Abnormal Psychology Big ol' exam 1 set

What are the ways we determine what is abnormal and what is abnormal psychology?

"The Four D's" Deviance (Different, Extreme, Unusual, Bizarre) Distress (Unpleasant and upsetting to the person) Dysfunction (Interfering with the person's ability to conduct daily activities in a constructive way Danger (Posing risk of harm)

Incidence

# of new diseases or behaviors at a specific time

Prevalence

# of people with disease or behavior

Stigma (Textbook Chapter 1), what is structural stigma?

A characterization by others of disgrace or reproach based on an individual characteristic. Stigma is also a major reason why people do not seek treatment for mental distress. Structural stigma: Stigma occurring and government or other institutional policies negatively affect opportunities for people who may be seen as threatening, dangerous, or less deserving of support.

What are three factors (4) that guard against confounds?

A control group - Group that doesn't get testing (receives no caffeine) Random assignment - Make sure groups are similar beforehand. Every person should have an equal chance for each control/experimental group. Blind design - Participant doesn't know if they're in the experimental or control group. Expectancy effect (placebo). Double blind design - Researcher doesn't know what group participant is put in.

What is validity? (Challenges of research)

Accuracy of the study/results. There is NO way to have perfect validity, it is why we have multiple studies.

Validity

Accuracy. Face validity: If asked questions about depression, there is a face validity of a measurement of depression. This is problematic if someone is motivated to lie, also sometimes something looks face valid but is not actually valid. Predictive validity: Does this predict certain outcomes that it should predict (SAT should predict college outcome). Concurrent validity: Does it correlate with other things it should currently relate to. Sat should relate to GPA/IQ.

ABC approach

Activating Event: Friend cancels plans Belief: They really didn't want to spend time with me. Consequence: Devastated, Feeling bad about self. Replace belief with "They probably really are sick" Replace consequence with "Disappointed, but understanding".

Strengths (2) and weaknesses (2) of the Sociocultural Models

Added greatly to the clinical understanding and treatment of abnormality. (Increased awareness of clinical and social roles) Clinically successful when other treatments have failed. However... Research is difficult to interpret (all correlational, therefore no causation) Model unable to predict abnormality in specific individuals. Not everyone has issues.

Positive reinforcement (Operant Conditioning)

Addition of something pleasant upon completing desired behavior

Positive punishment (Operant Conditioning)

Addition of something unpleasant upon completing undesired behavior

Confounding variable

Additional factors that differences between groups might be attributed to (impact of caffeine on test performance)

Secondary prevention (Textbook Chapter 1)

Addressing emerging problems while they are still manageable and before they become resistant to intervention (Early detection and treatment of college students with potentially damaging drinking problems. People at risk for a particular problem are addressed to prevent a full-blown disorder).

What are the strongest of kinship studies?

Adoptee twin studies, environmental factors tend not to be the same. Monozygotic twins (identical) Dizygotic twins (fraternal twins)

Biological perspective

Adopts the "medical model" Malfunction in physical anatomy or chemistry, typically in the brain Genetic causes

Behavior therapies

Aim to identify the behaviors that are causing problems and replace them with more appropriate ones (May use classical conditioning (Uncontrollable involuntary), operant conditioning (using reinforcements), modeling). Therapist is teacher rather than healer. (Systematic desensitization (uses classical conditioning). Token economies)

How can clinicians overcome a language barrier if one exists? (Textbook Chapter 4)

An interpreter with a background in mental health should be used if necessary. This is not the best option because people may feel uncomfortable disclosed certain info to more than one person. The translator could also misinterpret or mistranslate info.

How do cultures can influence mental disorders by shaping the content of symptoms? (Textbook Chapter 2)

Anthrophobia and brain fag. Anthrophobia is a phobia of interpersonal relations, is observed in Japanese culture and involves fears of one's body odor, flushing or blushing, and eye contact. These symptoms reflect the culture's hypersensitivity to being looked at or looking at others as well as concern about how one's own behavior is viewed by others. Brain fag involves symptoms of intellectual and visual impairment and other body complaints in Nigerian and Ugandan cultures. This condition develops during periods of intensive reading and study, such as before an academic examination, and appears influenced by a culture that promotes family-oriented education.

