Adolescent Development Exam 3

C8, Q7: Explain three important characteristics of sibling relationships.

- Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship. Siblings typically know each other very well, and this intimacy suggests that they can either provide support or tease and undermine each other, depending on the situation. -Variation in sibling relationships. Some siblings describe their relationships more positively than do others. Thus, there is considerable variation in sibling relationships. Many siblings have mixed feelings about each other, but some adolescents mainly describe their sibling in warm, affectionate ways, whereas others primarily talk about how irritating and mean a sibling is.

C10, Q7: What are several of the research findings that suggest that extracurricular activities are beneficial for adolescents? (There are several factors that influence these benefits, including the number of activities, length of time, and quality of the activity - don't forget these in your answer).

- Researchers have found that participation in extracurricular activities is linked to higher grades, increased school engagement, reduced likelihood of dropping out of school, improved probability of going to college, higher self-esteem, and lower rates of depression, delinquency, and substance abuse (Oberle & others, 2019). -Adolescents benefit from participating in a breadth of extracurricular activities more than they do from focusing on a single extracurricular activity. In a longitudinal study, both breadth and intensity of extracurricular activity involvement in the tenth grade were associated with higher educational attainment (Haghighat & Knifsend, 2019). -Also, a recent study found that adolescents who participated in extracurricular activities were less likely to engage in screen-based activities after school, had higher levels of satisfaction with life, were more optimistic, and had lower levels of anxiety and depression (Oberle & others, 2020). And in another recent study, greater participation in extracurricular activities in high school predicted an increased likelihood of completing a college degree in four years (Gardner & others, 2020). However, participating in more than three or four extracurricular activities predicted that students would be less likely to obtain a college degree in four years.

C10, Q6: Explain the research on bullying in school, including rates, risk factors (both bullies and victims), social context factors, and outcomes. How is cyber-bullying affecting youth?

--Boys are more likely to be bullies than girls, but -Gender difference regarding victims of bullying are less clear -Boys and younger middle school students are most likely to be bullied -Anxious, socially withdraw, and aggressive children are often the victims of bullying -Research shows that 70-80% of victims and their bullies are in the same school classroom -Many bullies are not rejected by the peer group -Children who are bullied are more likely to experience depression, have low self-esteem, engage in suicidal ideation, and attempt suicide -A dramatic increase in cyberbullying- bullying on the internet -nearly one of every three students said that they had experienced occasional or frequent involvement as a victim or perpetrator in bullying - a significant increase in cyberbullying occurred (Kennedy, 2021). Also in this analysis, an increase in face-to-face bullying occurred for females. -while those who did the bullying were more likely to have low grades and to smoke cigarettes and drink alcohol. - sexual minority youth were more likely to report both types of bullying victimization than their heterosexual peers, while African American and Latinx adolescents were less likely to report both types of victimization. And non-Latinx White gay/lesbian or bisexual youth reported more bullying victimization than non-Latinx White heterosexual youth.

C10, Q5: Pomerantz has suggested that the more involved parents are, the higher their children's academic achievement. Summarize that research, and list her recommendations for parents.

-East Asian parents are far more involved in their children's and adolescents' learning than are U.S. parents. In East Asia, children's and adolescents' learning is considered to be a far greater responsibility of parents than in the United States (Pomerantz & Grolnick, 2017). • Keep in mind that ability is not fixed and can change. Although it is difficult and takes a lot of patience, understand that children's and adolescents' abilities can improve. • Be involved. One of the most important things parents can do is to become involved in their children's and adolescents' academic life and talk often with them about what they are learning. • Support autonomy and self-initiative. An important aspect of children's and adolescents' motivation to do well in school is being made to feel that they are responsible for their learning and must become self-motivated. • Be positive. Too often schoolwork and homework can be frustrating for children and adolescents. Interact with them in positive ways and let them know that life is often tough but that you know they can do well and overcome difficulties. • Understand that each child or adolescent is different. Get to know your child or adolescent—don't let them be a psychological stranger to you. Be sensitive to their unique characteristics and know that sometimes you will need to adapt to such idiosyncrasies.

C8, Q1: Define and give an example of reciprocal socialization within the family. Distinguish between direct and indirect effects in this model.

-Reciprocal socialization is the process by which children and adolescents socialize parents, just as parents socialize them. Increasingly, genetic and epigenetic factors are being studied to discover not only parental influences on adolescents but also adolescents' influence on parents. The epigenetic view emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment -For example, harsh, hostile parenting is associated with negative outcomes for adolescents, such as being defiant and oppositional -An example of a direct effect is the influence of the parent's behavior on the adolescent. -An example of an indirect effect is how the relationship between the spouses mediates the way a parent acts toward the adolescent. For example, marital conflict might reduce the efficiency of parenting, in which case marital conflict would have an indirect effect on the adolescent's behavior.

