A&P CH12-15
Prokaryotic cells
"Before nucleus," primitive, no nucleus, ex. bacteria
chemical bond
An energy relationship holding atoms together; involves the interaction of electrons.
anion
An ion carrying one or more negative charges and therefore attracted to a positive pole.
Hydroxyl ion (OH-)
An ion liberated when a hydroxide (a common inorganic base) is dissolved in water.
Anterior and Posterior
Anterior( ventral)- toward the front of the body posterior( dorsal) -toward the back of the body
Organic compound
Any compound composed of atoms (some of which are carbon) held together by covalent (shared electron) bonds.
Length and Tension Changes
Can contract when between half and twice its resting length
What is the Axonal Terminal?
Branched terminus of an axon.
Membrane potential changes are produced by:
Changes in membrane permeability to ions Alterations of ion concentrations across the membrane
Covalent bond
Chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms.
ionic bond
Chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms.
Decomposition reaction
Chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms.
Displacement (exchange) reaction
Chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms.
Exchange (displacement) reaction
Chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms.
reduction
Chemical reaction in which electrons and energy are gained by a molecule (often accompanied by gain of hydrogen ions) or oxygen is lost.
Combination (synthesis) reaction
Chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones.
Endergonic reaction
Chemical reaction that absorbs energy, e.g., an anabolic reaction.
Exergonic reaction
Chemical reaction that releases energy, e.g., a catabolic or oxidative reaction.
buffer
Chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions.
Inorganic compound
Chemical substances that do not contain carbon, including water, salts, and many acids and bases.
Transversus abdominis
Constricts abdomen and supports abdominal viscera
Gray Matter
Contains mostly nerve cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers.
Abdominal Cavity
Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver, and other organs
Nerve Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)
Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus Is the major biosynthetic center Is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal processes Has no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature) Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER) Contains an axon hillock - cone-shaped area from which axons arise
Pelvic Cavity
Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
Growth cone
Growing tip of an axon that has a prickly, fanlike structure that gives an axon the ability to interact with its environment.
Hair Growth
Growth phase (weeks to years) followed by regressive stage and resting phase (1-3 months), Growth phase varies (6-10 years in scalp, 3-4 months in eyebrows)
Protraction
Nonangular anterior movements in a transverse plane, (ex: jut out jaw)
coenzyme
Nonprotein substance associated with and activating an enzyme, typically a vitamin.
element
One of a limited number of unique varieties of matter that composes substances of all kinds; e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
adenine (A)
One of the two major purines found in both RNA and DNA; also found in various free nucleotides of importance to the body, such as ATP.
guanine (G)
One of two major purines occurring in all nucleic acids.
indicated by movements of the eyes under the lids;dreaming occurs
REM
What is a Nerve Cell?
Structural units of the nervous system. Composed of a body, axon and dendrites. Long lived, amitotic, and have a high metabolic rate.
hypoglossal foramen
What is this foramen
Cuboidal
cubelike, 6 sides, nucleus near the center (could be oval), little dimension
Period of Relaxation
final phase, lasting 10-100ms, is initiated by reentry of Ca2+ into the SR; muscle tension decreases to zero and tracing returns to baseline
Eukaryotic cells
"True nucleus," has a nucleus that is membrane bound, ex. ALL plants & animals
What is Hyperpolerization?
#6 The inside of the membrane becomes more negative then the resting potential.
Dendrites of Motor Neurons
'messenger' cells that receive stimulus anchor the cell body relay signal to cell body
Action Potentials (APs)
'neuron firing' +35mV Action potentials are only generated by muscle cells and neurons They do not decrease in strength over distance They are the principal means of neural communication
receptor
(1) A cell or nerve ending of a sensory neuron specialized to respond to particular types of stimuli; (2) protein that binds specifically with other molecules, e.g., neurotransmitters, hormones, paracrines, antigens.
colloid
(1) A mixture in which the solute particles (usually proteins) do not settle out readily. (2) Substance in the thyroid gland containing thyroglobulin protein.
Draw an action potential***
- label voltages (-55mV, -70mV, +30mv) - know what channels open and closes at each step
Presynaptic neuron
A neuron conducting impulses toward the synapse
Postsynaptic neuron
A neuron on the receiving end of a synapse
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
A nucleic acid found in all living cells; it carries the organism's hereditary information.
enzyme
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction.
substrate
A reactant on which an enzyme acts to cause a chemical action to proceed.
Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction
A reaction that couples the oxidation (loss of electrons) of one substance with the reduction (gain of electrons) of another substance.
uracil (U)
A smaller, single-ring base (a pyrimidine) found in RNA.
Synaptic Cleft
A space between two connecting neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
Chemical equilibrium
A state of apparent repose created by two reactions proceeding in opposite directions at equal speed.
base
A substance capable of binding with hydrogen ions; a proton acceptor.
polymer
A substance of high molecular weight with long, chainlike molecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units.
reactant
A substance taking part in a chemical reaction.
acid
A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when in solution (compare with Base); a proton donor.
proton donor
A substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid.
proton acceptor
A substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts. Commonly referred to as a base.
Chemical Synapses
A synapses that is specialized to release and the reception of chemical neurotransmitters.
molarity
A way to express the concentration of a solution; moles per liter of solution.
Structural (fibrous) proteins
Consist of extended, strandlike polypeptide chains forming a strong, ropelike structure that is linear, insoluble in water, and very stable; e.g., collagen.
neutral fats
Consist of fatty acid chains and glycerol; also called triglycerides or triacylglycerols. Commonly known as oils when liquid.
Cardiac Muscle
Description: Branching striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated discs) Function: as it contracts it propels blood into the circulation, involuntary control Location: the walls of the heart
Nonpolar molecules
Electrically balanced molecules.
Pectoralis minor
Elevates 3rd-5th ribs during forced inspiration
External intercostals
Elevates the rib cage
Trapezius
Elevates, depresses, retracts, and rotates the scapula; rotates the arm
excretion
Elimination of waste products from the body.
Tendon Sheath
Elongated Bursa that wraps completely around a tendon
Developmental Aspects of Bones
Embryonic skeleton ossifies predictably so fetal age easily determined from X rays or sonograms, At birth, most long bones are well ossified (except epiphyses); Nearly all bones completely ossified by age 25, Bone mass decreases with age beginning in 4th decade, Rate of loss determined by genetics and environmental factors , In old age, bone resorption predominates
Types of nerve connective tissue coverings
Endoneurium Perineurium Epineurium
Electrical energy
Energy formed by the movement of charged particles across cell membranes.
chemical energy
Energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances.
Third Degree Burns
Entire thickness of skin damaged Gray-white, cherry red, or black, No initial edema or pain (nerve endings destroyed), Skin grafting usually necessary
Second Degree Burns
Epidermal and upper dermal damage, Blisters appear
First Degree Burns
Epidermal damage only, Localized redness, edema (swelling), and pain
Developmental Aspects: Old Age
Epidermal replacement slows, skin becomes thin, dry, and itchy, Subcutaneous fat and elasticity decrease, leading to cold intolerance and wrinkles, Increased risk of cancer due to decreased numbers of melanocytes and dendritic cells
Friction Ridges
Epidermal ridges lie atop deeper dermal papillary ridges to form friction ridges of fingerprints
Growth in Length of Long Bones
Epiphyseal plate cartilage organizes into four important functional zones: Proliferation (growth), Hypertrophic, Calcification, Ossification (osteogenic)
Operation of a Voltage-Gated Channel
Example: Na+ channel Closed when the intracellular environment is negative Na+ cannot enter the cell Open when the intracellular environment is positive Na+ can enter the cell
Operation of a Gated Channel
Example: Na+-K+ pump Closed when a neurotransmitter is not bound to the extracellular receptor Na+ cannot enter the cell and K+ cannot exit the cell Open when a neurotransmitter is attached to the receptor Na+ enters the cell and K+ exits the cell
ketosis
Excess levels of ketone bodies in blood. Called ketoacidosis if blood pH is low.
Paget's Disease
Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull; Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization, Unknown cause (possibly viral), Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphonates
What are Neurons?
Excitable cells that transmit electrical signals.
What is EPSP?
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials.
Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis
Extend and Abduct Hand at Wrist Joint
Extensor Pollicis Longus
Extends Distal Phalanx of Thumb at Metacarpophalangeal and Interphalangeal Joints
Extensor Pollicis Brevis
Extends Proximal Phalanx of Thumb at Metacarpophalangeal Joint
Extensor Carpi Ulnaris
Extends and Adducts Hand at Wrist Joint
Iliocostalis group of erector spinae
Extends and laterally flexes vertebral column
Longissimus group of erector spinae
Extends and laterally flexes vertebral column
Extensor digitorum
Extends fingers and the wrist
Triceps brachii
Extends forearm
Spinalis group of erector spinae
Extends vertebral column
Extensor carpi radialis longus
Extends wrist and abducts hand
Latissimus dorsi
Extends, adducts, and medially rotates the arm; draws the shoulder downward and backward
S (synthetic)
DNA replicates itself, enduring that the two daughter cells will receive identical copies of the genetic material (type of interphase)
Repolarizing phase
Decrease in Na+ permeability and an increase in K+ permeability
Stratum Basale (Basale Layer)
Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to the dermis, Single row of stem cells, Also called stratum germinativum: cells undergo rapid division, Journey from basal layer to surface Takes 25-45 days, 10 - 25% made of melanocytes
Endoneurium
Delicate connective tissue immediately surrounding the neurilemma cells and axons
Cartilage: hyaline
Description: Amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers form an imperceptible network; chonodroblasts produce the matrix and when mature (chondrocytes) lie in lacunae Functions: Supports and reinforces; has resilient cushioning properties; resists compressive stress Location: Forms most of the ends of the embryonic skeleton; covers the ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilage of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and larnyx
Cell that store nutrients
Fat cell - produced by a large lipid droplet in its cytoplasm; (cells that ...)
Triglycerides
Fats and oils composed of fatty acids and glycerol; are the body's most concentrated source of energy fuel; also known as neutral fats.
Cells that connect body parts or cover and line organs
Fibrolast - elongated shape of this cell extends along the cablelike fibers that it secretes; Erthrocyte (red blood cell) - carries the respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide; Epithelial cell - some are gland cells (cells that ...)
What is Acetylcoline?
First neurotransmitter identified and best understood. Released at the neuromuscular junction. Synthesized and enclosed in the synaptic vesicles. Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (ACheE). Released by all neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle and some neurons of the ANS.
Bursae
Flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes , Contain synovial fluid, Commonly act as "ball bearings" where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together
Diaphragm
Flattens on contraction increasing the volume of thorax during inspiration
Flexor Digitorum Superficialis
Flexes Proximal Interphalangeal Joints and Secondarily Metacarpophalangeal joints and Wrists
Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
Flexes and Adducts Wrist
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexes and adducts wrist
Biceps brachii
Flexes and supinates forearm
Brachialis
Flexes elbow
Brachioradialis
Flexes elbow
Palmaris longus
Flexes wrist
Flexor carpi radialis
Flexes wrist and abducts hand
Deltoid
Flexes, medially rotates, and abducts arm
Proximal and Distal
For these terms the point of attachment is the reference point. These terms apply to appendages Proximal: closer to the point of attachment Distal: farther from the point of attachment
The Overload Principle
Forcing a muscle to work hard promotes increased muscle strength and endurance; Muscles adapt to increased demands; Muscles must be overloaded to produce further gains
myelin sheath
Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS The Schwann cell: -Envelopes an axon in a trough -Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane -Has concentric layers of membrane that make up the myelin sheath
Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering - Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails - Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D
Smooth Muscle
Found in walls of most hollow organs (except heart); Usually in two layers (longitudinal and circular); lack coarse connective tissue sheath; smooth muscle fibers SR is less developed then that of skeletal muscle and lacks specific pattern relative to myofilaments (no sacromeres, myofibrils or t tubules)
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Function: secretion and absorption Location: Kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary surface Tip: Associate with kidney and salvary glands
Sacromere
Functional unit of contraction in skeletal muscle fiber; Shorten when myosin heads in thick myofilaments form cross bridges with actin molecules in thin myofilaments
Nodes of Ranvier (Neurofibral Nodes)
Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann cells They are the sites where axon collaterals can emerge
1. Articular Cartilage
Glassy-smooth hylaine cartilage covers the opposing bone surfaces
steroids
Group of chemical substances including certain hormones and cholesterol; they are fat soluble and contain little oxygen.
Musclular Dystrophy
Group of inherited muscle-destroying diseases; Muscles enlarge due to fat and connective tissue deposits; Muscle fibers atrophy
Sodium potassium pump
Helps establish a difference in charge across the membrane (membrane potential) moves ions and molecules against the concentration gradient (takes energy)
Stages in healing of Fracture
Hematoma Forms, Fibrocartilaginous Callus Forms, Bony Callus Forms, Bone Remodeling Occurs
suspension
Heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out.
What is the role of the Sodium Potassium Pump?
Ionic redistribution back to resting conditions is restored by this. Restores at hyperpolerization.
When gated channels are open:
Ions move quickly across the membrane Movement is along their electrochemical gradients An electrical current is created Voltage changes across the membrane
Radioisotope
Isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior.
Macromolecules
Large, complex molecules containing from 100 to over 10,000 subunits.
Larger vs Shorter Neurons
Larger neurons conduct APs faster
Teres minor
Laterally rotates arm; one of the "rotator cuff" muscles
Infraspinatus
Laterally rotates shoulder; stabilizes the head of the humerus in glenoid cavity; one of the "rotator cuff" muscles
Perineurium
Layer of dense connective tissue that encloses a fascicle of nerve fibers, providing an effective barrier against penetration of the nerve fibers by foreign substances
Stratified Columner Epithelium
Limited distribution in body, Small amounts in pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts; Also occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia
fatty acids
Linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbon chains) with an organic acid group at one end. A constituent of fat.
Pedicle
Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.
Spinous process
Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.
Coronal suture
Name this suture.
Lambdoid suture
Name this suture.
Sagittal suture
Name this suture.
Squamous suture
Name this suture.
electron
Negatively charged subatomic particle; orbits the atom's nucleus.
Bipolar Neurons
Neruons having two processes
What are Action Potentials?
Nerve Impulses. Electrical impulses that are carried along the lengths of the axons. Always the same regardless of the stimulus.
Cell that gathers information and controls body functions
Nerve cell (neuron) - has long processes for receiving messages and transmitting them to other structures in the body; (cells that ...)
Nerves and Blood Vessels
Nerve fibers detect pain, monitor joint position and stretch, Capillary beds produce filtrate for synovial fluid
What are long axons called?
Nerve fibers.
Germ Layers
Nerve tissue arises from ectoderm, Muscle and connective tissues arise from mesoderm, Epithelial tissues arise from all three germ layers
What are processes called in the PNS?
Nerves.
Connective Tissue Proper: loose connective tissue, reticular
Network of reticular fibers in a typical loose ground substance, reticular cells lie on the network Function: Fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that supports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells, and macrophages Location: Lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen)
Multipolar Neurons
Neurons having three or more processes.
Why are neurotransmitter activities normally rapidly terminated?
Neurotransmitter activity is rapidly terminated 1) by removal or inactivation of neurotransmitter or 2) moved back into presynaptic cell In order for activity to last longer, stimulation most occur continuously.
Neural Regulation
Neurotransmitter binding [Ca2+] in sarcoplasm; either graded (local) potential or action potential; Response depends on neurotransmitter released and type of receptor molecules
Bony Callus Forms
New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus, Bony callus formation continues until firm union is formed in ~2 months
cytosine (C)
Nitrogen-containing base that is part of a nucleotide structure.
Retraction
Nonangular posterior movements in a transverse plane (ex: retracted jaw when brought back)
Dipole (polar molecule)
Nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms.
Polar molecules
Nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms.
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Nucleic acid that contains ribose and the bases A, G, C, and U. Carries out DNA's instructions for protein synthesis.
What is Required to Maintain Life?
Nutrients - needed for energy and cell building Oxygen - necessary for metabolic reactions Water - provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions Normal body temperature - necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates Atmospheric pressure - required for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
Bone Deposit
Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed; Requires a diet rich in protein; vitamins C, D, and A; calcium; phosphorus; magnesium; and manganese
extrinsic
Of external origin.
Sebum
Oily holocrine secretion, Bactericidal , Softens hair and skin
Diverging circuits
One incoming fiber triggers responses in ever-increasing numbers of neurons farther along in a circuit.
isomer
One of two or more substances that has the same molecular formula but with its atoms arranged differently.
Cells of reproduction
Oocyte (female) ; Sperm (male); (cells that ...)
effector
Organ, gland, or muscle capable of being activated by nerve endings.
Carbohydrate
Organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes starches, sugars, cellulose.
amino acid
Organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; building block of protein.
lipid
Organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Organic molecule that stores and releases chemical energy for use in body cells.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Organic molecule that stores and releases chemical energy for use in body cells.
Valence shell
Outermost electron shell (energy level) of an atom that contains electrons.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Paired spinal and cranial nerves Carries messages to and from the spinal cord and brain
Motor or Efferent
Part of the (PNS) that carry impulses away from the (CNS)
Sensory or Afferent
Part of the (PNS) that carry impulses towards the (CNS)
molecule
Particle consisting of two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds.
What is the Nerve Cell Body?
Perikaryon or Soma. Contains the nucleus and nucleolus, has well developed nissl-bodies (rough er), contains an axon hillock.
visceral
Pertaining to an internal organ of the body or the inner part of a structure.
organic
Pertaining to carbon-containing molecules, such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.
parietal
Pertaining to the walls of a cavity.
systemic
Pertaining to the whole body.
Carpal
Pertaining to the wrist
Microglia functions
Phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons
Reflex
Rapid, automatic responses to stimuli, in which a particular stimulus always causes the same response.
