded belly (fusiform muscles)

Nervous Tissue

the main component of the nervous system - the brain, spinal cord, and nerves - which regulates and controls body functions Description: Neurons are branching cells; cell processes that may be quite long extend from the nucleus-containing cell body; also contributing to nervous tissue are nonirritable supporting cells (not illustrated) Function: transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscled and glands) which control their activity Location: brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Repolarization

the membrane returns to its resting membrane potential

which of the following statements does not correctly describe the spiral organ (of corti)

the more numerous outer hair cells are largely responsible for our perception of sound

Diffusion

the movement of a molecule from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

Osmosis

the movement of water through a membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration

Eccentric Contractions

the muscle generates force as it lengthens; are important for coordination and purposeful movements; occur in calf muscle for example; 50% more forceful then concentric

Indirect Attachments

the muscles connective tissue wrapping extend beyond the muscle either as a ropelike tendon or a a sheet like aponeurosis; much more common

Motor Unit

the nerve-muscle functional unit; consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it supplies; small motor units (more precise movement) [ex: fingers], larger motor units (less precise movement) [ex: hip muscles, bone]

Load

the opposing force exerted on the muscle by the weight of the object to be moved

Hemoglobin

the pinkish hue of fair skin, its is oxygenated in the blood cells circulating through dermal capillaries.

Anaerobic Threshold

the point at which muscle metabolism converts to anaerobic glycolysis

Neuromuscular junction

the point of contact between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle cell

Cross Bridge Cycle: Step 2

the power stroke: ADP released and activated myosin head pivotes; Slides thin myofilament toward center of sarcomere

Pinocytosis

the process of a cell engulfing liquid

Phagocytosis

the process of a cell engulfing solid material

Absorption

the process of taking dissolved materials into the cell

(Synovial) Pivot Joints

the rounded end of one bone conforms to a "sleeve" or ring composed of bone (and possibly ligaments) of another, only movement allowed is uniaxial rotation of one bone around its own long axis

Isotonic

the same concentration of fluids intracellular and extracellular

Dermis (b)

the second major skin region, is strong flexible connective tissue. Its cells are fibroblast, macrophages and occasional mast cells. Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. Has two layers, papillary and reticular layers

Integumentary System

the skin, complex set of organs that protects body

Sacromere

the smallest contractile unit of a muscle fiber - the functional unit of skeletal muscle; average 2um long; the region of a myofibril between 2 successive Z discs

level of structural organization: cellular

the smallest unit of life, and varies widely in size and shape according to the cells' function.

sarcoplasmic reticulum

the smooth ER of a muscle cell, enlarged and specialized to act as a ca2+ reservoir. the SR winds around each myofibril in the muscle cell like a lacy shirt sleeve and releases calcium into sarcoplasm after nervous stimulation.

Concentration gradient

the spectrum between the most concentrated area & the least concentrated area

(Synovial) Ball-and-Socket Joints

the spherical or hemispherical head of one bone articulates with the cuplike socket of another. These joints are multiaxial and the most freely moviing synovial joints.

Melanocytes

the spider-shaped epithelial cells that synthesize the pigment melanin, are found in the deepest layer of the epidermis. As melanin is made it is accumulated in membrane bound granules called melanosomes, that are moved along actin filaments by motor proteins to the ends of melanocytes processes. from there taken up by keratinocytes. Accumulate in superficial side of keratinocyte nucleus. (All humans have same number of melanocytes)

Muscle Fatigue

the state of physiological inability to contract even though the muscle still may be receiving stimuli; due to a problem in excitation-contraction coupling or, in rare cases, problems at the neuromuscular junction

Threshold Stimulus

the stimulus at which the first observable contraction occurs

Maximal Stimulus

the strongest stimulus that produces increased contractile force; represent the point at which all the muscles motor units are recruited

Osteon/ Haversian System

the structural unit of compact bone that is riddled with passageways that serve as conduits for nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. Each osteon is an elongated cylinder oriented parallel to long axis of bone

Hypodermis (Superficial Fascia)

the subcutaneous tissue deep to the skin. It is not part of the skin, but it shares some of the skins protective functions. It is superficial to the tough connective tissue wrapping (fascia) of the skeletal muscles, consists mostly of adipose tissue. Functions: Anchors the skin to the underlying structures (mostly muscle), acts as a shock absorber

Cytokinesis

the term for the division of the entire cell into two cells

Transcription

the term where DNA's genetic code is copied onto messenger RNA molecules

level of structural organization: organism

the total of all structures working together to promote life.

Ground Substance

the unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fibers. Medium through which solutes diffuse between blood capillaries and cells. Composed of interstitial (tissue) fluid, cell adhesion protiens, and proteoglycans.

Metabolism

the utilization of nutrients by the cell

Serosa (Serous Membrane)

the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered by this thin double layered membrane

all of the following descriptions refer to dorsal column-medial lemniscal ascending pathways except one

their connections are diffuse and polymodal

Proliferation (growth)

these cells divide quickly, pushing the epiphyisis away from the diaphysis, causing entire bone to lengthen

Layers of the Epidermis (a)

thick skin which covers the palms, fingertips, and soles of feet; Epidermis consists of 5 layers , or strata (bed sheets); deep to superficial: Stratum Basale, Stratum Spinosum, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum Lucidum, and Stratum Corneum.