C10, Q3: Why do adolescents tend to drop out of school? What are some of the common approaches that schools might take in attempting to reduce dropout rates? How effective are these approaches?

-Students drop out of school for school-related, economic, family-related, peer-related, and personal reasons -the most effective ones encompassed early reading intervention, tutoring, counseling, and mentoring (Lehr & others, 2003). The reviewers also emphasized the importance of creating caring environments, building relationships, and offering community-service opportunities. -early detection of children's school-related difficulties, and getting children and youth engaged with school in positive ways, are important strategies for reducing dropout rates -Talent Search, which provides low-income high school students with mentoring, academic tutoring, and training on test-taking and study skills, as well as career development coaching, financial aid application assistance for college, and visits to college campuses -Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (2011, 2020) has funded efforts to reduce dropout rates in schools where rates are high. One strategy that is being emphasized in the Gates funding is keeping at-risk students with the same teachers throughout their high school years.

C10, Q1: Explain and differentiate the direct instruction and the constructivist approaches to educating adolescents. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of each?

-The constructivist approach: learner centered; emphasizes the importance of individuals carefully constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher. -Students should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically, with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance -May include an emphasis on collaboration Disadvantages: may not give enough attention to the content of discipline, such as history or science -too relativistic and vague The direct instruction approach: structured and teacher centered -Teacher direction and control -High teacher expectation for student progress -Maximum time spent by students on academic tasks -Efforts by teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum Disadvantages: -May turn students into passive learners and does not adequate challenge them to think in critical and creative ways -Effective teachers use both approaches rather than either one exclusively

Benner et al. on school transitions:

-The transition to high school is disruptive for many adolescents, yet little is known about the supportive relational processes that might attenuate the challenges students face as they move from middle to high school, particularly for students from more diverse backgrounds. -we investigated how personal characteristics (gender, nativity, parent education level) and changes in support from family, friends, and school influenced changes in socioemotional adjustment and academic outcomes across the transition from middle to high school. -The results revealed declines in students' grades and increases in depressive symptoms and feelings of loneliness across the high school transition, with key variation by student nativity and gender. -Additionally, stable/increasing friend support and school belonging were both linked to less socioemotional disruptions as students moved from middle to high school. -Increasing/stable school belonging was also linked to increases in school engagement across the high school transition. -suggest that when high school transitions disrupt supportive relationships with important others in adolescents' lives, adolescents' socioemotional well-being and, to a lesser extent, their academic engagement are also compromised

C10, Q4: Explain and compare authoritative strategies for classroom management with authoritarian and permissive strategies. What are some of the outcomes related to each style?

-authoritative strategy of classroom management: A teaching strategy that encourages students to be independent thinkers and doers but still involves effective monitoring. Authoritative teachers engage students in considerable verbal give-and-take and show a caring attitude toward them. However, they still set and enforce limits when necessary. -authoritarian strategy of classroom management: A teaching strategy that is restrictive and punitive. The focus is mainly on keeping order in the classroom rather than on instruction and learning. -​​permissive strategy of classroom management: A teaching strategy that offers students considerable autonomy but provides them with little support for developing learning skills or managing their behavior. -offers students considerable autonomy but provides them with little support for developing academic skills or managing their behavior. Not surprisingly, students in permissive classrooms tend to have inadequate academic skills and low self-control. -The authoritarian strategy of classroom management is restrictive and punitive. The focus is mainly on keeping order in the classroom rather than on instruction and learning. Authoritarian teachers place firm limits and controls on students and have little verbal exchange with them. Students in authoritarian classrooms tend to be passive learners, fail to initiate activities, express anxiety about social comparison, and have poor communication skills.

C8, Q8: Discuss the research looking at adolescents' adjustment in divorced families. Look specifically at Hetherington's research and Cummings's emotional security theory. [Note: pay special attention to the final paragraph in this section of the text.]