Myofilaments in Smooth Muscle
Ratio of thick to thin filaments (1:13) is much lower than in skeletal muscle (1:2); Thick filaments have heads along their entire length; No troponin complex; protein calmodulin binds Ca2+; Myofilaments are spirally arranged, causing smooth muscle to contract in a corkscrew manner; Dense bodies: proteins that anchor noncontractile intermediate filaments to sarcolemma at regular intervals
Complementary base
Refers to how a given nitrogenous base of DNA or RNA bonds to another nitrogenous base. For example, adenine (A) is the complementary base of thymine (T). The result is base pairing.
Electrical Current
Reflects the flow of ions rather than electrons
active site
Region on the surface of a functional (globular) protein where it binds and interacts chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge.
Electron shells (energy levels)
Regions of space that consecutively surround the nucleus of an atom.
White matter
Regions of the brain and spinal cord containing a dense collection of myelinated fibers.
T Tubules
Regularly spaced infoldings of sarcolemma that branch extensively throughout the muscle fiber; At numerous junctions, make contact with calcium storing membranous network known as sarcoplasmic reticulum
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
Inflammation
Release of inflammatory chemicals, Dilation of blood vessels, Increase in vessel permeability, Clotting occurs
Action Potential: Role of the Sodium-Potassium Pump
Repolarization -Restores the resting electrical conditions of the neuron -Does not restore the resting ionic conditions
Response to Stretch
Responds to stretch only briefly, then adapts to new length; Retains ability to contract on demand; Enables organs such as the stomach and bladder to temporarily store contents
Special Features of Smooth Muscle Contraction
Response to stretch, length and tension changes, and hyperplasia
Sol-gel transformation
Reversible change of a colloid from a fluid (sol) to a more solid (gel) state.
What are the 9 Regions of the Abdominopelvic Cavity?
Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac
What are the 4 Abdominal Quadrants?
Right upper quadrant (RUQ) Right lower quadrant (RLQ) Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Left lower quadrant (LLQ)
Nail
Scalelike modification of the epidermis on the distal, dorsal surface of fingers and toes
Developmental Aspects: Adolescent to Adult
Sebaceous gland activity increases, Effects of cumulative environmental assaults show after age 30, Scaling and dermatitis become more common
PNS Functional Divisions
Sensory (afferent) division Motor (efferent) division
Nervous System Functions
Sensory input - monitoring stimuli Integration - interpretation of sensory input Motor output - response to stimuli
Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus)
Sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb, Stimulated by bending a hair
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Sequence of events that convert s action potentials in a muscle fiber to a contraction; Action potential travels across entire sarcolemma; occur during hidden (laten) period, between AP initiation and the beginning of mechanical activity (contraction); electrical signal does not act directly on myofilaments (it causes rise in intracellular calcium ion concentration that allows filaments to slide)
Telodendria
Series of fine, terminal extensions branching from the axon tip.
Single Unit Smooth Muscle
Sheets contract rhythmically as a unit (gap junctions); Often exhibit spontaneous action potentials; Arranged in opposing sheets and exhibit stress-relaxation response
What are Dendrites?
Short, tapering, and diffusing branched processes. They are the receptive, or input regions of the neuron.
Biogenic Amines
Simple hormones; water soluble; derived from amino acids; e.g, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
thymine (T)
Single-ring base (a pyrimidine) in DNA.
Cells that produce movement and move body parts
Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells - elongated and filled with abundant actin and myosin filaments, so they can shorten forcefully (cells that ...)
What are Axons?
Slender processes of uniform, diameter arising from the hillock. Generate and transmit actions potentials. Secrete neurotransmitters from axonal terminals.
Contraction of Smooth Muscle
Slow, synchronized contractions ; Cells are electrically coupled by gap junctions; Some cells are self-excitatory (depolarize without external stimuli); act as pacemakers for sheets of muscle ; Rate and intensity of contraction may be modified by neural and chemical stimuli; Sliding filament mechanism; Final trigger is high intracellular Ca2+; Ca2+ is obtained from the SR and extracellular space; Very energy efficient (slow ATPases); Myofilaments may maintain a latch state for prolonged contractions Relaxation requires: Ca2+ detachment from calmodulin Active transport of Ca2+ into SR and ECF Dephosphorylation of myosin to reduce myosin ATPase activity
Nodes of Ranvier
Small gaps in the myelin sheath of medullated axons
Microglia
Smallest neuroglial cells; phagocytic cells that engulf cellular debris, waste products and pathogens. increase in number as a result of infection or injury
atom
Smallest particle of an elemental substance that exhibits the properties of that element; composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Arrector pili
Smooth muscle attached to follicle, Responsible for "goose bumps"
Hyperplasia
Smooth muscle cells can divide and increase their numbers
Depolarization
Sodium rushes into neuron through membrane, potassium ruses out; results in a change in charge
Motor Division: Two Main Parts
Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
when nightmares are likely to occur
Stage 3 and 4
Astrocytes
Star shaped cells found throughout the CNS, cleaning up debris in the extracellular space and removing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft, connects neurons to nearby capilaries, components of the blood-brain barrier
acidosis
State of abnormally high hydrogen ion concentration in the extracellular fluid.
alkalosis
State of abnormally low hydrogen ion concentration in the extracellular fluid.
Tissue Repair
Steps of tissue repair: Inflammation sets the stage, Organization restores the blood supply, Regeneration
What are the elements of homeostatic control system?
Stimulus: produce a change in the variable in the body **Three Components of Control Mechanisms:** - Receptor: monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli) - Control center: determines the set point at which the variable is maintained, Receives input from receptor and Determines appropriate response - Effector: provides the means to respond to stimuli
potential energy
Stored or inactive energy.
proton
Subatomic particle that bears a positive charge; located in the atomic nucleus.
compound
Substance composed of two or more different elements, the atoms of which are chemically united.
Catalyst
Substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself becoming chemically changed or part of the product.
mass number
Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
metabolism
Sum total of the chemical reactions occurring in the body cells.
Superficial and Deep
Superficial: toward or at the body surface Deep: away from the body surface or internal
Superior and Inferior
Superior: toward the head end Inferior: away from the head
Supinator
Supinates Forearm (i.e., rotates radius to palm anteriorly)
Astrocytes functions
Support and brace neurons Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies Guide migration of young neurons Control the chemical environment
Schwann cells
Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
Satellite cells
Surrounds the neuron cell bodies in ganglia of PNS little is known of their function (PNS)
Axodendritic synapses
Synapses between the axon endings of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons.
Metabolic Functions
Synthesis of vitamin D precursor and collagenase Chemical conversion of carcinogens and some hormones
Triad Relationships
T tubules conduct impulses deep into muscle fiber ; Integral proteins protrude into the intermembrane space from T tubule and SR cisternae membranes; T tubule proteins: voltage sensors; SR foot proteins: gated channels that regulate Ca2+ release from the SR cisternae
Axon
The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
What is Depolarization?
The inside of the membrane becomes less negative.
What is the Relative Refractory Period?
The interval following the absolute refractory period when sodium gates are closed, potassium gates are open, repolarization is occurring. The threshold level is elevated, allowing strong stimuli to increase the frequency of action potential events.
pH unit
The measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
What is Repolarization?
The membrane returns to its resting membrane potential.
Alpha (α)-helix
The most common type of secondary structure of the amino acid chain in proteins; resembles the coils of a telephone cord.
Hyperpolarization
The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction.
2. Joint Cavity
a feature unique to synovial joints, space that contains small amount of synovial fluid
Retinaculum
a fibrous band forming the carpal canal through which pass the tendons of the flexor muscles of the hand and fingers.
Fulcrum
a fixed point; like a stabilizer
Cytoskeleton
a flexible, fibrous structure that changes in accordance with the activities of the cell, comprised of microtubules, intermediate fibers, & microfilaments
Macrophage
a giant cell that eats debris, dead cells, & outside invaders
actin
a globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically around each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells--interacts with myosin
Myogram
a graphic recording of contractile activity; line recording activity is called tracing
Cytoplasm
a jelly-like liquid that fills cells, everything inside the membrane except the nucleus
I Bands
a lighter, less dense area that contains the rest of the thin filaments but no thick filaments
Cytosis
a mechanism for bringing nutrients into the cell and ejecting waste
Endocytosis
a method of cytosis that enables large particles, liquid substances, and entire cells to be taken into a cell by engulfing
Exocytosis
a method of cytosis where cells may export substances from the intracellular environment into the extracellular space
Filtration
a passive membrane process that relies on hydrostatic pressure to "push" a substance through a membrane
Peripheral Protein
a protein that temporarily adheres to the biological membrane, either to the lipid bilayer or to integral proteins by a combination of hydrophobic, electrostatic, and other non-covalent interactions
Myoglobin
a red pigment that stores oxygen; similar to hemoglobin (transports oxygen in blood)
Striations
a repeating series of dark and light bands; evident along the length of each myofibril
Load
a resistance
double helix
The secondary structure assumed by two strands of DNA, held together throughout their length by hydrogen bonds between bases on opposite strands.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The section of the nervous system lying outside the brain and spinal cord
solute
The substance that is dissolved in a solution.
Octet rule (rule of eights)
The tendency of atoms to interact in such a way that they have eight electrons in their valence shell.
Refractory period
The time after a neuron fires or a muscle fiber contracts during which a stimulus will not evoke a response
Glial cells
These neurons are associated closely with much smaller cells., Cells that provide basic support systems for neurons and perform a variety of maintenance functions
The majority of synapses are chemical synapses.
They are proteins or neurohormones that are made in the cell body then travels via axonal transport to a synaptic vesicle
Endocrine System
This is the slow-acting control system of the body - Secretes regulatory hormones - Growth - Reproduction - Metabolism
Somatic Nervous System
This nervous system conduct impulses from the (CNS) to skeletal muscles.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
This nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
This nervous system regulate the activity of smooth muscles.
What is the Absolute Refractory Period?
Time from the opening of the Na+ activation gates until the closing of inactivation gates. Prevents the neuron from generating an action potential. Ensures that each action potential is separate. Enforces one way transmission of nerve impulses.
Synaptic Vesicles
Tiny sacs in a terminal button that release chemicals into the synapse.
What are processes called in the CNS?
Tracts.
Lever
a rigid bar that moves on a fixed point called the fulcrum, when a force is applied to it; allows a given effort to move a heavier load; [in body the joints are the fulcrums and your bones act as levers] ( a lever belongs to one of 3 classes)
What are Passive, or Leakage Channels?
Type of plasma membrane ion channel that is always open.
What is a Voltage Gated Channel?
Type of plasma membrane ion channel that opens and closes in response to membrane potential.
What is a Mechanically Gated Channel?
Type of plasma membrane ion channel that opens and closes in response to physical deformation of receptors.
What is a Chemically Gated Channel?
Type of plasma membrane ion channel that opens with a binding of a specific neurotransmitter.
Connective Tissue Proper
Types: Loose Connective tissue and Dense Connective tissue Loose: Aerolar, Adipose, Reticular Dense: Dense regular, Dense irregular, Elastic
neutron
Uncharged subatomic particle; found in the atomic nucleus.
Rules of Nines
Used to estimate the volume of fluid loss from burns
Membrane Potentials: Signals
Used to integrate, send, and receive information
hydrogen bond
Weak bond in which a hydrogen atom forms a bridge between two electron-hungry atoms. An important intramolecular bond.
Lever
a rigid, moving structure; all bones are these mechanically
What is the Myelin Sheath?
Whittish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath around most long axons. Protects axons. Electrically insulates fibers from one another. Increases speed of nerve impulse transmissions. Formed by Schwann cells.
Glycocalyx
a 'sugar coating' that covers the external surface of some cells, it is unique to each cell & improves cell-to-cell adhesion
Cortex
a bulky layer surrounding the medulla, consists of several layers of flattened cells
Mucin
a complex glycoprotien that dissolves in water when secreted
Depolarization Phase Threshold
a critical level of depolarization (-55 to -50 mV) At this point, the process becomes self-generating
cross section
a cut running horizontally from right to left, dividing the body or an organ into superior and inferior parts
Bases are proton...
acceptors
serves the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles
accessory
Reticular Layer
accounts for 80% of the thickness of the dermis, it is coarse, irregularly arranged, and dense fibrous connective tissue. Collagen fibers provide strength and resiliency, Elastic fibers provide stretch-recoil properties
Excitation-Contraction Coupling: Step 1
action potential travels across entire sarcolemma and are rapidly conducted to interior of muscle fibers by transverse tubules
Sweat Glands
aka sudoriferous glands, are distributed all over the body, except nipples and parts of external genetelia. up to 3 million per person. Two types of glands, eccrine and apocrine.
Tactile Cells
are present at the epidermal-dermal junction. Shaped like a spiky hemisphere. Each cell is associated with a disclike sensory nerve ending. (touch receptors)
Ceruminous Glands
modified specialized apocrine glands found in the lining of the external ear canal. Secretion mixes with sebum and produces cerumen or earwax.
Thyroid Hormone
modulates the activity of growth hormone , ensuring the skeleton has proper proportions as it grows
Insertion
movable bone, moves towards the immovable or less movable bone
Uniaxial Movement
movement in one plane
Multiaxial Movement
movement in or around all three planes of space and axes
Biaxial Movement
movement in two planes
Abduction
movement of limb away from the midline or median plane of the body, along the frontal plane
Opposition
movement of saddle joint betwenn metacarpal 1 and the trapezium of thumb
Special Movements
movements which don't fit into any of the above catergories
Circumduction
moving a limb so that it describes a cone in space
Depression
moving elevated part inferiorly
absolute refractory period
neuron cannot fire time from the Na+ activation gates until the closing of inactivation gates
Ossification
new bone formation occurs when calcified spicules erode
Excretion
nitrogenous wastes and salt in sweat
Vellus (Hair Type)
pale, fine body hair of children and adult females
Occipital
pertaining to the posterior aspect of the elbow
Perineal
pertaining to the region between the anus and external genitalia
Sacral
pertaining to the region between the hips (overlying the sacrum)
Sternal
pertaining to the region of the breastbone
Scapular
pertaining to the scapula or shoulder blade area
Fibular (peroneal)
pertaining to the side of the leg
Plantar
pertaining to the sole of the foot
Femoral
pertaining to the thigh
Pollex
pertaining to the thumb
the structure that allows pressure in the middleear to be equalized with atmospheric pressure is the
pharyngotympanic tube
Osteogenic Cells
primitive stem cells that give rise to the osteoblasts
you are in a completely dark room and reaching toward the light switch
proprioceptor, mechanoreceptor
the portion of the fibrous layer that is white and opaque is the
sclera
Sutures
seams; occur only between bones of the skull, Rigid, interlocking joints containing short connective tissue fibers Allow for growth during youth, In middle age, sutures ossify and are called synostoses
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
second most common, Involves keratinocytes of stratum spinosum, Most common on scalp, ears, lower lip, and hands, Good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgically
Response to Mechanical Stress
second set of controls regulating bone remodeling; Wolffs Law
Perforating Canals/ Volkmann's Canal
second type of canals, lie at right angles to the long axis of the bone and connect the blood and nerve supply of periosteum to those in the central canals and medullary cavity
Osteoblasts
secrete bone matrix elements, and osteoclasts
Mammary Glands
secrete milk
Eccrine Sweat Glands
secreting glands, are far more numerous and are abundant on palms, soles of feet and forehead. Each is a simple, coiled, tubular gland. Ducts connect to pores. Sweat: 99% water, NaCl, vitamin C, antibodies, dermcidin, metabolic wastes.
the neural machinery of the spinal cord is at the
segmental level
conduction of sound from the middle ear to the internal ear occurs via vibration of teh
stapes in the oval window
Sliding Filament Model of Contraction
states that during contraction the thin actin and myosin filaments slide past the thick ones so that actin and myosin filaments overlap to a greater degree; During contraction, myosin heads bind to actin, detach, and bind again, to propel the thin filaments toward the M line; As H zones shorten and disappear, sarcomeres shorten, muscle cells shorten, and the whole muscle shortens
Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
sticky glycoproteins that cover the surfaces of almost all of the cells in mammals (1 of the 2 families that make up the glycocalyx)
Subthreshold Stimulus
stimuli that produce no observable contractions
Glycsomes
stores sugar in the form of glycogen, which is a long branching chain of glucose molecules, the cells main energy source
snesory impulses transmitted over the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves are involved in the sensation
taste
The rate of diffusion is effected by...
temperature
Isometric Contractions
tension may build to the muscles peak tension producing capacity, but the muscle neither shortens nor lengthens; occur when a muscle attempts to move a load that is greater then the force (tension) the muscle is able to develop
brain area through which all the sensory input is relayed to get to the cerebral cortex
thalamus
stimulus intensity
the CNS determines stimulus intensity by the frequency of impulse transmission
Excitability
the ability of a cell to react to a stimulus (nerve cell, special sensory cells)
Conductivity
the ability of a cell to transmit an impulse from one paint in the cell to another (nerve cells, cardiac cells)
Extensibilty
the ability of muscle tissue to be stretched or extended
Reproduction
the ability to produce more cells
Kinetic energy
the activity of molecules moving, gyrating, & bouncing into one another
Osmotic pressure
the amount of pressure needed to stop osmosis from happening
Cell function determines...
the anatomy
Effort
the applied force; used to move load
Catilaginous Joints
the articulating bones are united by cartilage, they lack joint cavity and not highly movable, 2 types of cartilaginous joints are synchondroses and symphyses
sarcomere
the basic contractile unit of striated muscle; the segment of a myofibril between two adjacent z-lines
Perforating (Sharpey's) Fibers
tufts of collagen fibers that extend from its fibrous layer into bone matrix, which secure periosteum to underlying bone
Intermediate fibers
woven, ropelike fibers that possess high tensile strength & are able to resist pulling forces on the cell, toughest & most permanent fibers
Bone Anatomy and Bending Stress
body weight transmitted to the head of the femur threatens to bend the bone along the indicated arc, compressing it on one side (converging arrows on the right) and stretching it on the other side (diverging arrows on left). Because these two forced cancel each other internally, much less bone material is needed internally then superficially
neuron characteristics
body, axon & dendrites long, lived, high metabolic rate do not undergo mitosis
sinus (ex sinus in the frontal portion of skull)
bone cavity, filled with air and lined with mucous membrane
Bone Remodeling
bone deposit and bone resorption
Osteoclasts
bone destroying cells
Endochondral Bone
bone developed by replacing hyaline cartilage in process called Endochondral Ossification
Membrane Bone
bone developed from fibrous membranes in a process called intramembranous ossification
Closed (external) Reduction
bone ends are coaxed into position by the physicians hands
Open (Internal) Reduction
bone ends are secured together surgically with pins or wires
Syndesmoses
bones are connected by ligaments, cords, or bands of fibrous tissue, Movement varies from immovable to slightly movable and depends on length and amount of fibers
Fibrous Joints
bones are joined by fibrous tissue, namely dense fibrous connective tissue, and no joint cavity is present, mostly immovable. 3 types of fibrous joints (sutures, syndesmoses,and gomphoses)
Bone Markings
bones display projections, depressions, and openings that serve as sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment, as joint surfaces, or as conduits for blood vessels
during embryonic development the lens of the eye forms
from the surface ectoderm overlying the optic cup
Cross Bridge Cycle: Step 3
cross bridge detachment: Link between mysoin head and actin weakens when another ATP ataches to myosin head; Myosin head detaches
Cross Bridge Cycle: Step 1
cross bridge formation:Activated myosin head binds to actin forming a cross bridge; Inorganic phospahte released; Bond between myosin and actin becomes stronger
Period of Contraction
cross bridges are active, from the onset to the peak of tension development, and the myogram tracing rises to a peak
Oblique Sections
cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes
the primary motor cortex, Broca's area, and the premotor cortex are located in which lobe
frontal
First class lever
fulcrum between applied force and resistance; if resistance is closer to the applied force there is a mechanical disadvantage; see-saw is an example
cerebral cortex
gray matter
cingulate and precentral gyri
gray matter
cranial nerve nuclei
gray matter
medial and lateral nuclear groups
gray matter
red nucleus
gray matter
Unmyelinated Axons
grey matter neurons Schwann cells are present but myelin sheath is not b/c they do not coil around axons
Tissues
group of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function
level of structural organization: tissue
groups of cells having a common function.