Drug therapy (biological treatments)

Antianxiety drugs (most common). An increase in GABA levels (relaxation). Antidepressant drugs (Increase in serotonin, often overlap with antianxiety drugs) Mood stabilizers (Work to even out the mood) Antipsychotic drugs (work to eliminate false perceptions)

Asylums (Historical Views and Treatments)

Bad living conditions for the mentally ill (15th-20th c.). St Marys Bethlehem was notorious for living conditions, and coined "Bedlum" (chaos). Reformed in the late 19th c. Better living conditions, more treatments for mental illness in early 20th c. (Lobotomy, medication, Electronic convulsion therapy)

Strengths and weaknesses of DSM-5

Based on most recent research. Previous editions did not have the dimensional aspect. However.... Still not perfect, work in progress.

Consumer perspective (Textbook Chapter 1)

Being a more informed consumer of scientific info on mental health, which is often presented in popular press.

Random Selection.

Best way to get a representative sample. Everyone in the population had an equal chance to get selected (take names out of a hat)

What are the different models of abnormality?

Biological perspective Psychological perspective (Individual and how they function) Psychodynamic model Behavioral model Cognitive model Cognitive-behavioral model Humanistic model Sociocultural perspective (Greater context. Why do individuals function) family-social model Multicultural model

Integrative models

Biopsychosocial perspective (Bio/Psycho/social impact) Diathesis Stress model (Genetic predisposition. There are always environment stresses that activate genetic predisposition. Most clinicians lean towards something, but always come back to the base.

What are the sources of biological abnormality?

Brain/body chemistry: Hormonal activity, can be responsible for mental illnesses. Brain anatomy: Brain structures/activity (Brogmans area 25 related) Genetics: Heritability (the proportion of this total variation between individuals in a given population due to genetic variation) Genetics isn't enough to develop a disorder, something else MUST contribute.

Categorical and Dimensional aspect, and any additional relevant information

Categorical: Click yes or no if you have this disorder or not Dimensional: Severity level. Mild depression would be treated differently than severe. Additional information relevant: Any other info that would impact the interpretation of the diagnosis. Loss of loved one, etc. Adds extra context to interpret a diagnosis.

How can culture influence a person's reaction to stress? (Textbook Chapter 4)

Certain cultures disapprove certain reactions to stressful events, such as becoming depressed. Some people may thus be expected to react to stress in only limited ways. A Japanese businessman's financial failure might lead to suicide because of the disgrace and shame of publicly acknowledging bankruptcy would be too painful.

Sublimation (Examples of Defense Mechanisms)

Channeling unacceptable impulses into more acceptable behaviors.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that transmit messages from one neuron to another.

What are the tools of assessment?

Clinical interviews Tests Observations

Reliability

Consistency of results Test-retest reliability: assuming nothing has changed, do I get the same score on multiple takings of a test Interrater reliability: Comparing ratings of raters, do multiple observers score it the same way?

What are the disadvantages of correlation?

Correlation does NOT imply causation. Directionality (correlation could go in opposite directions, or BOTH directions simultaneously). Third variables.

Cultural syndromes (Textbook Chapter 2)

Culturally shared beliefs and ideas leading to particular forms of stress than in turn, lead to specific forms of problems. (Dhat syndrome, is an anxiety-related belief observed in Indian men that one is "losing" semen through nocturnal emissions, masturbation, or urination. The cultural belief driving the fear is that excessive semen loss results in illness.)

How can culture cause stress and psychological problems? (Textbook Chapter 4)

Culturally shared beliefs or ideas may lead to extreme stress and symptoms for mental disorders. A form of mental disorder may be unique to a culture because of specific ideas or beliefs that are part of that culture (Ataque de nervios, syndrome may sense losing control, experience attacks of crying and trembling, and faint or feel suicidal. This typically results from a stressful event, Latino culture emphasizes family well-being and stability, so a family crisis can be extremely stressful and produce ataque de nervios.

How do you describe a correlation? (Describing a correlation).

Data can be graphed and a "line of best fit" can be drawn, or expressed in a coefficient (r) - Statistic we come up with to see the correlation (-1.00 <-> 1.00)

The cognitive model

Declared abnormal functioning results from faulty thinking processes. Albert Ellis (ABC approach: Activating event, resulting Belief, and ultimate Consequence). Aaron Beck: Cognitive distortions such as over generalization, absolutist thinking. Challenging these thoughts and replacing them is helpful.

Personality inventories, what are some iconic examples?

Deisgned to look at where someone falls in relation to the general population on various personality characteristics. Usually self-report. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2). Commonly used. Compares personality with others.

Variable being observed

Dependent variable

Diversity (Textbook Chapter 1)

Depression tends to be more common among women than men. Certain immigrant populations of ethnic minority status are at increased risk for psychotic disorder.