Appositional Growth

thickness and remodeling of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces

endomysium

thin connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber

Stratum Granuosum (Granular Layer)

thin layer that consists of 3 to 5 layers in which kerainocyte appearance changes drastically and the process of keratinization (in which the cells fill with the protein keratin) begins. Keratohyaline (help to form keratin in upper layers) and lamellated granules (contain a water resistent glycolipid that is spewed into the extracellular space and is a major factor in slowing water loss across epidermis) accumulate

Papillary Layer

thin superficial layer is aerolar connective tissue, with fine interlaced mat of loosely woven collegen and elastic fibers. Has superior surface callled dermal papillae.

Flat Bones

thin, flattened and usually a bit curved (sternum, scapulae, ribs, and most skull bones are flat bones)

Synovial Joints

those in which the articulating bones are seperated by a fluid-containing joint cavity. All are diarthrotic, Include all limb joints; most joints of the body. 6 distinguishing features

Concentric Contractions

those in which the muscle shortens and does work, such as picking up a book or kicking a ball;

Skin Color

three pigments contribute to skin color: melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin

Protection

three types of barriers: chemical (Low pH secretions (acid mantle) and defensins retard bacterial activity), physical/mechanical (Keratin and glycolipids block most water and water- soluble substances Limited penetration of skin by lipid-soluble substances, plant oleoresins (e.g., poison ivy), organic solvents, salts of heavy metals, some drugs), Biological (Dendritic cells, macrophages, and DNA)

Hematoma Forms

torn blood vessels tear and hemorrhage, blood, clots called hematoma form, and sites become swollen painful, and inflamed

Red Marrow Cavities

trabecular cavities of spongy bone of long bones and diploe of flat bones

CNS neuron processes

tracts

Excitation-Contraction Coupling (2)

traveling down of action potential causes t tubule voltage sensitive protein to change shape; opens a calcium release channel in SR allowing calcium ions to flee sarcplasm; this rapid influx of calcium triggers contraction of muscle fibers

Reduction

treatment for bone fracture involving realignment of the broken bone ends

allows you to chew your food

trigeminal

is the major sensory nerve of the face

trigeminal

Junctional Folds

trough like part of muscle fibers sarcolemma; provide a large surface area for millions of ACh receptors located here

Supination

turning backward, rotating forearm laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly or superiorly

Pronation

turning forward, forearm rotates medially and the palm faces posteriorly or interiorly

Rotation

turning of a bone around its own long axis. Medial and lateral rotation (Between C1 and C2 vertebrae Rotation of humerus and femur)

Ligaments

unite the bones and prevent excessive or undesirable motion (more ligaments joint have the stronger)

Gray Matter

unmyelinated axons, cell bodies, and dendrites; found in horns and commissures of spinal cord; surrounds ventricles, in cortex, in nuclei of brain

Blood Reservoir

up to 5% of body's blood volume

Regional Terms

used to designate specific areas within major body divisions

Glycogen Anearobic Pathway

used when their is not enought glucose; stored fat; Yields 3 ATPs because it has allready been partially hydrated; also yields 2 pyruvic acids

Openings

usually serve to allow passage of nerves and blood vessles

helps to regulate heart activity

vagus

helps you to hear and to maintain your balance

vestibulocochlear

destruction of the ventral horn cells of the spinal cord results in loss of

voluntary motor impulses

When hydroxyl & hydrogen ions unite...

water is formed

Propagation of an Action Potential

wave of impulse moving down the axon to the axon terminals

What is complementarity?

what a structure can do is directly reflective of its form. (EX. blood flows in one direction in veins and arteries due to valves being present within them to prevent back flow)

sacrum

what bone is this (anterior)?

sacrum

what bone is this (posterior)?

ala or alae of the sacrum

what is this part of the sacrum?

median sacral crest

what is this part of the sacrum?

sacral foramina

what is this part of the sacrum?

sacral hiatus

what is this part of the sacrum?

sacral promontory

what is this part of the sacrum?

sacral canal

what part is this of the sacrum?

Circular Fascicular Pattern

when fascicles are arranged in concentric rings; surround external body organs

What is Negative feedback?

when the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity

What is Positive Feedback?

when the response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated.

the blind spot of the eye is

where the optic nerve leaves the eye

Muscle Tone

which keeps tendons that cross the joint taut, extremely important in reinforcing the shoulder and knee joints and the arches of the foot

Collagen Fibers

white fibers; are by far the strongest and most abundant. Provides high tensile strength

Perisoteum

white glistening, double layered external surface of the entire bone except the joint surface. Has out fibrous layer (dense irregular connective tissue) and an inner osteogenic layer (consists of osteoblasts)

corpus callosum and corona radiata

white matter

fornix

white matter

medial lemniscal tract

white matter

spinothalamic tract

white matter

myelin sheath

whitish, fatty, segmented sheath around most long axons composed of 80% fat & 20% protein

Carotene

yellow to orange pigment, that tends to accumulate in the stratum corneum and in fatty tissue of the hypodermis. Its color is most obvious in palms and soles of feet, where stratum corneum is the thickest.

Glucose Anearobic Pathway

yields 2 ATPs; does not require oxygen; also yeilds 2 pyruvic acids

Aerobic Pathway

yields the most ATP with Oxygen; needs pyruvic acid to be shuttled from mitochondria (it is shuttled from Anearobic Pathway when 2 ATP and 2 Pyruvic acids); Pyruvic acid is transformed to Acetylcoa (happens in cytoplasm of cell); Krebs cycle produces 32 ATP

Body temperature regulation

~500 ml/day of routine insensible perspiration (at normal body temperature), At elevated temperature, dilation of dermal vessels and increased sweat gland activity (sensible perspirations) cool the body


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