Canaliculi
hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and to the central canal
Convergent Fascicular Muscle
has a broad origin, and its fascicles converge toward a single tendon of insertion; triangular or fan shaped
Structural Classification of Joints
focuses on the material binding the bones together and whether or not a joint cavity is present. There are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints
Hair Follicles
fold down from the epidermal surface into dermis. Two-layered wall: outer connective tissue root sheath, inner epithelial root sheath, Hair bulb: expanded deep end
Actin
has kidney shaped polypeptide subunits, called globular actin, or G actin, which bear the active sites to which the myosin heads attach during contraction
a patient has suffered a cerebral hemorrhage that has caused dysfunction of the precentral gyrus of his right cerebral cortex. as a result
he cannot voluntarily move his left arm or leg
Rhomboids Major
helps to hold the scapula (and thus the upper limb) onto the ribcage. It also acts to retract the scapula, pulling it towards the vertebral column, and downwardly rotates the scapula with respect to the glenohumeral joint.
pain itch and temperature receptors
free nerve endings
Diarthroses
freely movable joints, predominate in the limbs (ex: synivial joints)
Costal groove
Name this specific part of the rib bone.
Manubirum
Name this specific part of the sternum.
Xiphoid process
Name this specific part of the sternum.
Body
Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.
Hallux
pertaining to the great toe
Inguinal
pertaining to the groin
Manus
pertaining to the hand
Cephalic
pertaining to the head
Calcaneal
pertaining to the heel of the foot
Coxal
pertaining to the hip
Crural
pertaining to the leg
Oral
pertaining to the mouth
Umbilical
pertaining to the navel
Cervical
pertaining to the neck region
Nasal
pertaining to the nose
Palmar
pertaining to the palm of the hand
Pelvic
pertaining to the pelvis region
Acromial
pertaining to the point of the shoulder
Foramen ovale
Name this foramen.
Foramen rotundum
Name this foramen.
Foramen spinosum
Name this foramen.
Incisive foramen
Name this foramen.
Infraorbital foramen
Name this foramen.
Jugular foramen
Name this foramen.
Mental foramen
Name this foramen.
Optic foramen
Name this foramen.
Supraorbital foramen
Name this foramen.
hypophyseal fossa
Name this fossa
Superior orbital fissure
Name this opening of the sphenoid bone.
Inferior orbital fissure
Name this opening.
Internal auditory meatus
Name this opening.
Mental foramen
Name this opening.
Superior orbital fissure
Name this opening.
Vertebral foramen
Name this opening.
Anterior fontanel
Name this part of the fetal skull.
Anterolateral fontanel
Name this part of the fetal skull.
Sella turcica
Name this region of the sphenoid bone.
Coccyx
Name this specific bone.
Body
Name this specific bony landmark of the sternum.
Inferior articular process
Name this specific part of C1.
Dens
Name this specific part of C2.
Inferior articular facet
Name this specific part of C2.
Inferior articular process
Name this specific part of C2.
Head
Name this specific part of the costal bone.
Neck
Name this specific part of the costal bone.
Posterior fontanel
Name this specific part of the fetal skull.
Posterolateral fontanel
Name this specific part of the fetal skull.
Pedicle
Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.
Spinous process
Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.
Superior articular facet
Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.
Superior articular process
Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.
Inferior articular process
Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebrae.
Superior articular facet
Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.
Superior articular process
Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.
Transverse process
Name this specific part of the thoracic vertebra.
Activation energy
The amount of energy required to push a reactant to the level necessary for action.
What are the different glial cells and their functions?
- Provide support - Outnumber neurons 10-50 to 1 A)PNS has 2 types: 1.Schwann cells- wrap around neuron (speed up electrical impulse) 2. Satellite cells- supportive capsules around nerve cells in ganglia (cluster of nerve bodies found outside of CNS) B) CNS has 4 types 1. oligodendrocytes- like Schwann cells in PNS 2. microglia- immune cells in CNS 3. astrocytes- take up and release chemicals 4. ependymal cells- one source of stem cells Schwann and oligodendrocytes support and insulate axon by forming myelin (nodes of ranvier)
Body Planes
- Sagittal: divides the body into right and left parts - Midsagittal or Medial: sagittal plane that lies on the midline - Parasagittal: not on midline - Frontal or Coronal: divides the body into anterior and posterior parts - Transverse or Horizontal (cross section): divides the body into superior and inferior parts - Oblique section: cuts made diagonally
What is the difference between anatomical study and physiological study?
- anatomy studies the structures of body parts and their relationship to each other. - physiology studies the functions of the body; how the parts of the body work together and carry out their life-sustaining functions.
3. Articular Capsule
2 layers enclose the joint cavity. External layer is tough fibrous capsule (composed of dense irregular connective tissue) [strenghtens joint so that bones are not pulled apart. Inner layer is a synovial membrane (composed of loose connective tissue) [covers all internal joint surfaces that are not hyaline cartilage]
Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer)
20 to 40 cell layers of dead, flat keratinized, membranous sacs, accounts for up to 3 quarters of epidermal thickness. Functions: Protects from abrasion and penetration, Waterproofs, Barrier against biological, chemical, and physical assaults
Metaphase
2nd stage of mitosis; chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell; (type of phase)
Depolarized
30 (for action potential to occur)
Anaphase
3rd stage and the shortest of mitosis, chromosomes split (type of phase)
Body Fluid breakdown
40% intracellular, 20% extracellular
Covering and Lining Membranes
A body membrane that incorpotates more then one type of tissue. 3 types: Cutaneous, Mucous, and Serous
Wolff's law
A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it; Observations supporting Wolff's law: (1) Handedness (right or left handed) results in bone of one upper limb being thicker and stronger (2)Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle (3)Trabeculae form along lines of stress (4)Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach
Axon collaterals
A branch of an axon
neuroblast
A cell from which a nerve cell develops.
Polypeptide
A chain of amino acids.
Synthesis (combination) reaction
A chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones.
dipeptide
A combination of two amino acids united by means of a peptide bond.
section
A cut through the body (or an organ) that is made along a particular plane; a thin slice of tissue prepared for microscopic study.
cellulose
A fibrous carbohydrate that is the main structural component of plant tissues.
Ependymal Cell
A glial cell that lines membranes within the brain and spinal cord and helps form cerebrospinal fluid
Visceral organs (viscera)
A group of internal organs housed in the ventral body cavity.
Hydrogen ion (H+)
A hydrogen atom minus its electron and therefore carrying a positive charge (i.e., a proton).
Myelin Sheath
A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
glycerol
A modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol); a building block of fats.
mole
A mole of any element or compound is equal to its atomic weight or its molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) measured in grams.
Pectoralis major
Adducts and medially rotates the arm; flexes and extends humerus
Peristalsis
Alternating contractions and relaxations of smooth muscle layers that mix and squeeze substances through the lumen of hollow organs; (Longitudinal layer) contracts; organ dilates and shortens ; (Circular layer) contracts organ constricts and elongates
cation
An ion with a positive charge.
Neuropathy
Any disease of nervous tissue, but particularly degenerative disease of the nerves.
What is the synaptic cleft and what happens at the synapse?
Area between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic membrane. The presynaptic and postsynaptic cells makes the synapse.
neuron processes
Armlike extensions from the soma
Role of Calcium (Ca2+) in Contraction
At low intracellular Ca2+ concentration: (Tropomyosin blocks the active sites on actin) (Myosin heads cannot attach to actin) (Muscle fiber relaxes) At higher intracellular Ca2+ concentrations: [Ca2+ binds to troponin ] [Troponin changes shape and moves tropomyosin away from active sites] [Events of the cross bridge cycle occur] [When nervous stimulation ceases, Ca2+ is pumped back into the SR and contraction ends]
ion
Atom with a positive or negative electric charge.
level of structural organization: chemical
Atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules.Molecules combine in specific ways to form organelles, which are the basic unit of living cells.
Somatic nervous system
Conscious control of skeletal muscles
Dorsum sellae
Name this bony landmark of the sphenoid bone.
Lamina
Name this bony landmark of the vertebra.
Alveolar process
Name this bony landmark.
Angle of mandible
Name this bony landmark.
Angle of the mandible
Name this bony landmark.
Articular tubercle
Name this bony landmark.
Coronal suture
Name this bony landmark.
Coronoid process
Name this bony landmark.
Cribriform plate
Name this bony landmark.
Crista galli
Name this bony landmark.
Dorsum sellae
Name this bony landmark.
External auditory meatus
Name this bony landmark.
Mandibular fossa
Name this bony landmark.
Mastoid portion
Name this bony landmark.
Mastoid process
Name this bony landmark.
Acids are proton...
donors
Middle nasal concha
Name this bony landmark.
Occipital condyle
Name this bony landmark.
Palatine process
Name this bony landmark.
Styloid process
Name this bony landmark.
Plantar Flexion
pointing the toe
adrenergic fibers
s
Brevis
short
Supraorbital margin
Name this bony landmark.
mandibular condyle
Name this bony landmark.
Sacrum
Name this entire bone.
Transverse foramen
Name this foramen of the atlas (C1).
Mandibular foramen
Name this foramen of the mandible.
Optic foramen
Name this foramen of the sphenoid bone.
Carotid foramen
Name this foramen.
Foramen lacerum
Name this foramen.
Foramen magnum
Name this foramen.
Body
Name this part of the hyoid bone.
Greater horn
Name this part of the hyoid bone.
Lesser horn
Name this part of the hyoid bone.
Coronoid process
Name this part of the mandible.
Mandibular notch
Name this part of the mandible.
Ramus
Name this part of the mandible.
mandibular condyle
Name this part of the mandible.
Greater wing
Name this part of the sphenoid bone.
Hypophyseal fossa
Name this part of the sphenoid bone.
Lesser wing
Name this part of the sphenoid bone.
Tuberculum sellae
Name this part of the sphenoid bone.
Zygomatic process
Name this part of the temporal bone.
Temporal process
Name this part of the zygomatic bone.
Anterior arch
Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).
Posterior arch
Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).
Superior articular process
Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).
Transverse process
Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).
Appositional Growth
(1st type of cartilage growth) cartilage forming cells in surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external face of the existing cartilage tissue.
Interstitial Growth
(2nd type of cartilage growth) lacunae-bound chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within.
Red Marrow
(Hematopoitec Tissue) typically found within the trabecular cavities of spongy bone of long bones and in the diploe of flat bones
Ossification
(Osteogenisis) the process of bone formation; formation of the bony skeleton in embryos and bone growth goes in until early adulthood as body continues to increase in size
Perichondrium
(around the cartilage) acts like a girdle to resist outward expansion when the cartilage is compressed. Contains blood vessels from which nutrients diffuse through matrix to reach the cartilage cells
groove (ex groove of the ramus of the mandible)
(depressions and opening s for passage of blood vessels and nerves) furrow
fissure (ex inferior orbital fissure)
(depressions and opening s for passage of blood vessels and nerves) narrow slit-like opening
foramen (ex infraorbital foramen)
(depressions and opening s for passage of blood vessels and nerves) round or oval opening through a bone
notch (ex supraorbital notch)
(depressions and openings for passage of blood vessels and nerves) indentation at the edge of a structure
(Synovial) Condyloid Joints
(ellipsoidal joints) the oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary depression in another. Important characteristic is that both articulating surfaces are oval. Permits all angular motions
What is anatomical position?
- Body erect - feet slightly apart, palms facing forward - thumbs point away from body
Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma (2)
(generation and propagation of the action potential); [neuron send AP through axon] end plate potential ignites AP that spreads in all directions from neuromuscular junction across sarcolemma; this depolarization (end plate potential) spreads to adjacent membrane areas and opens voltage gated sodium channels; Na+ enters and reaches voltage threshold (+30), and an action potential is generated. AP is propegated along length of sarcolemma as depolarization wave spreads to adjacent areas of sarcolemma and opens voltage gated sodium channels there; again, Na+ difusses into cell
Gomphoses
(gomphosis)a peg-in-socket fibrous joint (ex: articulation of a tooth with its bony alveolar socket), Fibrous connection is the periodontal ligament
Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma (1)
(local depolarization and generation of an end plate potential); Binding of ACh molecules to ACh receptors at neuromuscular junction opens (ligand) gated ion channels that allow Na+ and K+ to pass; More Na+ diffuses in then K+ diffuses out and interior of sarcolemma becomes less negative (depolarization [local electrical event called, end plate potential)
Epimysium
(outside muscle) an overcoat of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the whole muscle
ramus (ex ramus of the mandible)
(projection that help form joints) (arm like) arm-like bar of bone
Head ( ex head of a rib)
(projection that help form joints) bony expansion carried on a narrow neck
condyle (ex condyle of the mandible)
(projection that help form joints) rounded articular projection (fits in a joint or is where a bone joins another)
facet (ex articular facet of rib)
(projection that help form joints) smooth, nearly flat articular surface
tuberosity (ex tibial tuberosity)
(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) Large round projection; may be roughened
process (ex spinous process of the vertebra)
(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) any bony prominence
line (ex intertrochanteric line of the femur)
(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) narrow ridge of bone; less prominent that a crest
crest (ex iliac crest)
(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) narrow ridge or bone; usually prominent
epicondyle (ex medial epicondyle of the femur)
(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) raised area on or above a condyle
spine (ex ischial spine of the ischium)
(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) sharp, slender, often pointed projection
tubercle (ex adductor tubercle of the femur)
(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) small rounded projection or process
trochanter (the only examples are on the femur)
(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process
Bone Resorption
(removal) osteoclasts secrete lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix) and acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms). Dissolved Matrix is transcytosed across osteoclast, enters interstitial fluid and then blood
Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma (3)
(repolarization); sarcolemma is restored to intitial polarized state; Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open; K+ efflux rapidly restores the resting polarity; Fiber cannot be stimulated and is in a refractory period until repolarization is complete; Ionic conditions of the resting state are restored by the Na+-K+ pump
Excitabilty
(responsiveness, irritability); the ability of muscle tissue to recieve and respond to a stimulus, that is any change in the environment either inside or outside the body
Sesamoid Bone
(shaped like a sesame seed) are special type of short bones that form in tendons . Vary in sizes and numbers in individuals. Some alter directions of pull of tendon other their functions are unknown
Synchondroses
(synchondrosis)site where bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites bone (ex: epiphyseal plate in children and coastal cartilage of first rib and manibrium of sternum)
Resistance Exercise
(typically anaerobic) results in Muscle hypertrophy (due to increase in fiber size), Increased mitochondria, myofilaments, glycogen stores, and connective tissue
Endomysium
(within muscle) a whispy sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle fiber
level of structural organization: organ
- made up of discrete structures that are composed of at least two groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function in the body. - a group of organs that work closely together to accomplish a specific purpose
Trigger zone (aka threshold)
-55 mV; If the stimulus reaches the trigger zone then the action potential happens.
Polarized
-70 (resting plasma potential)
Types of nerves
-Cranial: exit the cranial cavity through the foramina in the cranium -Spinal: exit the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramina
Peripheral Nervous System
-consists of nerve fibers and cell bodies outside the CNS that conduct impulses to or away from the CNS -Also, organized into nerves that connect the CNS with peripheral structures
Phases of the Action Potential
1 - resting state 2 - depolarization phase 3 - repolarization phase 4 - hyperpolarization
What are the Body Cavities and the organs that they contain?
1) DORSAL CAVITY 2) VENTRAL CAVITY: 3) THORACIC CAVITY: 4) ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY:
Examples of Homeostasis:
1) Temperature control (N) 2) waste removal 3) rate and depth of breath (N) 4) O2 and CO2 levels in blood (N) 5) oxytocin production during birth (P) 6) blood clotting (P)
What are the levels of structural organization?
1) chemical level 2) cellular level 3) tissue level 4) organ level 5) organism level
What are examples of Positive Feedback?