Intelligence tests

Designed to measure intellectual ability through verbal and nonverbal tests (WAIS) Generally creates an intelligence quotient (IQ)

DSM-5

Developed by the American Psychiatric Association (A bunch of psychiatrists get together and decide what constitutes what with mental disorders). Constant debate over the merits of diagnosis, newest version of the manual was released in 2013.

Multicultural Treatments

Development of culture-sensitive, gender-sensitive, and feminist therapies. How culture impacts psychological disorders.

What are the positives and negatives of diagnosis?

Diagnosis is used for treatment, research direction, answers. Organization/understanding of mental health (provides a common language among professionals). Insurance require you have a diagnosis to get treatment. Weaknesses: Misdiagnosis/subjectivity. Discrimination/negativity from labeling (Stigma). Pathologizing (There's something wrong with me). Emotional impact of diagnosis.

Operant Conditioning

Different behaviors are reinforced, shapes ongoing behavior.

Displacement (Examples of Defense Mechanisms)

Directing unacceptable impulses toward threatening objects onto less threatening objects

Neurological and neuropsychological tests, what are some iconic examples?

Directly assess brain functioning. EEG, PET scans, CAT scans, MRIs, FMRIs Neuropsychological tests indirectly assess brain functioning through types of tasks (Give you tasks to do something (memory tasks = testing the hippocampus)).

Self-stigma (Textbook Chapter 1)

Disgrace people assign themselves because of public stigma. Some people adopt the public notion that a mental health disorder is something to be ashamed of this can affect self-esteem or cause an individual to deny a problem exists.

What are strengths and weaknesses of Personality inventories?

Easy, fast to administer, objective, large population based, potentially valid, predictive. However.... Not very good with face validity, cultural differences

How can sigma be fought? (Textbook Chapter 1)

Education (distributing materials that present factual info about mental disorder to online and direct courses regarding the truth about mental disorder) and promoting personal contact (increase contact with someone with a mental disorder to dispel myths and stereotypes. Encouraging volunteer activities in mental health setting and providing classroom experiences in which individuals whose lives are touched by mental disorder present their stories.

What is the difference between ethnicity and race? (Textbook Chapter 2)

Ethnic groups identify themselves as such. Race evolved from early attempts to categorize people based on physical characteristics such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features. However.. Analyses of genetic material (DNA) reveal more differences within racial groups than between racial groups. Race is not biologically based but socially defined. Culture includes the concepts of ethnicity and race, and culture is learned from others and passed on to succeeding generations.

Multicultural psychology (Textbook Chapter 1)

Examining the effect of culture on the way people think, feel, and act.

Family explanations (Family-Social Explanations)

Family structure and communication. Family systems theory: Enmeshed or disengaged family structures. (individuals cannot be understood in isolation from one another, but rather as a part of their family, as the family is an emotional unit).

What are the strengths of psychodynamic model? What are the weaknesses?

First to recognize importance of psychological theories and treatment. Saw abnormal functioning as rooted in the same process as normal functioning. First to apply theory and techniques systematically to treatment. However... Unsupported ideas; difficult to research. Non-observable Unconscious is inaccessible.

Rogers' humanistic theory and therapy

Focus on drive to self-actualize through honest and judgmental recognition of strengths and weaknesses (only when we accept a weakness, can we work on it). Believed in basic human need for unconditional positive regard. If received, leads to unconditional self-regard (even if I mess up, I am still a good person). If not, leads to "conditions of worth" (If I don't get perfect grades, I am not a good person). Client-centered therapy: Therapist creates a supportive climate. Unconditional positive regard (Everyone makes mistakes, they're still human). Accurate empathy (Understanding feelings).

What is external validity? (Challenges of research)

Generalizability (Easier to attain the people we are interested in applying the study to).

What does abnormal behavior stem from, according to the psychodynamic model?

Getting stuck on a stage.

Two features of treatment can increase a therapist's effectiveness with minority clients. (Multicultural treatments).

Greater sensitivity to cultural issues (essential, ANY background) Inclusion of cultural models in treatment, especially in therapies for children and adolescents.

Treatments (Family-Social Explanations)

Group/family/couples therapy. Community groups.

What are strengths and weaknesses of projective tests?

Helpful in identifiying places to discuss. Wide depth of info (This is unconscious). Supplement other test findings. However.... Bad research, no support. Subjective. Biased against types of groups (Thematic Appreception is almost always a picture of some 1950's white people). Time consuming.

What are some strengths and weaknesses of Personality inventories?

Highly face valid, helpful in tracking things overtime (Depression scores overtime However... Not well tested (SOME are)

Medical Model (Historical Views and Treatments)

Hippocrates revolutionized mental illness, linking it to biological issues (4 humors must balance, unbalanced humors = depression for ex). Emil Kraeplin coined "Dementia Praecox"/Schizophrenia

What are the strengths (2) and weaknesses (3) to self monitoring?