1) generation of nerve impulses 2) oxytocin production during birth 3) blood clotting 4) lactation
Functions of Plasma Membrane
1) provides protective barrier against substances and forces outside the cell, 2) some act as receptors, 3) determines what goes in and out
What are examples of Negative Feedback?
1) regulation of heart rate 2) regulation of blood pressure 3) regulation of depth of breath 4) blood levels of O2, CO2 and minerals
Steps in Homeostasis:
1) stimulus produces a change 2) change is detected by receptor 3) input: info is sent along afferent pathway to control center 4) reaches control center 5) output: info sent along efferent pathway to effector 6) response of effector feeds back to influence the magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis.
Requirements for Skeletal Muscle Contraction
1. Activation: stimulation by nerve ending so that change in membrane potential occurs 2. generate and propegate an electrical current, called an action potential, along its sarcolemma 3. a short lived rise in intercellular calcium ion levels that is the final trigger for contraction must occur
Characteristics of Connective Tissue
1. Common Origin ( all connective tissue arise from mesenchyme [an embryonic tissue] and hence have a kinship) 2. Varying Degrees of vascularity (all vascular except for cartilage) 3. Extracellular matrix (cells seperated by nonliving extracellular matrix [ground substances and fiber])
Classification of Bones
1. Long Bones 2. Short Bones 3. Flat Bones 4. Irregular Bones
Functions of Integumentary System
1. Protection 2. Body Temperature Regulation 3. Cutaneous Sensation 4. Metabolic Functions 5. Blood Reservoir 6. Excretion
(2) Cell Types
1. Squamous 2. Cuboidal 3. Columner
Functions of Bones
1. Support (for body and soft organs), 2. Protection (for brain, spinal cord and vital organs, 3. Movement (levers for muscle action), 4. Storage (minerals [calcium and phosphorus] and growth factors), 5. Blood Cell Formation (occurs in marrow cavities of certain bones), 6. Triglyceride (Fat) Storage (fat is stored in bone cavities and represents a source of stored energy for the body)
Passive membrane processes
1. diffusion, 2. facilitated diffusion, 3. osmosis, 4. filtration
Extracellular fluid is found...
1. intravascular space 2. interstitial space 3. cerebrospinal or synovial spaces (transcellular fluid)
3 factors that determine if a molecule can diffuse...
1. size of the molecule, 2. lipid solubility, 3. molecular charge
The Skin
1.5-4.0 millimeters (mm), composed of two distinct regions, the epidermis and dermis
Special Charactersistics of Epithelium
1.Polarity 2. Specialized Contacts (cell close together/cell sheets) 3. Supported by connective tissue 4. Avascular but innervarted 5. Regeneration
Adductor Pollicis
Adduction of the thumb is bringing it back into the plane of the palm of the hand from its previously abducted position. This muscle, however, also brings the thumb to the side of the palm and index finger.
Direct Phosphorylation
ATP producing way; Metabolic Pathway; chemical reaction where CP (creatine phosphate) and ADP are used. Phosphate from CP is taken and put into ADP and turns to ATP; 1 to 1 ration; energy last for less then 10 seconds; does not require Oxygen;first stage body goes to to make energy; occurs in cytoplasm of cell
Serratus anterior
Abducts and protracts the scapula
Supraspinatus
Abducts arm; stabilizes the head of the humerus in glenoid cavity; one of the "rotator cuff" muscles
What are the 2 major neurocrines secreted by the nervous system, what types of receptors do they have, and where are those receptors?
Acetylcholine (cholinergic; nicotonic- skeletal muscles, autonomic neurons, CNS | muscarinic- smooth and cardiac muscle, endocrine and exocrine glands, CNS) and norephinephrine (adrenergic; smooth and cardiac muscle, endocrine exocrine glands, CNS)
What are the main kinds of Neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine, Biogenic Amines, Amino Acids, Peptides, Novel Messengers.
What is the All Or None Phenomenon?
Action potentials either happen completely or not at all.
Adductor Pollicis
Adducts Thumb towards Middle Digit
What are the processes of the nervous system?
Axons and dendrites. Arm-like extensions from the Soma.
Spinous process
Name this specific part of the axis (C2).
Hyperpolarizing graded potentials
Becomes more negative... so is inhibitory
Depolarized graded potentials
Becomes more positive.... so is excitatory
Axosomatic synapses
Between axon endings of one neuron and cell bodies of other neurons
peptide bond
Bond joining the amine group of one amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid with the loss of a water molecule.
Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord Integration and command center
histology
Branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic structure of tissues.
nucleotide
Building block of nucleic acids; consists of a sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group.
Interneurons
Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Role of Calcium Ions
Ca2+ binds to and activates calmodulin ; Activated calmodulin activates myosin (light chain) kinase; Activated kinase phosphorylates and activates myosin ; Cross bridges interact with actin
Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+
Calcium is necessary for Transmission of nerve impulses, Muscle contraction, Blood coagulation, Secretion by glands and nerve cells, Cell division
What is the role of calcium at the end of a neuron?
Calcium triggers exocytosis of the synaptic vesicle contents (in that the synaptic vesicle fuses with the membrane) and therefore signaling the release of neurocrine neurotransmitters at the synapse.
Osteoporosis Treatment
Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements, Weight-bearing exercise throughout life, Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss , Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins) increase bone mineral density
What are Biogenic Amines?
Catecholamine - dopamine, norepinephrine (NE), and epinephrine. Indolamines - seratonin and histamine. Broadly distributed in the brain. Play roles in emotional behaviors and our biological clock.
Neurons
Cells specialized for transmitting nerve impulses.
What are Supporting Cells?
Cells that surround and wrap neurons.
What are Neurotransmitters?
Chemicals used for neuronal communication with the body and the brain. Over 50 have been indentified.
nucleic acid
Class of organic molecules that includes DNA and RNA.
Serous fluid
Clear, watery fluid secreted by cells of a serous membrane.
Ammonia (NH3)
Common waste product of protein breakdown in the body; a colorless volatile gas, very soluble in water and capable of forming a weak base; a proton acceptor.
protein
Complex substance containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; composes 10-30% of cell mass.
Skeletal System
Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments - Protects and supports body organs - Provides the framework for muscles - Site of blood cell formation - Stores minerals
Urinary System
Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra - Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body - Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH (acid/base) balance of the blood
Female Reproductive System
Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina - Main function is the production of offspring - Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones - Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus - Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn
Muscular System
Composed of muscles and tendons - Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression - Maintains posture - Produces heat
Male Reproductive System
Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens - Main function is the production of offspring - Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones - Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract
Lymphatic System
Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels - Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood - Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream - Houses white blood cells involved with immunity
Nervous System
Composed of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves (cranial and spinal nerves) - This is the fast-acting control system of the body - Sends electrical impulses - Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands
Cardiovascular System
Composed of the heart and blood vessels ( arteries, veins, capillaries) - The heart pumps blood - The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body - Bring O2 and nutrients to cells - Carry CO2 and waste from cells
Respiratory System
Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs - Alveoli are sites of gas exchange in the lungs - Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide - Has role in Acid/Base balance
Digestive System
Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and accessory organs which are liver, gallbladder and pancreas - Breaks down food into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood - Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces
External oblique
Compresses abdomen; laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column
Internal oblique
Compresses abdomen; laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column
Rectus abdominis
Compresses abdominal cavity and flexes vertebral column
What is an Axon Hillock?
Cone shaped area from which axons arise.
Body
Name this specific part of the costal bone.
saltatory conduction
Current passes through a myelinated axon only at the nodes of Ranvier avoiding fats Action potentials are triggered only at the nodes and jump from one node to the next Much faster than conduction along unmyelinated axons Na+ channels are concentrated at these nodes
Perikaryon
Cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus of a neuron
Medial Pterygoid
Description: Deep two headed muscle that runs along internal surface of mandible and is largely concealed by that bone Origin and Insertion: (medial surface of lateral pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone, maxilla, and palatine bone) [medial surface of mandible near its angle] Action: acts with the lateral ptyergoid muscle to protrude (protract) mandible and to promote side to side (grinding) movements; synergist of temporalis and messeter muscles in elevation of the mandible Nerve Supply: trigeminal nerve
Connective Tissue Proper: loose connective tissue, aerolar
Description: Gel-like matrix with all three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells Function: Wraps and cushions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid Location: Widely distributed under epithelia of body, ex: forms lamina propria of mucous membranes; packages organs; surrounds capillaries
Connective Tissue Proper: loose connective tisse, adipose
Description: Matrix as in Aerolar, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells, have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet Function: Provides reserve a food fuel; insulates against heat lose; supports and protects organs Location: Under skin in the hypodermis; around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts
Cartilage: fibrocartilage
Description: Matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate Function: Tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock Location: Intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint
Connective Tissue Proper: dense connective tissue: dense irregular
Description: Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast Function: able to withstand tension exerted in many directions; provides structural strenght Location: fibrous capsules of organs and of joints; dermis of the skin; submucosa of digestive tract. Can also be found in dermis layer of skin
Cartilage: elastic
Description: Similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix Function: Maintains the shapes of a structure while allowing great flexibility. Location: Supports the external ear (pinna); epiglottis
Smooth Muscle
Description: Spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets Function: propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control Location: mostly in the walls of hollow organs
Orbicularis Oris
Description: complicated, multilayered muscle of the lips with fibers that run in many different directions; most run circulatory Origin and Insertion: (arises indirectly from maxilla and mandible; fibers blended with fibers or other facial muscles associated with the lips [encirlces mouth; inserts into muscle and skin at angles of mouth] Action: closes lips; purses and protrudes lips; kissing and whistling muscle Nerve Suppply; facial nerves
Lateral Pterygoid
Description: deep two headed muscle; lies superior to medial ptyergoid muscle Origin and Insertion: (greater wing and lateral pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone) [condyle of mandible and capsule of temporomandibular joint] Action: provides forward sliding and side to side grinding movements of lower teeth; protrudes mandible (pulls anteriorly) Nerve Supply: facial nerve (cranial vii)
Connective Tissue Proper: dense connective tissue, elastic
Description: dense regular connective tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers Function: allows recoil of tissue following stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration Location:
Temporalis
Description: fan shaped muscle that covers parts of the temporal, frontal, and parietal bones Origin and Insertion: (temporal fossa) [coronoid process of mandible via a tendon that passes deep to zygomatic arch] Action: closes jaw; elevates and retracts mandible; maintains position of the mandible at rest; deep anterior part may help protract mandible Nerve Supply: trigeminal nerve
Genioglossus
Description: fan shaped muscle; forms bulk of inferior part of tongue; its attachment to mandible prevents tongue from falling backward and obstructing respiration Origin and Insertion: (internal surface of mandible near symphysis) [inferior aspect of the tongue and body of hyoid bone] Action: protracts tongue; can depress or act in concert with other extrinsic muscles to retract tongue Nerve Supply: hypoglossal nerve (cranial xii)
Hypoglossus
Description: flat, quadrilateral muscle Origin and Insertion: (body and greater horn of hyoid bone) [inferolateral tongue] Action: depresses tongue and draws its sides downward Nerve Supply: hypoglossal nerve
Others: bone (osseous tissue)
Description: hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae. Very well vascularized Function: bone supports and protects (by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium and other minerals and fat; marrow inside bones is the site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) Location: (bones)
Skeletal Muscle
Description: long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious stritations Function: Voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control Location: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin
Zygomaticus
Description: muscle pair extending diagonally from cheekbone to corner of mouth Origin and Insertion: (zygomatic bone) [ skin and muscle at corner of the mouth] Action: raises lateral corners of mouth upward (smiling muscle) Nerve Supply: facial nerve
Mentalis
Description: one of the muscle pair forming a v-shaped muscle mass on chin Origin and Insertion: (mandible below incisors) [ skin of chin] Action: wrinkles chin; protrudes lower skin Nerve Supply: facial nerve
Masseter
Description: powerful muscle that covers lateral aspect of mandibular ramus Origin and Insertion: (zygomatic arch and zygomatic bone) [angle and ramus of mandible] Action: prime mover of jaw closure; elevates mandible Nerve Supply: trigeminal nerve (cranial v)
Connective Tissue Proper: dense connective tissue. dense regular
Description: primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastic fibers; major cells type is the fibroblast Function: attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction Location: Tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses
Others: blood
Description: red and white blood cells in a fluid matrix (plasma) Function: Transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances Location: contained within blood vessels
Transitional Epithelium
Description: resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columner; surface cells dome shaped or squamous like, depending on degree of organ stretch Function: stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine Location: lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra
Pseudostratified Columner Epithelium
Description: single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching the free surface; nuclei seen at different levels; may contain mucous-secreting cells and bear cilia (gives appearance that their are many different layers of cells) Function: secretion, particularly of mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action; known for absorption Location: Nonciliated type in makes sperm carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract. Also asscociate with lungs
Risorius
Description: slender muscle inferior and lateral to zygomaticus Origin and Insertion: (lateral fascia associated with masseter muscle) [skin at angle of mouth] Action: draws corners of lips laterally; tenses lips; synergist of zygomsticus Nerve Supply: facial nerve
Styloglossus
Description: slender muscle running superiorly to and at right angles to hypoglossus Origin and Insertion: (styloid process of temporal bone) [inferolateral tongue] Action: retracts (and elevates) tongue Nerve Supply: hypoglossal nerve
Depressor Anguli Oris
Description: small muscle lateral to depressor labii inferioris Origin and Insertion: (body of mandible below incisors) [skin and muscle at angle of mouth below insertion of zygomaticus] Action: draws corners of mouth downward and laterally, zygomaticus antagonist Nerve Supply: facial nerves
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Description: thick memabrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columner and metablically active; in the keratinized type the surface cells are full of keratin and dead; basal cells are active in the mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers Function: protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion Location: Nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane
Levator Labii Superioris
Description: thin muscle between orbicularis oris and the inferior eye margin Origin and Insertion: (zygomatic bone and the infraorbital margin of maxilla) [ skin and muscle of lower lip] Action: opens lips; raises and furrows the upper lip Nerve Supply: facial nerve
Orbicularis Oculi
Description: thin tripartite sphincter muscle of the eyelid; surrounds rim of the orbit Origin and Insertion: (frontal and maxillary bones and ligaments around orbit) [tissue of eyelid] Action: closes eye; various parts can be activated individually; produces blinking, squinting, and draws eyebrows inferiorly Nerve Supply: facial nerve
Buccinator
Description: thin, horizontal cheek muscle; principal muscle of cheek; deep to masseter Origin and Insertion: (molar region of maxilla and mandible) [orbicularis oris] Action: compresses cheeks; as in whistling and sucking; trampoline like action holds food between teeth during chewing; draws corner of mouth laterally; well developed in nursing infants Nerve Supply: facial nerve
Platysma
Description: unpaired, thin, sheetlike superficial neck muscle; not strictly a head muscle, but plays a role in facial expression Origin and Insertion: (fascia of chest {over pectoral muscles and deltoid}) [ lower margin of mandible; and skin and muscle at corner of mouth] Action: tenses skin of neck (ex: during shaving); helps depress mandible; pulls lower lip back and down, produces downward sag of mouth
Depressor Labii Inferioris
Descritption: small muscle running from mandible to lower lip Origin and Insertion: (body of mandible lateral to its midline) [skin and muscle of lower lip] Action: draws lower lip inferiorly (as in pout) Nerve Supply: facial nerves
2 Key Parameters that influence speed of AP
Diameter of the neuron (larger --> faster) and the Resistance of the axon to ion leakage (more myelination --> faster)
isotopes
Different atomic forms of the same element, vary only in the number of neutrons they contain; the heavier species tend to be radioactive.
Neutralization reaction
Displacement reaction in which mixing an acid and a base forms water and a salt.
Serous Membranes by Body Cavity:
Dorsal Body Cavity: - Cranial cavity: Meninges - Vertebral Cavity: Meninges Thoracic Cavity: - Heart: Pericardium - Lungs: Pleura Ventral Body Cavity: - Abdominoplevic Cavity: Peritoneum
Internal intercostals
Draws the ribs together and depresses rib cage
What is the difference between the absolute refractory period and the relative refractory period?
During the absolute refractory period, no stimulus can trigger another action potential. During the relative refractory period, only a large than normal stimulus can initiate a new action potential.
Rough ER
ER with ribosomes on the surface, involved in the production of protein
How does a Voltage Gated Channel Work?
EX: Na- Channel. Closed when intracellular environment is negative. Na- cannot enter the cell. Open when the intracellular environment is positive. Na- can enter the cell.
How does a Gated Channel Work?
EX: Na-/K+ Gated Channel. Closed when a neurotransmitter is not bound to the extracellular receptor. Na- cannot enter the cell and K+ cannot exit the cell. Open when a neurotransmitter is attached to the receptor. Na- enters the cell and K+ exits the cell.
Developmental Aspects: Fetal
Ectoderm - epidermis , Mesoderm - dermis and hypodermis , Lanugo coat: covering of delicate hairs in 5th and 6th month, Vernix caseosa: sebaceous gland secretion; protects skin of fetus
Angle
Name this specific part of the mandible.
What is plasticity?
If a cell body still exists, plasticity allows neurons to make new connections and relearn how to function.
Bone Remodeling Occurs
In response to mechanical stressors over several months, Final structure resembles original
Sensory (afferent) division
In the PNS, sensory afferent fibers carry impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain (aka CNS)
Motor (efferent) division
In the PNS, transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs
What are Amino Acids?
Include: GABA - Gamma aminobutyric acid, Glycine, Aspartate, Glutamate. Is found only in the CNS.
What are Peptides?
Include: Substance P - mediator of pain signals. Beta Endorphin, dynorphin, and enkephalins. Act as a natural opiate; reduce pain perception. Binds to the same receptors as opiates and morphine. Gut-brain peptides - Somatostain, and cholectokinin.
Depolarizing phase
Increase in Na+ permeability and reversal of membrane potential.
Growth
Increase in the size of a cell
What is IPSP?
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials.
Formation of Cross Bridge
Initaited when calcium ions released from SR bind to troponin (This causes tropinin to change shape); Tropomyosin moves away from myosin binding sites on actin allowing myosin head to bind actin and form a cross bridge; Myosin head has to be activated before a cross bridge cycle can begin; ATP combines with myosin head and is hydrolized to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Energy from hydrolozied Atp activates myosin head forcing It to be in cocked position)
Body
Name this specific part of the mandible.
Disaccharide
Literally, double sugar; e.g., sucrose, lactose.
Polysaccharide
Literally, many sugars, a polymer of linked monosaccharides; e.g., starch, glycogen.
Multiunit Smooth Muscle
Located in large airways, large arteries, arrector pili muscles, and iris of eye; Gap junctions are rare; Arranged in motor units; Graded contractions occur in response to neural stimuli
Naming of Skeletal Muscles
Location, Shape, Size, Direction of Fibers, Number of Origins, Location of Attachments, and Action
Cell that fight disease
Macrophage (phagocytic cell) - extends long pseudopods to crawl through tissue to reach infection sites; (cells that ...)
Electrical Synapses
Made of connexons- tubular proteins that allow passage of an impulse in 2 directions at once- are located in gap junctions where 2 cells come together- more rapid than a chemical synapse
Graded Potentials
Magnitude varies directly with the strength of the stimulus Short-lived, local changes in membrane potential Decrease in intensity with distance Sufficiently strong graded potentials can initiate action potentials Current is quickly dissipated due to the leaky plasma membrane Only travel over short distances
glycogen
Main carbohydrate stored in animal cells; a polysaccharide.
Hormones and Local Chemical Factors
May bind to G protein-linked receptors; May either enhance or inhibit Ca2+ entry
Medial, Lateral and Intermediate:
Medial: toward or at the midline of the body Lateral: away from the midline of the body Intermediate: between a more medial and more lateral structure
Teres major
Medially rotates and adducts the arm
cofactor
Metal ion or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity.
Phospholipid
Modified lipid, contains phosphorus.
Exocrine Glands
More numerous than endocrine glands, secrete products into ducts and secretion released onto the body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities to reduce friction ex: mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands
Skin Cancer
Most skin tumors are benign (do not metastasize), Risk factors: Overexposure to UV radiation, Frequent irritation of the skin. Some skin lotions contain enzymes in liposomes that can fix damaged DNA 3 types: Basal Cell Carcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Melanoma
contractility
Muscles ability to shorten/contract
Mandibular notch
Name this specific part of the mandible.
Developmental Aspects of Muscles
Muscular development reflects neuromuscular coordination; Development occurs head to toe, and proximal to distal; Peak natural neural control occurs by midadolescence; Athletics and training can improve neuromuscular control; Female skeletal muscle makes up 36% of body mass; Male skeletal muscle makes up 42% of body mass, primarily due to testosterone; Body strength per unit muscle mass is the same in both sexes; With age, connective tissue increases and muscle fibers decrease; By age 30, loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia) begins; Regular exercise reverses sarcopenia; Atherosclerosis may block distal arteries, leading to intermittent claudication and severe pain in leg muscles
Significance of multiple sclerosis
Myelin breaks apart, slowing down AP's causing disease --> fatigue, muscle weakness, difficulty walking a) APs appear to jump from one node of ranvier to the next b) In demyelinating diseases, conduction slows due to current leakage out of the previously insulated regions between the nodes.
Resting State
Na+ and K+ channels are closed
Action Potential: Resting State
Na+ and K+ channels are closed Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+ and K+ Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated gates
relative refractory period
Na+ gates are closed, K+ gates are open repolarization is occurring threshold level is elevated, allowing strong stimuli to increase the frequency of action potential events
Action Potential: Depolarization Phase
Na+ gates are opened; K+ gates are closed Cell becomes more positive
Atlas
Name the entire bone indicated by the arrow.
Axis
Name the entire bone indicated by the arrow.
Middle nasal concha
Name these bony landmarks of the ethmoid bone.
Superior nasal concha
Name these parts of the ethmoid bone.
Body
Name this area of the mandible.
Orbit
Name this area of the skull.
Frontal bone
Name this bone (superior view).
Ethmoid bone
Name this bone of the skull (lateral view).
Ethmoid bone
Name this bone of the skull (superior view).
Frontal bone
Name this bone.
Inferior nasal conchae
Name this bone.
Lacrimal bone
Name this bone.
Mandible
Name this bone.
Maxilla
Name this bone.
Nasal bone
Name this bone.
Occipital bone
Name this bone.
Palatine bone
Name this bone.
Parietal bone
Name this bone.
Sphenoid bone
Name this bone.
Temporal bone
Name this bone.
Vomer
Name this bone.
Zygomatic bone
Name this bone.
Crista galli
Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (lateral view).
Crista galli
Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (posterior view).
Cribriform plate
Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (superior view).
Crista galli
Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (superior view).
Types of Synovial Joints
Plane, Hinge, Pivot, Condyloid, Saddle, Ball-and Socket
Neurilemma
Portion of the Schwann cell which includes the exposed part of its plasma membrane.
Action Potential: Hyperpolarization
Potassium gates remain open, causing an excessive efflux of K+ The neuron is insensitive to stimulus and depolarization during this time
Dehydration synthesis
Process by which a large molecule is synthesized by removing water and covalently bonding smaller molecules together.
Chemical reaction
Process in which molecules are formed, changed, or broken down.
hydrolysis
Process in which water is used to split a substance into smaller particles.
oxidation
Process of substances combining with oxygen or the removal of hydrogen.
Muscle Functions
Produce Movement, Maintain Posture and Body Position, Stabalize Joints, Generate Heat
Hair
Produced by hair follicles, consists of dead keratinized cells. 3 Layers of keratinized cells (medulla, cortex, cuticle) Functions: Alerting the body to presence of insects on the skin Guarding the scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, and sunlight Distribution: Entire surface except palms, soles, lips, nipples, and portions of external genitalia Contains hard keratin; more durable than soft keratin of skin Hair pigments: melanins (yellow, rust brown, black) Gray/white hair: decreased melanin production, increased air bubbles in shaft
Pronator teres
Pronates forearm and assists in flexing the elbow
myelin sheath functions
Protect the axon Electrically insulate fibers from one another Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission
Neuralgia functions
Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons Segregate and insulate neurons Guide young neurons to the proper connections Promote health and growth
Oligodendrocytes
Provides myelination in CNS, electrically insulates certain axons, & speeds up rate of electrical signals
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Quite rare in body, Found in some sweat and mammary glands, Typically two cell layers thick
Cutaneous Sensations
Temperature, touch, and pain
cisterna
Terminal cisternae are enlarged areas of the sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounding the transverse tubules. These discrete regions within the muscle cell store calcium (increasing the capacity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium) and release it when an action potential courses down the transverse tubules, eliciting muscle contraction.
mechanical energy
The energy directly involved in moving matter; e.g., in bicycle riding, the legs provide the mechanical energy that moves the pedals.
kinetic energy
The energy of motion or movement, e.g., the constant movement of atoms, or the push given to a swinging door that sets it into motion.
atomic weight
The average of the mass numbers of all the isotopes of an element.
Organization and Restored Blood Supply
The blood clot is replaced with granulation tissue Epithelium begins to regenerate, Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge the gap, Debris is phagocytized
Dendrites
The branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
energy
The capacity to do work; may be stored (potential energy) or in action (kinetic energy).
Adductor Pollicis longus
The chief action of abductor pollicis longus is to abduct the thumb at the carpometacarpal joint, thereby moving the thumb anteriorly. By its continued action it helps to abduct the wrist.
Potential difference
The difference in electrical charge between two points in a circuit expressed in volts.
potential on either side of membranes when:
The number of ions is different across the membrane The membrane provides a resistance to ion flow
Avogadro's number
The number of molecules in one mole of any substance, 6.02 x 1023.
atomic number
The number of protons in an atom.
atomic symbol
The one- or two-letter symbol used to indicate an element; usually the first letter(s) of the element's name.
Unicellular Exocrine Gland
The only important unicellular gland is the goblet cell. Unicellular glands are sprinkled into the epithelial linings of the intestinal and respiratory tracts amid columner cells with other functions
Axolemma
The plasma membrane of the axon
White Matter
The portions of the central nervous system that are abundant in axons rather than cell bodies of neurons. The colour derives from the presence of the axon's myelin sheaths
What is Resting Membrane Potential?
The potential difference (-70mV) across the membrane of a resting neuron.
radioactivity
The process of spontaneous decay seen in some of the heavier isotopes, during which particles or energy is emitted from the atomic nucleus; results in the atom becoming more stable.
Apoenzyme
The protein portion of an enzyme.
Regeneration and Fibrosis
The scab detaches, Fibrous tissue matures; epithelium thickens and begins to resemble adjacent tissue, Results in a fully regenerated epithelium with underlying scar tissue
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
a series of flattened tubes stacked on one another & bent into a crescent shape, 2 types: rough & smooth
Epithelial Tissue
a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity. Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception epithelium (plural: epithelia), (epithe = laid on, covering) (2 main types: Covering and Lining and Glandular Epithelium
muscle fiber
a single muscle tissue cell
axon terminals
a small swelling at the end of an axon, designed to release neurotransmitters onto other neurons, muscle cells, or glands.
Epineurium
a thick connective tissue sheath that surrounds and encloses a bundle of fascicles, forming the outermost covering of the nerve -includes fatty tissue, blood vessels, and lymphatics
myosin
a type of protein filament (thick) that interacts with actin filaments to cause cell contraction.
What are the anatomic and functional categories of neurons?
a)unipolar neurons have a single process called the axon. During development, the dendrite fused with the axon. b) Bipolar neurons have 2 relatively equal fibers extending off the central cell body. c) Axaxonic CNS interneurons have no apparent axon. d) Multipolar CNS interneurons are highly branched but lack long extensions. e) A typical multipolar efferent neuron has 5 to 7 dendrites, each branching 4 to 6 times. A single long axon may branch several times and end at enlarged axon terminals.
Nerve fibers consist of:
a. bundle of nerve fibers outside the CNS (or a "bundle of bundled fibers" or fasicles) b. the connective tissue coverings that surround and ind the nerve fibers and fascicles together c. blood vessels (vasa nervorum) that nourish the nerve fibers and their coverings
M Line
bisect each H Zone; formed by molecules of the protein muomesin
collateral sympathetic ganglia are involved with the innervation of the
abdominal organs
Elasticity
ability of muscle cell to recoil and resume its resting length after being stretched
Contractility
ability of muscle tissue to shorten forcibly when adequetly stimulated
What is Homeostasis and it's significance?
ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world. - keeps the body from experiencing sudden changes in the body. - needed to regulate blood pressure, pH levels, temperature, etc. - Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones
Resilience
ability to spring back to original shape after being compressed
Hypertrophy
abnormal increase in the size of a cell
What can be added to IV fluids to adjust ionic balances?
additives such as bicarbonate (anions) or potassium (cations)
Rhomboids Minor
adducts and laterally rotates the scapula. It also retracts the scapula, rotates lower pole of scapula medially, depresses the glenoid cavity, and fixes the scapula to the thoracic wall.
Basal Lamina
adjacent to basal surface, noncellular adhesive sheet consisting of glycoprotiens secreted by epithelial cells. Functions: acts as a selective filter that determines which molecules diffusing from the underlying connective tissue are allowed to enter epithelium
Force of Muscle Contraction
affected by, (1) the number of muscle fibers stimulated [more motor units the greater the muscle force], (2) the relative size of the fibers [the bulkier the muscle the more tension it can develop and the greater its strength, (3) the frequency of stimulation [more frequency allows time for more effective transfer of tension to noncontractile components] , and (4) the degree of muscle stretch [Length-tension relationship—muscles contract most strongly when muscle fibers are 80-120% of their normal resting length]
the transmission of sound vibrations through the internal ear occurs chiefly through
air
action potentials
aka nerve impulses Electrical impulses carried along the length of axons Always the same regardless of stimulus the underlying functional feature of the nervous system
Schwann cells
aka neurolemmocytes surround fibers of the PNS help regulate how neuron fires
Endochondral Ossification
all bones (except clavicles) of the skeleton below base of skull form by this process; begins in 2nd month of development and uses hyaline cartilage as models for bone construction
Fractures (2)
all fractures can be describes in terms of location, external appearance, nature of the break
taste buds are found on the
all of these
which of the following is important in maintaining the balance of the body?
all of these
Directional Terms
allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another
Leptin
also been known to influence density by inhibiting osteoblast
Circular muscle
also called sphincters; open and close to guard entrances of body; ex: orbicularis oris muscle of the mouth
passive, or leakage, channels
always open
T-tubule
an extension of the sarcolemma or cell membrane that penetrates into the interior of the muscle which allows the depolarization of the membrane to quickly penetrate to the interior of the cell. allows for a uniform contraction of the muscle.
Rickets
analogous disease in children. Bowed legs and deformities of the pelvis, skull, and rib cage are common. Because epiphyseal plates cant be calcified they continue to widen and the ends of long bones become visibly enlarged and abnormally long. caused by insufficient calcium in diet and by vitamin D deficiency.
Troponin
another major protien in thinn filaments; globular three polypeptide complex; one of its polypeptides is an inhinitory subunit that binds to actin; the third binds calcium ions
Diploe
another name for spogny bone is flat bones
Stratum Lucidum (Clean Layer)
appears as a clear translucent band just above the stratum granuosum. 2 to 3 rows of flat, dead keratinocytes
Third class lever
applied force between resistance and fulcrum; greater force moves smaller resistance; maximizes speed and distance; most common levers in body; all these levers work at a mechanical disadvantage
Apocrine Sweat Glands
approx. 2000 of them are confined in axillary and anogenital areas. Release product by exocytosis. They are larger and lie deeper in the dermis, and ducts empty into hair follicles. Sebum: sweat + fatty substances and proteins. Functional from puberty onward (as sexual scent glands?)
Projections
are bulges that grow outward from the bone surface include head, trochanters, spines, and others.
Cross Bridges
are formed when tail of myosin molecule, which consists of 2 intertwined helical polypeptide heavy chains, contract and link the thick and thin filaments together; the gobular heads, are business end of myosin;
Serous Membranes
are the moist membranes found in closed ventral body cavities. Consisits of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of loose connective (aerolar) tissue. Serosae—membranes (mesothelium + areolar tissue) in a closed ventral body cavity. Parietal serosae line internal body walls Visceral serosae cover internal organs
Epidermal Dendritic Cells
arise from bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis. Also called Langerhans cells. Functions: they imgest foreign substances and are key activators of pur immune system
Symphyses
articlar surfaces of the bones are covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage, and is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage [acts as shock absorber cause resiliency], strong flexible amphiathroses
(Synovial) Plane Joints
articular surfaces are flat and allow only short nonaxial gliding movements
Fused or Complete Tetanus
as the stimulation frequency continues to increase, muscle tension increases until a maximal tension is reached; at this point all evidence of muscle relaxation dissapears and the contractions fuse into a smooth, sustained contraction plateau
fiber tracts that allow neurons within the same cerebral hemisphere to communicate are
association tracts
Origin
attachment of muscle to the immovable (or less movable bone)
Insertion
attachment of muscle to the movable bone [Muscle contraction causes the insertion to move toward the origin; Movements occur along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes]
two types of neuron processes
axons and dendrites
of the neurons in the retina, the axons of which of these form the optic nerve?
bipolar cells
Functional Classification of Joints
based on the amount of movement allowed at the joint
Flexion
bending movement along sagittal plane, that decrease the angle of the joint, and brings articulating bones closer together
Epiphyseal Line/Plate
between diaphysis and epiphysis of an adult bone. A disc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood to lengthen bone. sometimes called metaphysis
muscles that flex the wrist and digits (2 nerves)
brachial, median
elbow joint
brachial, median, musculocutaneous, radial, ulnar
anterior arm muscles that flex forearm
brachial, musculocutaneous
muscles that extend the wrist and digits
brachial, radial
skin and extensor muscles of the posterior arm
brachial, radial
Oligodendrocytes
branched cells that wrap CNS nerve fibers help regulate how neuron fires
Fractures
breaks; excessive intake of vitamin A appears to increase fracture risk in some; Classifications: (1) Position of the bone ends after fracture [nondisplaced fractures - the bone ends retain their normal position, displaced fractures - bone ends are out of normal alignment], (2) Completeness of Break [ complete - broken all the way through, incomplete - not broken all the way through], (3) Orientation of the break to the long axis of the bone [linear - break parallels long axis, transverse - break perpendicular to bones long axis, (4) Whether bone ends penterate the skin [Open - bone ends penetrate the skin, Simple - bone ends do not penetrate the skin
Convergent muscles
broad area converges on attachment site (tendon, aponeurosis, or raphe); muscle fibers pull in different directions, depending on stimulation; ex: pectoralis muscles
Fascicles
bundles of fibers; most common fascicle arrangement are circular, convergent, parallel, and pennate; arrangements of these determine a muscles range of motion
Excitation-Contraction Coupling (3)
calcium binds to tropinin and removes the blocking action of tropomyosin; when Ca2+ binds, troponin changes shape, exposing binding sites for myosin on the thin filaments
meatus (ex external auditory meatus)
canal-like passageway
afferent
carrying to or toward the center
Depression
cavities that indent the bone, usually serve to allow passage of nerves and blood vessels
dorsal root ganglia contain
cell bodies of sensory neurons
Apical-Basal Surface
cells regions near the apical surface differ from those near the basal surface in both structure and function
Supporting cells
cells that surround and wrap neurons
Medulla
central core of hair, consists of large cells and spaces. Soft keratin absent in fine hairs.
brain area most concerned with equilibrium body posture and coordination of motor activity
cerebellum
the diaphragm
cervical, phrenic
Ions
charged particles contained in fluid
cerbrospinal fluid is formed by
choroid plexus
Telophase
chromosomal movement stops, a new nuclear membrane forms (type of phase)
Ependymal cells
ciliated cells that range in shape from squamous to columnar line the central cavities of the brain and spinal column
Nucleosome
cluster of DNA and histones
Terminal (Hair Type)
coarse, long hair of eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic regions (and face and neck of males)
which of the following is not a possible cause of conduction deafness
cochlear nerve degeneeration
Z-Disc
coin-shaped sheet of proteins (connectins) that anchors the thin filaments and connects myofilaments to one another
Nucleus
collection of nerve cell bodies in the CNS
Lamella
column like matrix tube of an osteon (compact bone often times called lamellar bone)
Mucus
comes to be after Mucin is dissolved; a slimy coating that both protects and lubricates surfaces
Irregular Bones
complicated shapes that fit none of the preceding classes (include vertebrae and hip bones)
Stratified Epithelia
composed of 2 or more layers of cells (if stratified, name according to top layer of cells) locations: common in high abrasion areas, such as the skin surface and the lining of the mouth
Epidermis
composed of epithelial cells, is the outermost protective shield of the body. A keratinized stratified squamous epithelium consisting of 4 distinct cell types and 4 or 5 distinct layers
Elastic Filament
composed of the giant protien titin; extends from the Z disc to the thick filament, and then runs within the thick filament (forming its core) to attach to M line; holds thick filaments in place, and maintains organization of A band, and helps muscle cell to spring back into shape after being streched
Electrolytes
conduct electrical impulses in solution; ions, acids, & bases
Smooth ER
connected to rough ER, no ribosomes on the surface, makes & transports carbohydrates, lipids, & steroids
Simple Epithelia
consists of a single layer of cells locations: typically found where absorption, secretion, and filtration occur
Appendicular Skeleton
consists of bones of the upper and lower limbs and girdles (shoulder bones and hip bones) that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
Gland
consists of one or more cells that make and secrete (export) a particular product. This product, called secretion, is an aqueous (water based) fluid that usually contains proteins ex: some glands release a lipid or steroid rich secretion
Acetylcholinesterase
enzyme located in synaptic cleft; acetic acid and choline which break down ACh
Dermal Papillae
contain Capillary loops, Meissner's corpuscles (touch receptors), Free nerve endings (pain receptors). Indent overlying epidermis.