How frequency/intensity changes over time. Helpful for assessing inner thoughts, that they might forget. Useful for identifying what happens in a process. When they had certain thoughts, what prompted the feeling, what thoughts/emotions proceeded that. However.... Client may forget to keep up observations Client may lie about info Self-monitoring might change the actual normal behavior, that should be monitored.

Magnitude of a correlation (Describing a correlation).

How strong is the correlation? Identified by how the dots cluster toward the line of fit Identified by how far from zero the number is (0=no relationship).

The Correlational Method.

How two things naturally co-occur, nothing is administered. Measures the degree to which events or characteristics vary with each other. Determines the "co-relationship" between variables. ANYTHING THAT DOESN'T INVOLVE MANIPULATION IS CORRELATIONAL STUDIES.

What is internal validity? (Challenges of research)

How well an experiment is done How confident are you that A causes B?

ICD-10/DSM-5

ICD-10: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Mental and Behavioral Disorder section. DSM-5: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Outside of the US/Canada, people use ICD-10.

What are the defense mechanisms of the psychodynamic model?

ID (Pleasure) Ego (Reality) Superego (Conscious, morality) I want ice scream (ID) You gotta wait until class is over (Ego) Parental voice "Don't do that" (Superego)

conditions of worth

If I don't get perfect grades, I am not a good person.

What is a problem of defense mechanisms?

If you use a defense mechanism too frequently or none at all, this is problematic.

Manipulation variable

Independent variable

What can culture do besides cause mental health disorders? (Textbook Chapter 2)

Influence the way individuals cope with stressful situations (amok/family suicide. Amok = a condition in South Asian cultures in which a person attacks and tries to kill others. Cultures in which this condition is observed are often characterized by passivity and nonconfrontation, so amok is seen as a failure to cope with extreme stress. Family suicide is observed in Japanese culture when parents and children commit suicide together. This act may be preceded by financial debt or a disgraceful event that causes extreme stress. Family suicide is seen as a coping response, albeit a maladaptive one, because cultural values discourage living disgracefully after a shameful event).

What are the ethical issues of research? (Challenges of research)

Informed consent Confidentiality (sensitive info will not get out) Experimental research

Clinical tests

Instruments that measure parts of an individual's functioning, from which broader information can be inferred. Projective tests Personality Inventories Response inventories Neurological and Neuropsychoogical tests Intelligence tests

Classical conditioning

Involuntary response (Pavlov dogs/feeding. Every time the bell rings, dogs would salivate). Unconditioned = Natural response Conditioned = Learned response Unconditioned stimulus (Car ride) ---> Unconditioned response (illness) Conditioned stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus (Car ride + BFAST burrito)---> Unconditioned response (illness) Conditioned stimulus alone (BFAST burrito) eventually ---> Conditioned response (Illness)

Projective tests, what are some iconic examples?

Involve vague and ambiguous stimulus or prompt (Psychodynamic perspective). Rorscach Inkblot Thematic Appreception Test (Projecting thoughts/feelings onto people on a card) (More common) Sentence-Completion test Draw-a-person Test (less common) (I am a ______.)

Electroconvulsive therapy (Biological treatments)

Involves shaking a brain into a seizure. Very effective in treating major depression.

Consuming the Media's research (Textbook Chapter 4)

It is important to remember that you can see many types of research conducted, and some types (experiments) allow for stronger conclusions than others (case studies), when reading a media report about a research finding regarding a mental disorder. Media outlets focus on sensational aspects of a research study, esp differences found between men and women. When you read reports, pay close attention to the study that is cited and whether the study is an experiment or something less rigorous. Take the extra step of reading the original research paper to get a sense of what the researchers truly found and what drawbacks exist for the study. Don't just fall for the headline - be a wise consumer of media reports on psychological research.

Rationalization (Examples of Defense Mechanisms)

Justifying unacceptable behavior

Axons

Long, thin part of neuron along which nerve impulses travel

What are development deigns? (Textbook Chapter 4)

Longitudinal studies: Examining the same group of people over a long period of time. Important for examining behavior change and development, a lot of time is needed to complete the study. Attrittion: some participants will drop out of the study over time or can no longer be contacted by the researcher. Cross-sectional study: Examining different groups of people at one point in time. Useful but suffer from cohort effects (children at different ages are being raised in different eras, which may affect their funcitoning). Sequential design: Begins as a cross-sectional study, but the groups are examined over a short time frame. (2 7 12 17 year old children whose parents had schizophrenia may be examined now and over a 5 year period).