Thin Filaments
contain actin, and extend across the I band and partway into the A band
Elastic Cartilages
contain more stretchy elastic fibers, able to stand up to repeated bending. Found in external ear and the epiglottis (flap that bends to cover the opening of the larynx each time we swallow)
Thick Filaments
contain myosin, and extend the entire length of the A band; composed primarily of protien myosin; each myosin molecule consists of two heavy and 4 light polypeptide chains, and has rodlike tail attchaed by flexible hinge to two gobular heads; each contains about 300 myosin molecules
Periosteal Bud
contains a nutrient artery and vein, lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers, red marrow elements, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
Avascular
contains no blood vessels
Medial Mediastinum
contains the pericardial cavity
Excitation-Contraction Coupling (4)
contraction begins; myosin binding to actin forms cross bridges and contraction begins; at this point E-C coupling is over
activation of the sympathetic nervous system causes
contraction of the dilatior puppillae muscles
Control of Remodeling
controlled by Hormonal mechanisms that maintain calcium homeostasis in the blood, and Mechanical and gravitational forces
Recruitment (Multiple Motor Unit Summation)
controls force of contraction; achieved by delivering shocks of increasing voltage to the muscle, calling more and more muscle fibers to play
damage to the medial recti muscles would probably affect
convergence
relay stations for visual and auditory stimuli input; found in midbrain
corpora quadrigemina
Visceral Serosa
covers the internal organs
A Bands
dark and perfectly aligned lines in muscle fiber
Z Disc
dark midline interruption in light I Bands; coin shaped sheet composed largley of the protien alpha-actinin, anchors the thin filaments
Condensed chromatin
dark regions that contain tightly coiled strands of DNA
A bands
darker crossbands on the myofibril composed of overlapping actin and myosin myofilaments
Atrophy
decrease in the size of a cell
Reticular Lamina
deep to the basal lamina, layer of extracellular materials (collagen fibers)
Hypoplasia
defective development of a cell or tissue
Endosteum
delicate connective tissue membrane that covers internal bone surfaces
Nucleoli
dense spherical (non-membrane structure-bounded) bodies; site of ribosome subunit manufacture (part of the nucleus)
3 events that cause Changes in Membrane Potential
depolarization repolarization hyperpolarization
Flexure Lines
dermak folds that occur at or near joints, where the dermis is tightly secured to deeper structures (deep creases in palm)
Articular Surfaces
determines what movements are possible at a joint (minor role)
Mitosis
division of the nucleus; mitosis is said to have four consecutive phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (overall term)
Nuclear envelope
double-membrane structure; pierced by the pores; continuous with the cytoplasmic ER; separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm; regulates passage of substances to and from the nucleus (part of the nucleus)
Diffusion moves which way on the concentration gradient?
down
myelin sheath presence
dramatically increases impulse speed
Endocrine Glands
ductless glands that secrete hormones that travel through lymph or blood to target organs directly into blood and lymphatic system
Classification of Epithelia
each epithelium is given two names the first indicates (1) how many cell layers and the second (2)describes the shape of the cell
Skeletal Muscle
each is a discrete organ, made up of several kinds of tissues; skeletal muscle fibers predominate, but blood vessels, nerve fibers, and substantial amounts of connective tissue are also present
Fulcrum
each joint is a fixed point mechanically; also called...
generally short-duration action
p
Second-Class Lever
effort is applied at one end of the lever and the fulcrum is located at the other, with the load between them (ex: wheelbarrel)
First-Class Levers
effort is applied at one end of the lever and the load is at the other, with the fulcrum somewhere between (ex: seesaws and scissors)
Electrochemical Gradient
electrical and chemical gradients taken together Ions flow along their chemical gradient when they move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration Ions flow along their electrical gradient when they move toward an area of opposite charge
Action Potential
electrical charge which occurs along the entire surface of the sarcolemma; 3 steps involved for this to occur
Neuron plasma membrane functions
electrical signaling cell-to-cell signaling during development
T Tubules
elongated tube; formed by the cell interior in sarcolemma of cell muscle that protrudes deep into cell interior; increase muscle fibers surface area
Pericardial Cavity
encloses the heart and also surrounds the the remaining thoracic organs (esophagus, trachea, and others)
Gland Classification
endocrine( internally secreting) or exocrine (externally screting) depending on where they release their product, and as unicellular (one celled) or multicellular (many celled) based on relative cell number making up the gland
anabolism
energy-requiring building phase of metabolism in which simpler substances are combined to form more complex substances
Stained
enhances contrast
Neurons
excitable cells that transmit electrical signals structural unit of the nervous system
you are enjoying and ice cream cone
exteroceptor, chemoreceptor, thermoreceptor
you bump (lightly) into someone
exteroceptor, mechanoreceptor
you have just scalded yourself with hot coffee
exteroceptor, nociceptor, thermoreceptor
the retinas of your eyes are stimulated
exteroceptor, photoreceptor
is impaired in bells palsy
facial
contain parasympathetic motor fibers (4 nerves)
facial, glossopharyngeal, oculomotor, vagus
Aplasia
failure of a cell or tissue to develop
Glandular Epithelium
fashions the glands of the body
Chromatin
fibers in the nucleoplasm of the nucleus made up of DNA & histones
Parallel Muscles
fibers parallel to the long axis of muscle; depends on the total number of myofibrils; directly relates to cross section of muscle; ex: biceps brachii
Cell Adhesion Protiens
fibronectin, laminim, and others. Serve mainly as a connective tissue glue that allows connective tissue cells to attach themselves to matrix elements
Perimysium
fibrous connective tissue; surrounds each fasicle (grouped muscle fibers that resemble bundles of sticks)
Ependymal cells functions
filters for CSF
Microvilli
finger like extensions of the plasma membrane
Developmental Aspects of Tissue
first event of embryonic develpoment is the formation of three primary germ layers. (Superficial to deep) ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. These germ layers specialize to form the four primary tissues (epithelium, connective, nervous, and muscle)
Squamous
flat, disclike, nucleus in center, slight bump
Sarco
flesh
increases gastric motility and secretion of lacrimal, salivary, and digestive juices
p
Effort
force applied to a lever
Axial Skeleton
form long axis of body and includes bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. In general these bones are involved in protecting, supporting, or carrying other body parts.
Fribrocartilaginous Callus Forms
formation of granulation tissue or soft callus, capillaries grow into hematoma and phagocytic cels invade area and clean up debris, Osteoblast and and fibroblast begin to reconstruct bone. Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone within 1 week, Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect bone ends; This Mass of repair tissue now called fibrocartilaginous callus spints broken bone
Terminal Cisternae
formed by SR (On portion of t tubule and adjacent terminal cisternae); saclike bulges where it abuts t tubules
Neuromuscular Junction
formed by curling branches of axons; each muscle fiber has only one; Site where motor neuron excites a skeletal muscle fiber; Chemical synapse consisting of points of contact between axon terminals of motor neuron and motor end plate od skeletal muscle fiber
Triads
formed by t tubules that run between the paired teminal cisternae of SR; organelles come into closest contact here; encircle each sarcomere
Basement Membrane
formed together by Basal and Reticular laminae Functions: reinforces the epithelial sheet, helping it to resist stretching, and tearing forces
Bipennate muscle
forms an angle with a tendon; do not move as far as parallel; contains more myofibrils than parallel muscles; develop more tension than parallel muscles; fibers on both sides of tendon; ex: rectus femoris
Unipennate muscle
forms an angle with a tendon; do not move as far as parallel; contains more myofibrils than parallel muscles; develop more tension than parallel muscles; fibers on one side of tendon ex: extensor digitorum muscle
Multipennate muscle
forms an angle with a tendon; do not move as far as parallel; contains more myofibrils than parallel muscles; develop more tension than parallel muscles; tendon branches within the muscle; ex: deltoid
Covering and Lining Epithelium
forms the outer layer of the skin, dips into and lines the open cavities of the cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory systems, and covers the walls and organs of the closed ventral body cavity
Connective Tissue
found everywhere in the body, it is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue type. 3 main elements: ground substance, fibers, and cells. (ground fibers and cells make up the extracellular matrix 4 main types/classes (Connective Tissue Proper, Cartilage, Bone Tissue, Blood) Major Functions: binding and support, protection, insulation, and as blood transportation
Smooth Muscle Tissue
found in the walls of hollow visceral organs, such as the stomach, urinary bladder, and respiratory passages; forces fluids and other substances through internal body channels; elongated "fibers"; not striated; not voluntary
Areolar Connective Tissue
functions: supporting and binding other tissues (the job of the fibers), holding body fluids (ground substances role), defending against infection (via the activity of white blood cells and macrophages), and storing nutrients as fat (in fat cells)
Axial
fundamental division of our body. Makes up the main axis of our body, includes the head, neck, and trunk.
Appendicular
fundamental division of our body. relating to the limbs and their attachments to the axis.
nucleoplasm
gel-like fluid in the middle of the nucleus similar to cytosol
axon functions
generate & transmit action potentials secrete neurotransmittters from the axon terminals
blockage of the scleral venous sinus might result in
glaucoma
a reflex that causes reciprocal activation of the antagonist muscle is the
golgi tendon
contains receptor endings wrapped around thick collagen bundles
golgi tendon organ
Types of signals
graded potentials and action potentials
Histones
granular, threadlike material composed of DNA and histone proteins; blueprints of the cell
Glycosomes
granules of stored glycogen that provide glucose during periods of muscle cell activity
Muscle Tissue
highly cellular, well vascularized tissues that are responsible for most types of body movement. Muscle cells contain mayofilaments, elaborate versions of actin and myosin filaments that bring about movement or contraction in all cell types.
Fibrocartilages
highly compressible and have great tensile strength, consist of chondrocytes and thick collagen fibers. In sites with heavy pressure and strength, such as padlike cartilages of knee and discs between vertebrae
Connective Tissue Sheaths
hold together and wrap around individual muscle fibers; support each cell and reinforce the muscle as a whole
VENTRAL CAVITY:
houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions separated by diaphragm - Thoracic - Abdominopelvic
Isotonic
if the muscle tension developed overcomes the load and muscle shortening occurs; amount of muscle shortening is measured
Unfused or Incomplete Tetanus
if the stimulus strength is held canstant and the muscle is stimulated at an increasingly faster rate, the relaxation time between the twitches become shorter and shorter, the concentration of Ca2+ in the cytosol higher and higher, and the degree of wave sumation greater and greater, progressing to a sustained but quivering contraction
Temporal/Wave Summation
if two identical stimuli (electrical shocks or nerve impulses) are delivered to muscle in rapid succession, the second twitch will be stronger then the first; temoral or wave summation is this second twitch; this occurs because second contraction occurs before the muscle has completely relaxed; primary function is to produce smooth continous muscle cells
Synarthroses
immovable joints (ex: fibrous joints)
serves the tongue muscles
hypoglossal
control of temperature autonomic nervous sysytem reflexes hunger and water balance
hypothalamus
Isometric
if muscle tension develops but the load is not moved; increasing muscle tension is measured
otoliths (ear stones) are
important in equilibrium
Trabeculae
in spongy bone, align along lines of stress, no osteons, Contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi, Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients
gray matter
in the CNS, mostly soma and unmyelinated fibers 'slower' than white matter
white matter
in the PNS, dense collections of myelinated fibers 'faster' than gray matter
Interphase
in which the sell grows and carries on its usual activities; divided into, G1, S, G2 (type of phase)
Organic Components
include cells (osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts) and osteoid (organic part of the matrix)
Skin Appendages
include nails, sweat glands, sebacous (oil) glands, and hair follicles and hair.
Osteomalacia
includes a number of disorders in which the bones are inadequatly mineralized. Osteoid is produced, but calcium salts are not deposited, so bones soften and weaken. caused by insufficient calcium in diet and by vitamin D deficiancy.
Interstitial Lamellae
incomplete lamellae that lie between intact osteons, either fill gaps between forming osteons or are remnants of osteons that have been cut through by bone remodeling
Hyperplasia
increase in the number of cells within a tissue
Angular Movements
increase or decrease the angle between two bones (flexion, extesnion, abduction, aduction, circumduction)
Velocity and Duration of Contraction
influenced by muscle fiber type, load, and recriutment
intramural ganglia
p
all of the following characterize the ANS except
innervation of skeletal muscles
Membrane receptors
integral proteins and glycoproteins that act as binding sites on the cell surface, role in cell-to-cell recognition, involved in chemical signaling (1 of the 2 families that make up the glycocalyx)
Central Nervous System
integrates and coordinates incoming and outgoing neural signals and carries our higher learning functions (thinking and learning)
pitch is to frequency of sound as loudness is to
intensity
Spongy Bone
internal to compact bone, a honeycomb of small needle-like or flat pieces called trabeculae
you feel uncomfortable after a large meal
interoceptor, mechanoreceptor
Synergists
involve most movement; help prime movers by adding a little extra force to the same movement or reducing undesirable or unnecessary movements that might occur as the prime mover contracts
Interstitial Growth
length of long bones
G₂ (gap 2)
is brief; the enzymes needed for cell division are synthesized (type of interphase)
Outermost Cuticle
is formed from a single layer of cells that overlap one another from below the shingles on a roof. Provides strength and helps keep inner layers tightly compacted
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY:
is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the diaphragm - It is composed of two subdivisions - Abdominal cavity - contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs - Pelvic cavity - lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
THORACIC CAVITY:
is subdivided into two pleural cavities, the mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity - Pleural cavities - each houses a lung - Mediastinum - contains the pericardial cavity; surrounds the remaining thoracic organs - Pericardial cavity - encloses the heart
Cutaneous Membrane
is your skin. Organ system consisting of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) firmly attached to a thick layer of dense irregular connective tissue (dermis). Dry membrane
Passive means...
it doesn't require energy
Active means...
it requires energy
Cells of the Epidermis
keratinocytes, melanocytes, epidermal dendritic cells, and tactile cells
Contractures
lack in ATP; states of continuous contraction because the cross bridges are unable to detach
which sequences best describes a normal route for the flow of tears from the eyes into the nasal cavity?
lacrimal canaliculi, nasolacrimal ducts, nasal cavity
Magnus
large
Major
larger
Maximus
largest
Mitochondria
largest of the organelles, powerhouse of the cell enclosed by 2 membranes
Nucleus
largest organelle in the cell, the "brain," maintains hereditary information, control cellular activities through protein synthesis
Simple Columner Epithelium
layer may contain mucous-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells) Function: absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action Location: Nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder, etc
Basal Cell Carcinoma
least malignant, most common, Stratum basale cells proliferate and slowly invade dermis and hypodermis, Cured by surgical excision in 99% of cases
Origin
less movable bone; typically lies proximal to the insertion
Mechanical Advantage
lever system when the load is close to the fulcrum and effort is applied far from the fulcrum, a small effort exerted over a relatively large distance can be used to move a large load over a small distance (power levers)
Mechanical Disadvantage
lever system when the load is far from the fulcrum and the effort is applied near the fulcrum, the force exerted by the muscle must be greater than the load to be moved or supported (speed levers)
Elevation
lifitng a body part superiorly
Dorsiflexion
lifting the foot so that its superior surface approaches the skin
I Bands
light and perfectly aligned lines in muscle fiber
Extended chromatin
light regions containing fine uncoiled strands of DNA
H Zone
lighter region in each dark A Bands midsection; each is bisected vertically by dark line called M Line
Columner
like a column, long linear cell, nucleus near the basal, never at top
Sarcolemma
like plasma membrane polarized; their is a potential voltage difference across the membrane and the inside is negative relative to the outer membrane face
Mucous Membranes
line body cavities that open to the exterior, such as those of the hollw organs of the digestive, respiratory and urogenital tracts. Wet or moist membranes.