Case study (Textbook Chapter 4)

Makes careful observations of one person over time. The researcher may describe in great detail types of symptoms, assessment, and treatment relevant to that case. Substantial data are made available about one person, but not experimental manipulation occurs and no internal validity is present. We also cannot generalize results from one person to the overall population so not external validity is present. Case studies are useful for testing new treatments on a few people to judge their effect and safety. Data from these pilot studies can be then used to justify further studies with more people.

What are the limitations to each?

Many things are unusual without being a mental disorder (Lady Gaga/unconventional fashion) Many of us get distressed but this does not constitute as an actual mental health disorder. A physical illness is a dysfunction but it is not a mental health disorder, also some things are dangerous but are not considered a mental health disorder(Functioning alcoholic, hiding depression).

What is a potential problem of quasi-experimental designs?

Matched groups. Confounding variables are spread across both groups. Without random assignment, there will always be issues with this study.

How does gender effect mental disorders? (Textbook Chapter 2)

Men are more likely to have antisocial personality and substance use disorder. Women are more likely to have anxiety-related and depressive disorders. Gender differences may be explained by differences in biology, gender identity, socialization, and social situations. Men are less likely to be in domestic violence and sexual assault than women (may explain why men have fewer anxiety-related disorders than women).

Demonological Model (Historical Views and Treatments)

Mental Illness through supernatural: Demons/witchcraft/Trephination, exorcism

How can clinicians be culturally sensitive? (Textbook Chapter 4)

Mental health professionals must be aware that culture influences emotions, thoughts, ad behaviors. Psychological problems should also be understood and interpreted from a cultural perspective. Many people from East Asian cultures are more reserved/soft-spoken/passive than people from the west. A mental health professional must be careful not to misinterpret this style as evidence of an interpersonal problem or depression.

How can clinicians must be knowledgeable about cultural variations in psychological problems? (Textbook Chapter 4)

Mental health professionals must find assessment and other materials that consider cultural variations in mental disorder. The DSM-5 presents general categories of info relevant to cultural considerations. For many mental disorders, a description of culture-related diagnostic issues is included (how cultural background may influence the cause or presentation of symptoms, preferred terms of distress, and/or prevalence of the disorder) Cultural syndromes are also discussed. An outline is presented for cultural formulation of presenting problems.

What are disorders found primarily in Western societies? (Textbook Chapter 2)

Multiple personality disorder/dissociative identity disorder. Someone reports being possessed by other selves or personalities that control their behavior. Culture influences the possession source, in non-Western cultures possession may be by animals or spirits, but in Western cultures, possession may be by other personalities. Anorexia Nervosa involves excessive concern about being overweight and severe weight loss that threatens one's health. This condition is observed in American and European cultures but is relatively absent in Samoa and the Pacific Islands where food is scarce or where being overweight is considered attractive. A sociocultural theory stipulates that anorexia nervosa is more prevalent in food-abundant societies that stress an "ideal body" as thin. Culture thus affects the development of psychological problems in various ways.

What are other alternative experimental designs? (Textbook Chapter 4)

Natural experiment: Observational study in which nature itself helps assign groups. (some residents get sink from tainted drinking water, from accessing a particular pump, whereas other residents that were not sick were accessing a different pump. The natural IV is this cause was the source of drinking water. Natural experiments also commonly occur following disasters). Analogue experiment: Simulating a real-life situation under controlled conditions. Often this simulation is done because recreating certain events or conditions is not ethical. (Interested in examining trauma-related imagery and memories, but obviously subjecting their research participants to an actual trauma was out of the question. The researchers instead conducted an analogue experiment in which participants watched a distressing video and then were monitored afterward. This study provided valuable info about different kinds of coping strategies that might be relevant to post traumatic stress disorder). Single-subject experimental designs: Involve one person or a small group of persons who are examined under certain conditions. Still have experimental and control conditions to observe and measure behavior but do so in innovative ways. (ABAB/reversal design. If a research participant consistently benefits from the "B" condition but not the "A" condition, then we have some evidence that a treatment is working).

The nervous system (biological perspective)

Neurons transmitting signals or "messages" through the body

Which model is the best?

None there isn't one objectively superior models. Albeit, some models are best for specific disorders. OCD - Biological/Psychological Different people respond to different things. Figure out who the person is/what the disorder is.

Naturalistic and analog observations

Occurs by watching behaviors in a setting that is as natural as possible. Naturalistic (At home) Analog: Artificial setting (Clinic/lab)

What is diagnosis?

Occurs when someone meets the criteria for a particular disorder (list of criteria, people meet them, you get diagnosis). Based on an existing classification system (ICD-10, DSM-5)

What are the factors of correlational and experimental methods.

Offer generalizability, not depth and detailed. Usually involve much larger sample sizes. Procedures are uniform, studies can be replicated. Use of statistics to analyze results (Distinguishes correlational and experimental. How likely results just due to chance)

Experimental Method

One variable is manipulated and the manipulation's effect on another variable is observed. Does stress (IV) cause depression (DV) WHENEVER WE CAN MANIPULATE THE IV, IT'S EXPERIMENTAL

Gender identity (Textbook Chapter 2)

One's awareness of being male or female or perceived degree of masculinity or femininity. Influenced by the parenting style and interactions with others and can be related to mental disorder. People who are androgynous in their personality (as opposed to strictly masculine or feminine) tend to have fewer symptoms of eating disorders.

What are internal processes? (Challenges of research)

Operations that occur in the mind, but can be studied scientifically (problem solving, memory, and language)

Concordance rates

Overlap of disorder between you and other family members. The rate drops the further you are from each member.

Self monitoring (Textbook Chapter 2)

People observe their own behaviors, usually with regard to frequency, intensity (symptoms/feelings), etc.

Self-monitoring

People observe their own behaviors, usually with regard to frequency, intensity, etc.

The Psychodynamic Model

Person's personality, behavior, is based on dynamic forces of which the person is largely unaware. Oldest and most famous model. Developed by Sigmund Freud. Developmental stages (different sexual needs. Oral stage, anal stage, etc. We MUST resolve these stages successfully to become adults.)

Directions of a correlation (Describing a correlation).

Positive correlation = variables change in the same direction Negative correlation = Variables change in the opposite direction Unrelated (no slope) = no consistent relationship Identified by the sign in front of the number

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the behavior model?

Powerful force in the field. Can be tested in the laboratory. Significant research support for behavioral therapies. However... No evidence that symptoms are ordinarily acquired through conditioning. Behavior therapy is limited. Too simplistic - New focus on self-efficacy, social cognition, and cognitive behavioral theories.

Public health model (Textbook Chapter 1)

Prevention approach that focuses on promoting good health and good health practices to avert disease. Applies well to abnormal psychology. Different aspects of our lifestyles contribute greatly to poor physical and mental health and even death. (Poor diet, insufficient exercise, social isolation, unhealthy interpersonal relationships).

How does culture impact psychological experience? (Multicultural Explanations)

Psychological disorders can be expressed in physical form (Stomach ache, headache). Men expected to not express emotions.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of clinical interviews?

Puts things in context, better for relationship building. Assessments almost always use interviews. However... May lack validity, might not be measuring the right thing. Might misinterpret someone. May lack reliability (Good day vs. bad day).

What are alternative experimental designs?

Quasi-experimental designs - cannot manipulate all IV Natural experiments - Cannot manipulate disasters, nature/reality/events. Not every experience will be the same. Analogue experiments - An approximation of real life conditions (rat testing with drugs) Single-subject experiments - Beyond case studies; manipulation on a single subject. The subject on or off the IV to create a control or experimental group.

How can clinicians obtain information about the cultural background of a client? (Textbook Chapter 4)

Reading clinical books on diversity or consulting with cultural experts. A mental health professional must also distinguish behavior collectively shared by a culture and a client's responses or behaviors. "How do your friends and other members of your community typically react in similar situations?"

Tertiary prevention (Textbook Chapter 1)

Reducing the severity, duration, and negative effects of a mental disorder after it has occurred. Differs from primary and secondary prevention in that its aim is to lessen the effects of an already diagnosed disorder (various medical and psychological treatments for mental disorders).

Public stigma (Textbook Chapter 1)

Refers to the general disgrace the public confers on people with mental disorders that can result in prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. People with a mental disorder may experience difficulty securing employment, housing, and health care coverage. Public stigma can also hinder treatment of mental disorders by restricting opportunities for care and by limiting insurance benefits (neighborhood complaints that arise when an agency wants to build a group home for people with intellectual disability).

Culture (Textbook Chapter 2) How is culture different from ethnicity and race?

Refers to the unique behavior and lifestyle shared by a group of people. Culture is composed of viewpoints, beliefs, values, and preferences that are evident in rituals, food, customs, laws, art, music, and religion. Culture is not innate but external. Culture is not the same as ethnicity, which refers to clusters of people who share cultural traits and who use those traits to distinguish themselves from others. Culture is not the same as race, which refers to a category typically based on physical characteristics.