Parietal Serosa
lines internal body walls
Circumferential Lamellae
located deep to periosteum and superficial to endosteum and extend around entire circumference of the diaphysis and resist twisting of long bone
Longus
long
Teres
long and round
Axons
long threadlike extensions of motor neurons, which travel bundled within nerves , to muscle cells they serve; ends are called axon terminals
Microtubules
long, hollow tubes that grow out from the cell center near the nucleus, act as railroad tracks for organelle travel
Elastic Fibers
long, thin fibers that form branching networks in the extracellular matrix. Contain rubber like protien, elastin, that allows them to stretch and recoil like rubberbands. ex: skin, lungs, blood vessels
Long Bones
longer then they are wide, has a shaft plus 2 ends [All limb bones except the patella (kneecap) and the wrist and ankle bones are long bones]
Longissimus
longest
anterior thigh muscles
lumbar, femoral
medial thigh muscles
lumbar, obturator
which lies closest to the exact posterior pole of the eye
macula lutea
static equilibrium receptors that report the position of the head in space relative to the pull of gravity are
maculae
Lactic Acid
made if their is no oxygen present or work is more then you can breathe; pyruvic acid is transformed to lactic acid; made either way by glucose or glycogen; liver can use or send back to be formed to pyruvic
Melanin
made in the skin. A polymer made of tryosine amino acids. Range in colors from yellow to tan to reddish-brown to black. Its synthesis depends on an enzyme in melanocytes called tyrosinase and it passes from malanocytes to the basal keratinocytes.
Skeletal Cartilage
made of variety of cartilage tissue, which consists primarily of water. Contains no blood vessels and is surrounded by a layer of dense irregular connective tissue, perichondrium. Contains all 3 types of cartilage: Hyaline, Elastic, and Fibrocartilage
Phospholipids
made up of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
Keratinocytes
main role is to produce keratin, the fibrous protein that helps give the epidermis its protective properties
Osteocytes
maintain the bone matrix, also act as stress or strain sensors in cases of bone deformation.
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
major role is ti regulate intercellular levels of ionic calcium; an elaborate smooth endoplasmic reticulum; interconnecting tubules surround each myofibril; most tubules run longitudially along the myofibril communicating at H Zone; mitochondrai and glycogen granules are closely associated with SR and both involved in producing energy used during contraction
Osteoid
makes up 1/3 of matrix, includes ground substances (composed of proteoglycans and glycoprotiens) and collagen (provide tensile strength and flexibility) fibers, secreted by osteoblasts
Dermis
makes up the bulk of the skin, is a tough leathery layer composed mostly of fibrous connective tissue. Only the dermis is vascularized
which of the following tracts convey vibration and other specific sensations that can be precisely localized
medial lemniscus
houses vital centers for control of the heart, respiration and blood pressure
medulla
region where there is a gross crossover of fibers of descending pyramidal tracts
medulla
discriminitive touch receptor in hairless skin (fingertips)
meissners corpuscle
Action Potential Threshold
membrane is depolarized membrane potential goes from resting state -70mV to -55mV
Organelles
membrane-bound structures within the cytoplasm that possess specialized cellular functions
Peroxisomes
membranous sacs containing enzymes found throughout the cell that use oxygen to detoxify harmful substances, reproduced by pinching in half
Anearobic Pathway (Glycolosis)
metabolic pathway without oxygen; produced 4 ATP; 10 step process; every step is a chemical reaction and changes everytime (10 times); 1st 5 steps are known as energy investment phase (they require energy) [2 ATPS to produce these 5 steps]; 2nd Stages known as Reinvestment stage; makes only 2 ATPs; this process occurs in cytoplasm of cell; 2 energy sources glucose and glycogen; makes 2 or 3 ATP + 2 Pyruvic acids
houses the substantia nigra and cerebral aquaduct
midbrain
Hydroxyapatites
mineral salts, 65% of bone by mass, Mainly calcium phosphate crystals, Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression
Artifacts
minor distortions that altered tissues contain
Microfilaments
minute fibers located throughout the cytoplasm of cells, composed of actin and functioning primarily in maintaining the structural integrity of a cell
Cells
mitotically active and secretory cells = blast (imature) [create more cells for that particular tissue]. Mature cells = cytes ( In all 4 types of connective tissue) Fibroblasts in connective tissue proper Chondroblasts and Chondrocytes in cartilage Osteoblasts and Osteocytes in bone (osteo means bone) Hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow Fat cells, white blood cells, mast cells and macrophages
cells in the olfactory bulb that act as local "integrators" of olfactory inputs are the
mitral cells
most active when you are swinging in a hammock
p
Astrocytes
most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells cling to one or more neurons and their synaptic endings, and cover capillaries
Ribosome
most common organelle composed of 2 globular subunits, primary function is protein synthesis
Melanoma
most dangerous, Involves melanocytes , Highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy, Treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by immunotherapy Characteristics (ABCD rule) A: Asymmetry; the two sides of the pigmented area do not match B: Border exhibits indentations C: Color is black, brown, tan, and sometimes red or blue D: Diameter is larger than 6 mm (size of a pencil eraser)
Growth Hormone
most important stimulus of epiphyseal plate activity released by the anterior pituitary gland
Clia
motile "hairs" occurring in large numbers that create waves of motion that propel fluid, mucus, & debris across the cellular surface
Flagella
motile "hairs" occurring singly that propel the cell forward by undulating-move cells through fluid
otic and ciliary ganglia
p
Graded Muscle Responses
muscle contraction can be graded in two ways: (1) by changing the frequency of stimulation and (2) by changing the strength of stimulation
Isotonic Contractions
muscle length changes and moves the load, the tension remains relatively constant through the rest of the contractile period; come in two flavors concentric and eccentric
contains intrafusal fibers and type Ia and II sensory endings
muscle spindle
Prime Mover
muscle that has the major responsibility for producing a specific movement
Internus
muscle that is deep
Externus
muscle that is visible at the body surface
Sarcolemma
muscles fibers plasma membrane
Origins
muscles have one fixed point of attachment called...
Insertions
muscles have one moving point of attachment called...
Intrinsic
muscles inside an organ
Extrinsic
muscles outside an organ
Applied force
muscles provide this to overcome resistance
Antagonists
muscles that oppose or reverse a particular movement; help to regulate action of prime mover by contracting slightly to provide some resistance
To maintain homeostasis the cell...
must decide the nature & concentration of substances to be lit in & to be let out of the cell
nearsightedness is more properly called
myopia
Somatic Motor Neurons
nerve cells that activate skeletal muscle fibers; reside in the brain of spinal cord
Nutrient Foramina
nerve fibers, lymphatic vessels, and blood vessels from periosteum enter the diaphysis from this opening
PNS neuron processes
nerves
preganglionic neurons develop from
neural tube cells
Erector Spinae
not just one muscle, but a bundle of muscles and tendons. It is paired and runs more or less vertically. It extends throughout the lumbar, thoracic and cervical regions, and lies in the groove to the side of the vertebral column.
Varicosities
numerous bulbous swellings in smooth muscle; release neurotransmitter into a wide synaptic cleft in the general area of the smooth muscle cells. Such junctions are called diffuse junctions
Lacunae
occupied by spider-shaped osteocytes at junctions of the lamelle
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
occurs only in the heart, where it constitutes the bulk of the heart walls; striated; not voluntary
causes pupillary constriction
oculomotor
Hypertrophic
older chondrocytes in stack that are closer to diaphysis, and lacunae enlarge
are purely sensory (2 nerves)
olfactory, optic
contralateral
on or relating to the opposite side (of the body)
the large onion-shaped receptors that are founnd deep in the dermis and in subcutaneous tissue and that respond to deep pressure are
pacinian corpuscles
Inclusions
packaged units of metabolic products or substances the cell has engulfed
myofibrils
one of the slender threads of a muscle fiber, composed of numerous myofilaments.
Nucleoli
one or more dark-staining patches contained in the nuclei
voltage-gated channels
open and close in response to membrane potential
mechanically gated channels
open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors
chemically gated channels
open with binding of a specific neurotransmitter
Antagonist
opposes movement of a particular agonist
Adduction
opposite of abduction, movement of a limb toward the body midline, or midline of hand or foot.
Joints
or articulations, are sites where 2 or more bones meet, weakest part of the skeleton, classified by structure and function. Less movable joints are more stable
Chemical Composition of Bone
organic and inorganic components; matrix, proper combination allows bones to be durable and strong without being brittle
Terminal Cisternae
other tubules that form larger, perpendicular cross channels at the A band - I band junction and they always occur in pairs
cortex
outer surface layer of an organ
craniosacral outflow
p
Lever Systems
partnerships between the muscular and skeletal systems
olfactory nerve filaments are found
passing through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone
Types of plasma membrane ion channels
passive or leakage channels chemically gated channels voltage-gated channels mechanically gated channels
the connective tissue sheath that surrounds a fascicle of nerve fibers is the
perineurium
Tarsal
pertaining to the ankle
Abdominal
pertaining to the anterior body trunk region inferior to the ribs
Patellar
pertaining to the anterior knee (kneecap) region
Antecubital
pertaining to the anterior surface of the elbow
Lumbar
pertaining to the area of the back between the ribs and hips; the loin
Vertebral
pertaining to the area of the spinal column
Brachial
pertaining to the arm
Axillary
pertaining to the armpit
Dorsum
pertaining to the back
Popliteal
pertaining to the back of the knee
Mammary
pertaining to the breast
Gluteal
pertaining to the buttocks or rump
Sural
pertaining to the calf or posterior surface of the leg
Buccal
pertaining to the cheek
Thoracic
pertaining to the chest
Mental
pertaining to the chin
Otic
pertaining to the ear
Orbital
pertaining to the eye socket (orbit)
Digital
pertaining to the fingers or toes
Pedal
pertaining to the foot
Antebrachial
pertaining to the forearm
Frontal
pertaining to the forehead
Pubic
pertaining to the genital region
the innermost layer of the meninges, delicate and closely apposed to the brain tissue is the
pia matter
Tropomyosin
polypeptide strands; a rod-shaped protien, spiral about the actin core and help stiffen and stabalize it; arrranged end to end along the actin filaments and in relaxed muscle fibe
Axial muscles
position head and spinal column; move rib cage; 60% of skeletal muscles
Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)
potential difference (-70 mV) across the membrane of a resting neuron
Caveolae
pouchlike infoldings that sequester bits of extracellular fluid containing a high concentration of Ca2+ close to the membrane; when calcium channels open here Ca2+ influx occurs rapidly
mitochondria
powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of atp (energy) production
the white rami communicates contain what kind of fibers>
preganglionic sympathetic
Fixed
preserved
atmospheric pressure
pressure exerted on your body by atmospheric gases, equal to 760 mm Hg at sea level, decreases as elevation increases
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
primarily involved in hormonal control; released when blood levels of ionic calcium decline, increased PTH stimulates osteoclasts to reabsorb bone, releasing calcium to blood. Osteoclast break down old and new matrix. As blood concentration of blood rises the stimulus for PTH release end.
Classification of Muscles
prime mover, antagonists, synergists, and fixators
Agonist
prime mover; produces a particular movement
Testosterone and Estrogen
promote adolescent growth spurts, end growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure
DORSAL CAVITY:
protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions: - Cranial cavity - within the skull; encases the brain - Vertebral cavity - runs within the vertebral column; encases the spinal cord
Proteoglycans
protein core and large polyssacharides (chrondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid). Trap water in varying amounts, affecting the viscosity of the ground substance
Fibers
provide support of connective tissue. 3 types: Collagen (white fibers), Elastic, Reticular
Hyaline Cartilage
provide support with flexibility and resilience. Are the most abundant of skeletal cartilages. Include: (1) articular cartilages: cover ends of most bones at movable joints, (2) costal cartilages: connect ribs to sternum (breastbone), (3) respiratory cartilages: form skeleton of larynx (voicebox), (4) nasal cartilages: support external nose
which sequence of reactions occurs when a person looks at a distant object?
pupils dilate, ciliary zonule becomes taut, lenses become less convex
axon collaterals
rare branching from the axon
Cross Bridge Cycle: Step 4
reactivation of myosin head: ATP hydrolized to ADP and inorganic phospahte; Energy released during hydrolizes reactivates myosin head returning it to cocked postion
Osteoporosis
refers to a group of diseases in which bone resorption outpaces bone deposit. The bones become so fragile that something like sneezing or stepping off curve can cause a break. Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture; Risk factors; Lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form; immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus
Contraction
refers to activiation of myosin's cross bridges, which are force generating sites; Shortening occurs when tension generated by cross bridges on the thin filaments exceeds forces opposing shortening
Primary Ossification Center
region of formation of long bone begins in center of hyaline cartilage shaft
5. Reinforcing Ligaments
reinforce and strengthen synovial joints. Most often they are capsular, or intristic, ligaments [thickened part of fibrous capsule], Extracapsular (outside capsule) or Intracapsular (deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane)
appendicular
relating to the limbs; one of the two major divisions of the body
Muscle Tone
relaxed muscles that are almost slightly contracted; its due to spinal reflexes that activate first one group of motor units then another in response to activation of stretch receptors in muscles
Secretion
removal of useful products
Excretion
removal of waste products
Excretion
removal of waste products from a cell
(Synovial) Saddle Joints
resemble condyloid joints, but they allow greater freedom of movement. Each articular surface has both concave and convex areas.
Second class lever
resistance between applied force and fulcrum; small force moves a large weight; uncommon in the body; all these levers work at a mechanical advantage; wheelbarrow is an example
Load
resistance moved by the effort
Muscle Twitch
response of a motor neuron to a single action potential of its motor neuron
Intremembranous Ossification
results in formation of cranial bones of the skull and the clavicles, flat bones mostly formed by this process, begins on fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by mesenchymal cells. 4 Steps
when the sleeper is easily awakened EEG shows alpha waves
stage 1
Extension
reverse of flexion and occurs at the same joints, invloves movement along the sagittal plane that increases angle between articulating bones, typically straight [Hyperextension - excessive extension beyond anatomical position]
Myofibrils
rodlike and run parallel to length of muscle fibers; 1-2 um in daimeter; densely packed in muscle fiber that mitochondria and other organelles appear to be squeezed between them
the phenomenon of dark adaptation is best explained by the fact that
rods exposed to intense light need time to generate rhodopsin
Myo or Mys
root words meaning "muscle"
Subscapularis
rotates the head of the humerus medially (internal rotation); when the arm is raised, it draws the humerus forward and downward.
Short Bones
roughly cube-shaped (bones of wrsit and ankle are examples)
rapidly adapting deep pressure receptor
ruffini endings
Central Canal/ Haversian Canal
runs through the core of each osteon and contain small blood vessels and nerve fibers that serve need of the osteons cells
active when you are running in the boston marathon
s
cervical ganglia
s
increases heart rate and blood pressure
s
innervates blood vessels
s
short preganglionic, long postganglionic fibers
s
fibularis muscles, tibialis anterior,and toe extensors
sacral, common fibular
muscles of the posterior leg
sacral, tibial
Multiple Sclerosis
scar tissue in myelin sheath causes too long of a jump resulting in muscle control spreads to diaghram & causes respiratory failure
Nuclear envelope/membrane
separates nucleus from cytosol, composed of 2 bilipid layers, covered with nuclear pores through which substances are able to move into and out of the nucleus
Abdominopelvic Cavity
seperated from thoracic cavity by the diaphram, a dome shaped muscle important in breathing. Has abdominal and pelvic cavities
Cleavage/ Tension Lines
seperations, or less dense regions. Invisible lines that run longitudinally in the skin of the head and limbs. Collagen fibers arranged in bundles form cleavage (tension) lines, Incisions made parallel to cleavage lines heal more readily
Cell life cycle
series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until it reproduces itself (type of cycle)
Motor Nerve
served each muscle; each motor nerve contains axons of up to hundreds of motor neurons
Startum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)
several cell layers thick, Cells contain a weblike system of intermediate prekeratin filaments attached to desmosomes, Abundant melanin granules and dendritic cells, the keratinocytes appear to have spines
Diaphysis
shaft of bone, forms long axis of bone, constructed of thick compact bone that surrounds meduallar cavity (contains fat/ yellow marrow)
fossa (ex medial cranial fossa)
shallow basinlike depression in a bone, often serving as an articular surface.
Factors influencing Stability of Synovial Joints
shapes of the articular sirface, the number and positioning of ligaments, and muscle tone
Reticular Fibers
short, fine, collagenous fibers with a slightly different chemistry and form. They are continous with collagen fibers and are higly branched forming delicate vessles. Abundant where connective tissue abuts other tissue types. Has ability to catch water. ex: basement membrane of epithelial tissues, and ground capillaries, high degree in plasma
Adipose (fat) Tissue
similar to Areolar Connective Tissue in structure and function, but nutrient storing ability is much greater. 90% of fat cells accounts for tissues mass.
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
simple branched alveolar glands that are found all over the body except in the thick skin of palms and soles. Small on body trunk and limbs but large on face neck and upper chest. Secrete oily substance called sebum. Most develop from hair follicles, Become active at puberty
Endothelium
simple squamous epithelia in body which reflects its location. Provides a slick, friction - reducing lining in lymphatic vessels and in hollow organs of the cardiovascular system
Gliding Movements
simplest joint movements, occurs when one flat, or nearly flat, bone surface glides or slips over another (Intercarpal joints Intertarsal joints Between articular processes of vertebrae)
Simple Squamous Epithelium
simplest of epithelia Function: allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration, in sites where protections is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosae Location: Kidney glomeruli; air sacs of lungs; lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels; lining of ventral body cavity
Muscle Fibers
skeletal and smooth muscles; are elongated; diameter ranges from 10 to 100 um (10 times that of an avergage body cell); multiple nuclei
Types of Muscle Tissue
skeletal, cardiac, smooth; each served by one nerve, an artery, and one or more veins
Axons
slender processes that arise from hillock one unbranched per neuron
Sections
slices
Amphiartroses
slightly movable joints, mostly in axial skeleton
4. Synovial Fluid
slippery fluid which occupies all free spaces within the joint capsule. Lubricates joint surfaces and nurishes articular cartilage.