Denial (Examples of Defense Mechanisms)

Refusing to accept something threatening.

Negative punishment (Operant Conditioning)

Removal of something pleasant upon completing undesired behavior

Negative reinforcement (Operant Conditioning)

Removal of something unpleasant upon completing desired behavior

Dendrites

Rootlike structures at the ends of neurons that receive messages from other neurons.

The Sociocultural Models

Sane response to insane environments. Argue that abnormal behavior is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual (address norms and roles in society). Comprised of two major perspectives (Family-social perspective, multicultural perspective)

Psychodynamic Therapies

Seek to uncover past trauma and inner conflicts; or relate the past to the present. Insight oriented. Therapy is not to change, it is to learn about ourselves; gaining an understanding.

Neurotransmitter Examples

Serotonin: Regulation of mood states, satiety, and sleep (feeling full) Norepinephrine: learning and memory (Abnormalities = depression) Dopamine: Muscle contractions, learning, memory, emotion (Abnormalities = Schizophrenia) Acetylcholine: Muscle contractions and memories (Abnormalities = Alzheimers). GABA: General arousal (Alcohol relaxation) (Abnormalities = Anxiety)

Culture (Multicultural Explanations)

Set of values, attitudes, beliefs, history, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to the next. Cultural context must be considered. Prejudice and discrimination.

How do neighborhoods and communities influence our mental well-being? (Textbook Chapter 2)

Several neighborhood characteristics are associated with poorer mental health. Neighborhoods with high rates of poverty, turnover among residents, and families headed by single parents often have high rates of juvenile delinquency and childhood maltreatment. People in neighborhoods characterized by physical (abandoned buildings, vandalism) and social (public drunkenness, gangs, disruptive neighbors) decline often have substantial anxiety, depression, and physical complaints. Neighborhoods characterized by noise, crowding, and pollution are often associated with high rates of depression, aggression, and childhood behavior problems.

Individuals from marginalized ethnic groups in the US (Multicultural treatments)

Show similar or lower rates Show higher chronicity or persistence of disorders Show less improvement in clinical treatment

Reponse inventories, what are some iconic examples?

Similar to personality inventories, but limited to more specific domains of functioning. Usually self-report. Beck Depression Inventory.

Social explanations (Family-Social Explanations)

Social labels and roles (Having the label of a felon will impact someones entire life.. Diagnostic labels can fit into this (Skitzo). Social connections and supports.

Expectations of men and women (Textbook Chapter 2)

Socialization differences, play a role in developing symptoms of mental disorders. Men are expected to be less emotionally expressive, men who are anxious and depressed may be more likely to use alcohol and other drugs to self-medicate their symptoms, women are more likely to see a therapist/talk about issues. Women generally have more social support than men with respect to number of close relationships and level of intimacy of these relationships.

What are current options (Historical Views and Treatments)

State hospitals, community health centers, counseling, clinics.

What are the disadvantages of the experimental method?

Statistics and research design are very important.

Prevention perspective (Textbook Chapter 1)

Stems from the concept of mental hygiene, or the science of promoting mental health and thwarting mental disorder through education, early treatment, and public health measures.

Why do certain neighborhood characteristics relate to poor mental health? (Textbook Chapter 2)

Stress. Certain neighborhoods generate many stressful life events. People from these neighborhoods have few resources to handle stressors, so their ability to cope is limited. Some people are resilient to stressors.

How can culture influence which symptoms of a disorder are expressed and the content of the symptoms? (Textbook Chapter 4)

Symptoms of depression differ among people of various cultures. Societies or cultures that do not emphasize the concept of guilt, as in Indonesia, are less likely to have depressed clients who feel guilty. The content of phobias or delusions can also depend on culture. People from poorly developed countries may be less likely to fear airplanes or believe their mind is controlled by satellites.

Clinical observation

Systematic observations of behavior (Naturalistic, analog, self-monitoring).

Reaction formation (Examples of Defense Mechanisms)

Taking opposite position of threatening impulses

What are the strengths (2) and weaknesses (3) to assessing the humanistic model?

Taps into domains missing from other theories (Optimistic, emphasizes health). Impact on clinical practice (Ground breaking - no one had talked about this prior). Emphasizes health. However.... Focuses on abstract issues (Difficult to research) Weakened by disapproval of scientific approach (Changing somewhat). This is NOT enough for change on its own, but it is necessary.

Primary prevention (Textbook Chapter 1)

Targeting large groups of people, who have not developed a mental disorder. Health promotion efforts to reduce excessive substance use are one example. (Programs to reduce job discrimination, enhance school curricula, improve housing, teach parenting skills, and provide educational assistance to children).