Nonaxial Movement
slipping movements only
Classification of Skeletal Muscle Cells
slow oxidative fibers, fast oxidative fibers, and fast glycolytic fibers
Minor
small
Synaptic Vesicles
small membranous sacs containing the neurotransmitter acetylocholine (ACh); inside the axon terminal
Centrioles
small, hollow cylinders composed of microtubules, organize spindle fibers during cell division
Microglia
small, ovoid cells with spiny processes
Synergist
smaller muscle that assists a larger agonist; helps start motion or stabilize origin of agonist
Myofilaments
smaller structure within sacromeres; the muscle equivalents of the actin or myosin containing microfilaments
Minimus
smallest
the stage when blood pressure and heart rate reach their lowest levels
stage 4
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
smallest to largest: myofilaments (actin and myosin) bundled to make myofibrils -> bundles of myofibrils wrapped in sarcolemma and wrapped in endomysium make up muscle fibers -> bundles of muscle fibers wrapped in perimysium make up fascicles -> bundles of fascicles wrapped in epimysium make up skeletal muscles (organs).
olfactory tract damage would probably affect your ability to
smell
Compact Bone
smooth and solid outer layer of every bone
which of the following are intrinsic eye muscles
smooth muscles of the iris and ciliary body
Action Potential: Repolarization Phase
sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+ gates open K+ exits the cell and cell becomes more negative, as usual
Eversion
sole of the foot faces laterally
Inversion
sole of the foot turns medially
Synaptic Cleft
space between axon terminal and muscle fiber, which is filled with a gel like extracellular substance rich in glycoprotiens and collagen fibers
Integral Protein
spans the entire membrane of a cell, sections of protein protrude through the cell wall inside or outside the cell, or in both directions, the protein molecule cannot function if it is not embedded within the membrane
the aspect of sensory perception by which the cerebral cortex identifies the site or pattern of stimulation is
spatial discrimination
motor end plate
specialized area of sarcolemma of the muscle fiber which contains receptor sites for neurotransmitters
glycosomes
specialized vasicules that store glycogen to provide glucose during periods of muscle cell activity.
Lysosomes
specialized vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus, contains powerful hydrolytic enzymes enclosed in a membrane, which fuses with vacuoles & digests them
Fixators
specific process when synergists immobilize a bone, or a muscle's origin so that the prime mover has a stable base on which to act on
2 Major Muscle Type Characteristics
speed of contraction: there are slow and fast fibers; difference in speed reflects how fast their myosin ATPases split ATP, and on the pattern of electrical activity of their motor neurons the major pathways for forming ATP: oxidative fibers rely mostly on the oxygen using aerobic pathways for ATP gerneration; glycolytic fibers rely more on anaerobic glycolisis
Golgi apparatus
stacks of flattened, cresent-shaped tubes, acts as a modification, packaging, & distribution center for molecules
basal nuclei involved in fine control of motor activities
striatum
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
structually more complex, and have two basic parts: an epitheliumderived duct and a sensory unit (acinus) consisting of secretory cells Classification: Duct Type (Simple : unbranched duct; Compound: branched ducts) and structure of their secretory units (tubular: secretory cells form tubes) (alveolar: secretory cells form small flasklike sacs) (tubuloalveolar: if they have both types of secretory units) Modes of Secretion: Merocrine (products are secreted by exocytosis)[ex: pancreas, sweat, and salivary galnds] and Holocrine (Products are secreted by rupture of gland cells)[ex: sebaceous glands]
Dystrophin
structural protien; links thin filaments to integral protiens of the sarcolemma
gustatory cells are stimulated by
substances in solution
Aerobic Exercise
such as swimming, jogging, fast walk, and biking; Leads to increased Muscle capillaries, Number of mitochondria, Myoglobin synthesis; Results in greater endurance, strength, and resistance to fatigue; May convert fast glycolytic fibers into fast oxidative fibers
the accesory glands that produce an oily secretion are the
tarsal glands
a professor unexpectedly blew a loud horn in his anatomy class the students looked up startled the reflexive movements of their eyes were mediated by the
superior colliculi
Innervated
supplied by nerve fibers
Appendicular muscles
support pectoral and pelvic girdle; support limbs; 40% of skeletal muscles
Neuroglia
supporting cells of the nervous system also called neuralgia or glial cells
Calcification
surrounding cartilage matrix calcifies and chondrocytes die
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) divisions
sympathetic and parasympathetic
proprioceptors include all of the following except
tactile discs
Epiphyses
the bone ends, exterior is made of compact bone and their interior contains spongy bone. Joint surface of each epiphysis is covered with thin layer of articular (hyaline) cartilage [cushions opposing bone ends during joint movement and absorbs stress]
Contractility
the capability of shortening in one direction (muscle cell)
Plasma membrane
the cell membrane that is made up of a phospholipid bilayer, it controls movement of molecules into and out of the cell
(Synovial) Hinge Joints
the cylindrical end of one bone conforms to a tough-shaped surface on another, motion is along a single plane and reselbles that of a mehanical hinge
Facilitated diffusion
the diffusion of certain large molecules & non-lipid soluble molecules that requires the assistance of integral proteins to cross the cellular membrane
Third-Class Levers
the effort is applied between the load and the fulcrum (ex: tweezers or forceps) [most skeletal muscles of body act in this lever system]
Direct/ Fleshy Attachments
the epimysium of the muscle is fused to the periosteum of a bone or perichondrium of a cartilage
Mesothelium
the epithelium found in serous membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs
Secretion
the export of useful products manufactured by the cell (hormones, proteins, etc.)
Oxygen Deficit
the extra amount of oxygen that the body must take in for these restorative processes
Hypertonic
the extracellular fluid is more concentrated than the intracellular fluid
Pennate Fascicular Pattern
the fascicles are short and they attach obliquely to a central tendon that runs the length of the muscle
Prophase
the first and longest stage of mitosis; early prohase - the mitotic spindle forms and later prophase - centrioles continue to move away from each other (type of phase)
Latent Period
the first few milliseconds following stimulation when excitation-contraction coupling is occuring; during this period, muscle tension is beggining to increase
G₁ (gap 1)
the first part of interphase, cells are metabolically active, make proteins rapidly, and grow vigorously (type of interphase)
The plasma membrane regulates...
the flow of fluid and nutrients into & out of the cell
Muscle Tension
the force exerted by a containing muscle on an object
Hydrostatic pressure
the force that pushes liquid in filtration
Which organ is responsible for generating hydrostatic pressure in the blood vessels?
the heart
Chromosomes
the highest level of chromatin organization; each contain a single, very long molecule of DNA
Depolarization
the inside of the membrane becomes less negative
Hyperpolarization
the inside of the membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential
Hypotonic
the intracellular fluid is more concentrated than the extracellular fluid
One of the best examples of filtration in the animal body is...
the kidneys
axon diameter
the larger the diameter, the faster the impulse
Knee Joint
the largest and most complex joint in the body, conisists of three joints
Aerobic Endurance
the length of time a muscle can continue to contract using aerobic pathways
Parallel Fascicular Pattern
the long axes of the fascicles run parallel to the long axis of the muscle; straplike, or spindle shaped with expanded belly (fusiform muscles)
Nervous Tissue
the main component of the nervous system - the brain, spinal cord, and nerves - which regulates and controls body functions Description: Neurons are branching cells; cell processes that may be quite long extend from the nucleus-containing cell body; also contributing to nervous tissue are nonirritable supporting cells (not illustrated) Function: transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscled and glands) which control their activity Location: brain, spinal cord, and nerves
Repolarization
the membrane returns to its resting membrane potential
which of the following statements does not correctly describe the spiral organ (of corti)
the more numerous outer hair cells are largely responsible for our perception of sound
Diffusion
the movement of a molecule from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
Osmosis
the movement of water through a membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration
Eccentric Contractions
the muscle generates force as it lengthens; are important for coordination and purposeful movements; occur in calf muscle for example; 50% more forceful then concentric
Indirect Attachments
the muscles connective tissue wrapping extend beyond the muscle either as a ropelike tendon or a a sheet like aponeurosis; much more common
Motor Unit
the nerve-muscle functional unit; consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it supplies; small motor units (more precise movement) [ex: fingers], larger motor units (less precise movement) [ex: hip muscles, bone]
Load
the opposing force exerted on the muscle by the weight of the object to be moved
Hemoglobin
the pinkish hue of fair skin, its is oxygenated in the blood cells circulating through dermal capillaries.
Anaerobic Threshold
the point at which muscle metabolism converts to anaerobic glycolysis
Neuromuscular junction
the point of contact between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle cell
Cross Bridge Cycle: Step 2
the power stroke: ADP released and activated myosin head pivotes; Slides thin myofilament toward center of sarcomere
Pinocytosis
the process of a cell engulfing liquid
Phagocytosis
the process of a cell engulfing solid material
Absorption
the process of taking dissolved materials into the cell
(Synovial) Pivot Joints
the rounded end of one bone conforms to a "sleeve" or ring composed of bone (and possibly ligaments) of another, only movement allowed is uniaxial rotation of one bone around its own long axis
Isotonic
the same concentration of fluids intracellular and extracellular
Dermis (b)
the second major skin region, is strong flexible connective tissue. Its cells are fibroblast, macrophages and occasional mast cells. Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. Has two layers, papillary and reticular layers
Integumentary System
the skin, complex set of organs that protects body
Sacromere
the smallest contractile unit of a muscle fiber - the functional unit of skeletal muscle; average 2um long; the region of a myofibril between 2 successive Z discs
level of structural organization: cellular
the smallest unit of life, and varies widely in size and shape according to the cells' function.
sarcoplasmic reticulum
the smooth ER of a muscle cell, enlarged and specialized to act as a ca2+ reservoir. the SR winds around each myofibril in the muscle cell like a lacy shirt sleeve and releases calcium into sarcoplasm after nervous stimulation.
Concentration gradient
the spectrum between the most concentrated area & the least concentrated area
(Synovial) Ball-and-Socket Joints
the spherical or hemispherical head of one bone articulates with the cuplike socket of another. These joints are multiaxial and the most freely moviing synovial joints.
Melanocytes
the spider-shaped epithelial cells that synthesize the pigment melanin, are found in the deepest layer of the epidermis. As melanin is made it is accumulated in membrane bound granules called melanosomes, that are moved along actin filaments by motor proteins to the ends of melanocytes processes. from there taken up by keratinocytes. Accumulate in superficial side of keratinocyte nucleus. (All humans have same number of melanocytes)
Muscle Fatigue
the state of physiological inability to contract even though the muscle still may be receiving stimuli; due to a problem in excitation-contraction coupling or, in rare cases, problems at the neuromuscular junction
Threshold Stimulus
the stimulus at which the first observable contraction occurs
Maximal Stimulus
the strongest stimulus that produces increased contractile force; represent the point at which all the muscles motor units are recruited
Osteon/ Haversian System
the structural unit of compact bone that is riddled with passageways that serve as conduits for nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. Each osteon is an elongated cylinder oriented parallel to long axis of bone
Hypodermis (Superficial Fascia)
the subcutaneous tissue deep to the skin. It is not part of the skin, but it shares some of the skins protective functions. It is superficial to the tough connective tissue wrapping (fascia) of the skeletal muscles, consists mostly of adipose tissue. Functions: Anchors the skin to the underlying structures (mostly muscle), acts as a shock absorber
Cytokinesis
the term for the division of the entire cell into two cells
Transcription
the term where DNA's genetic code is copied onto messenger RNA molecules
level of structural organization: organism
the total of all structures working together to promote life.
Ground Substance
the unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fibers. Medium through which solutes diffuse between blood capillaries and cells. Composed of interstitial (tissue) fluid, cell adhesion protiens, and proteoglycans.
Metabolism
the utilization of nutrients by the cell
Serosa (Serous Membrane)
the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered by this thin double layered membrane
all of the following descriptions refer to dorsal column-medial lemniscal ascending pathways except one
their connections are diffuse and polymodal
Proliferation (growth)
these cells divide quickly, pushing the epiphyisis away from the diaphysis, causing entire bone to lengthen
Layers of the Epidermis (a)
thick skin which covers the palms, fingertips, and soles of feet; Epidermis consists of 5 layers , or strata (bed sheets); deep to superficial: Stratum Basale, Stratum Spinosum, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum Lucidum, and Stratum Corneum.
Appositional Growth
thickness and remodeling of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces
endomysium
thin connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber
Stratum Granuosum (Granular Layer)
thin layer that consists of 3 to 5 layers in which kerainocyte appearance changes drastically and the process of keratinization (in which the cells fill with the protein keratin) begins. Keratohyaline (help to form keratin in upper layers) and lamellated granules (contain a water resistent glycolipid that is spewed into the extracellular space and is a major factor in slowing water loss across epidermis) accumulate
Papillary Layer
thin superficial layer is aerolar connective tissue, with fine interlaced mat of loosely woven collegen and elastic fibers. Has superior surface callled dermal papillae.
Flat Bones
thin, flattened and usually a bit curved (sternum, scapulae, ribs, and most skull bones are flat bones)
Synovial Joints
those in which the articulating bones are seperated by a fluid-containing joint cavity. All are diarthrotic, Include all limb joints; most joints of the body. 6 distinguishing features
Concentric Contractions
those in which the muscle shortens and does work, such as picking up a book or kicking a ball;
Skin Color
three pigments contribute to skin color: melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin
Protection
three types of barriers: chemical (Low pH secretions (acid mantle) and defensins retard bacterial activity), physical/mechanical (Keratin and glycolipids block most water and water- soluble substances Limited penetration of skin by lipid-soluble substances, plant oleoresins (e.g., poison ivy), organic solvents, salts of heavy metals, some drugs), Biological (Dendritic cells, macrophages, and DNA)
Hematoma Forms
torn blood vessels tear and hemorrhage, blood, clots called hematoma form, and sites become swollen painful, and inflamed
Red Marrow Cavities
trabecular cavities of spongy bone of long bones and diploe of flat bones
CNS neuron processes
tracts
Excitation-Contraction Coupling (2)
traveling down of action potential causes t tubule voltage sensitive protein to change shape; opens a calcium release channel in SR allowing calcium ions to flee sarcplasm; this rapid influx of calcium triggers contraction of muscle fibers
Reduction
treatment for bone fracture involving realignment of the broken bone ends
allows you to chew your food
trigeminal
is the major sensory nerve of the face
trigeminal
Junctional Folds
trough like part of muscle fibers sarcolemma; provide a large surface area for millions of ACh receptors located here
Supination
turning backward, rotating forearm laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly or superiorly
Pronation
turning forward, forearm rotates medially and the palm faces posteriorly or interiorly
Rotation
turning of a bone around its own long axis. Medial and lateral rotation (Between C1 and C2 vertebrae Rotation of humerus and femur)
Ligaments
unite the bones and prevent excessive or undesirable motion (more ligaments joint have the stronger)
Gray Matter
unmyelinated axons, cell bodies, and dendrites; found in horns and commissures of spinal cord; surrounds ventricles, in cortex, in nuclei of brain
Blood Reservoir
up to 5% of body's blood volume
Regional Terms
used to designate specific areas within major body divisions
Glycogen Anearobic Pathway
used when their is not enought glucose; stored fat; Yields 3 ATPs because it has allready been partially hydrated; also yields 2 pyruvic acids
Openings
usually serve to allow passage of nerves and blood vessles
helps to regulate heart activity
vagus
helps you to hear and to maintain your balance
vestibulocochlear
destruction of the ventral horn cells of the spinal cord results in loss of
voluntary motor impulses
When hydroxyl & hydrogen ions unite...
water is formed
Propagation of an Action Potential
wave of impulse moving down the axon to the axon terminals
What is complementarity?
what a structure can do is directly reflective of its form. (EX. blood flows in one direction in veins and arteries due to valves being present within them to prevent back flow)
sacrum
what bone is this (anterior)?
sacrum
what bone is this (posterior)?
ala or alae of the sacrum
what is this part of the sacrum?
median sacral crest
what is this part of the sacrum?
sacral foramina
what is this part of the sacrum?
sacral hiatus
what is this part of the sacrum?
sacral promontory
what is this part of the sacrum?
sacral canal
what part is this of the sacrum?
Circular Fascicular Pattern
when fascicles are arranged in concentric rings; surround external body organs
What is Negative feedback?
when the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity
What is Positive Feedback?
when the response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated.
the blind spot of the eye is
where the optic nerve leaves the eye
Muscle Tone
which keeps tendons that cross the joint taut, extremely important in reinforcing the shoulder and knee joints and the arches of the foot
Collagen Fibers
white fibers; are by far the strongest and most abundant. Provides high tensile strength
Perisoteum
white glistening, double layered external surface of the entire bone except the joint surface. Has out fibrous layer (dense irregular connective tissue) and an inner osteogenic layer (consists of osteoblasts)
corpus callosum and corona radiata
white matter
fornix
white matter
medial lemniscal tract
white matter
spinothalamic tract
white matter
myelin sheath
whitish, fatty, segmented sheath around most long axons composed of 80% fat & 20% protein
Carotene
yellow to orange pigment, that tends to accumulate in the stratum corneum and in fatty tissue of the hypodermis. Its color is most obvious in palms and soles of feet, where stratum corneum is the thickest.
Glucose Anearobic Pathway
yields 2 ATPs; does not require oxygen; also yeilds 2 pyruvic acids
Aerobic Pathway
yields the most ATP with Oxygen; needs pyruvic acid to be shuttled from mitochondria (it is shuttled from Anearobic Pathway when 2 ATP and 2 Pyruvic acids); Pyruvic acid is transformed to Acetylcoa (happens in cytoplasm of cell); Krebs cycle produces 32 ATP
Body temperature regulation
~500 ml/day of routine insensible perspiration (at normal body temperature), At elevated temperature, dilation of dermal vessels and increased sweat gland activity (sensible perspirations) cool the body