What are some strengths and weaknesses of Neurological and neuropsychological tests?

Tend to be accurate/measurable/sought forward However.... Good at telling us what is going on, but more tests are needed.

Deinstitutionalization (Historical Views and Treatments)

The 1950's saw an increase in community mental health centers (prior to this, hospitals had great distances from one another in rural areas). This allowed more people to receive mental care. In a hospital you are more overseen. You must be more responsible on community mental health centers. Some community health centers are better than others.

Synapse

The junction between one neuron and another across which neurotransmitters pass

Ecological/Real-World Validity. (Challenges of research)

The methods, materials and setting of the study must approximate the real-world that is being examined.

Dimensional perspective (Textbook Chapter 1)

The notion that people differ only in their degree of symptom.

Receptor site

The part of a dendrite that receives a neurotransmitter

Sample (Correlational and experimental methods).

The participants used for the study, bigger samples are better. A representative sample is very generalizable.

Variables (Challenges of research).

The particular attribute that is being researched.

How can culture reinforce certain forms of mental disorder? (Textbook Chapter 4)

The prevalence of certain mental disorders varies as a function of culture. General lifestyle patterns and attitudes as well as acceptance of a disorder by the culture, likely influence prevalence. Anorexia nervosa is more prevalent in societies such as ours that emphasize and reward thinness.

What is assessment? What are the goals?

The process of collecting information to reach a conclusion. What is happening? (What's the diagnosis) Why is it happening? (What are the underlying causes) What do we do about it? (What is the appropriate direction for treatment)

Clinical interviews (3 terms)

To collect detailed personal information. Can be unstructured (Flexible, whatever info seems relevant), semi-structured (mixture of the two), or structured (Set of specific questions, no flexibility). It depends on the person overall, with which questions you ask.

Traditional psychoanalysis vs current psychoanalysis

Traditional: Free association Dream interpretation Long-term Current: Focus more on present relationships, behavior changes, dialogue, more engagement. Can be more short-term. Identifying defenses, past and current patterns. Less focus on sex.

Standardization

Uniformity of administration of an assessment (is there a standard process in giving an assessment), in scoring (how is it scored, what your score means, your score compared to average scores)

Kinship studies

Used to determine genetic factors in disorders.

Strengths and weaknesses to assessing the cognitive model.

Very broad appeal. Clinically useful and effective. Focuses on a uniquely human process. Theories lend themselves to research. Therapies effective in treating several disorders. However... Explains 'what' not 'why'. Precise role of cognition in abnormality has yet to be determined. Therapies do not help everyone. Some changes may not be possible to achieve (Newer cognitive therapies. Change what you can do but accept your thoughts).

What are some strengths (1) and weaknesses (3) of naturalistic and analog observations?

View how people behave (number of times a parent yells at kids), can actually understand what means what (throwing toys). However... Reliability issues with test/retest and inter rater (good vs bad day) (Hard to make sure all raters have similar thoughts). Validity issues. An observer has different view points. An observer bias, client changes behavior due to being watched. Observer drift. Observer's observation might change due to constant observations (tired at the end of the day).

What are the benefits of correlation?

We can study things that are not assignable. Replicable Generalization Give good ideas for future research Allows for studying things that cannot be manipulated

What are the strengths to assessing the biological perspective? What are the weaknesses?

Well recognized in the field (everyone acknowledges this). Well-researched and continuing to be researched (Concretely researched) Treatments bring great relief. However.. We cannot reject everything. We can limit understanding when relied upon too heavily. (If only using anti-depressants, you're missing out on coping mechanisms). Side effects of treatments.

What are strengths and weaknesses of intelligence tests?

Well standardized/researched. Validated, high reliability/validity. Intelligence is a huge concept, the test is only relying on verbal/non verbal. Anxiety, mood, hunger, etc. Cultural bias, ethnicity/nationality, poor educational background. Cultural context needs to be taken into account.

Epigenetics

What activates our predispositions to disorders.

Tending and befriending (Textbook Chapter 2)

Women often respond to stress by nurturing and protecting offspring (tend), and by affiliating with others to reduce risk of harm (befriend). Doing so may have an evolutionary component. When a threat existed, quieting offspring and bleeding into the environment was adaptive because one was not seen as a threat. Affiliating with a social group following a threat also increases the chance one would be protected. Tending and befriending pattern has been linked to neurobiological systems that characterize attachment to others and care giving. Understanding gender differences can help us explain mental disorders and develop treatments.