-children, adolescents, and emerging adults from divorced families show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in nondivorced families - In a longitudinal study conducted by E. Mavis Hetherington 25 percent of children from divorced families had emotional problems, but that figure decreased to 20 percent in emerging adulthood. In this study, 10 percent of children and emerging adults from nondivorced families had emotional problems. -In Hetherington's research, the 20 percent of emerging adults from divorced families who continued to have emotional problems were characterized by impulsive, irresponsible, or antisocial behavior, or they were depressed. Toward the end of emerging adulthood, this troubled group was having problems at work and difficulties in romantic relationships. -Cummings, emotional security theory, which has its roots in attachment theory and states that children appraise marital conflict in terms of their sense of security and safety in the family. In a recent study, intensification of interparental conflict in the early elementary school years predicted increases in emotional insecurity five years later in early adolescence, which in turn predicted decreases in adolescent friendship affiliation, and this friendship decrease was linked to a downturn in social competence (Davies, Martin, & Cummings, 2018). -Despite the emotional problems that some adolescents and emerging adults from divorced families have, the weight of the research evidence underscores that most adolescents and emerging adults cope successfully with their parents' divorce and that a majority of adolescents and emerging adults in divorced families do not have significant adjustment problems (Lansford, 2019)

Xia et al. on romantic relationships:

-examine the links between parents' self-reported attachment styles and observed secure base provision to their adolescent children in the context of a parent-adolescent conflict discussion task -Findings revealed that adolescents who had experienced a more positive family climate and more competent parenting reported more effective problem-solving skills and less violent behavior in their young adult romantic relationships. -Adolescent assertiveness was consistently positively associated with relationship problem-solving skills, and adolescents' positive engagement with their family was associated with feeling more love in young adult romantic relationships. - family functioning and adolescent interpersonal skills exhibited some reciprocal relations over the adolescent years. -family processes and interpersonal skills are mutually influenced by each other across adolescence, and both have unique predictive implications to specific facets of young adult romantic relationship functioning

C8, Q2: There are two distinct dimensions of parenting (warmth/responsiveness and demandingness/control). Explain each. What are the four styles that result from the combination of these dimensions? Describe them, being sure to use the dimensions in your answer. (Figure 8.2 and the notes from class will help with this part of the answer.) What are the typical outcomes for adolescents from each style?

-neglectful parenting A style in which the parent is uninvolved in the adolescent's life. It is associated with adolescents' social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control. -indulgent parenting A style in which parents are highly involved with their adolescents but place few demands or controls on them. This parenting style is associated with adolescents' social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control. -authoritarian parenting A restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the adolescent to follow the parent's directions and to respect work and effort. Firm limits and controls are placed on the adolescent, and little verbal exchange is allowed. This style is associated with adolescents' socially incompetent behavior. -authoritative parenting A style encouraging adolescents to be independent but still placing limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the adolescent. This style is associated with adolescents' socially competent behavior.

Jones & Cassidy on attachment:

-study represents the first examination of how parents' self-reported attachment styles relate to parental secure base provision and adolescent - first to examine how fathers', as well as mothers', attachment styles relate to observed behavior in a parent-child interaction -maternal avoidance, but not anxiety, was negatively associated with observed adolescent secure base use. -examine the links between parents' self-reported attachment styles and observed secure base provision to their adolescent children in the context of a parent-adolescent conflict discussion task -paternal anxiety, but not avoidance, was indirectly related to less adolescent secure base use through fathers' self-reported hostile behavior toward their adolescents - No significant findings emerged in relation to parental secure base provision. W

C8, Q3: There are a number of factors associated with the increase in adolescent-parent conflict - what are four of them? How does conflict typically change across adolescence, and what kinds of things do adolescents and parents fight about?

1)Cognitive changes involved increased idealism and logical reasoning, 2) social changes focused on independence and identity,3) biological changes of puberty, and 4)physical, cognitive, and social changes in parents associated with middle adulthood. A research review concluded that the conflict decreases through late adolescent emerging adulthood. Much of the conflict involves everyday aspects of family life e.g. keeping a bedroom clean, dressing neatly, getting home by a certain time, and not talking on the phone nonstop. Conflicts are rarely major dilemmas like drugs or delinquency.

C9, Q7:Explain the three stages of the development of heterosexual romantic relationships, and give an example of each.

1. Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations: at about 11 to 13 years of age. triggered by puberty.become intensely interested in romance, and it dominates many conversations with same-sex friends. Developing a crush on someone is common, and the crush often is shared with a same-sex friend. Young adolescents may or may not interact with the individual who is the object of their infatuation. When dating occurs, it usually takes place in a group setting. 2. Exploring romantic relationships: at approximately 14 to 16 years of age. At this point in adolescence, casual dating and dating in groups—two types of romantic involvement—occur. Casual dating emerges between individuals who are mutually attracted. These dating experiences are often short-lived, lasting from a few weeks to several months. Dating in groups is common and reflects embeddedness in the peer context. A friend often acts as a third-party facilitator of a potential dating relationship by communicating their friend's romantic interest and determining whether the attraction is reciprocated. 3. Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about 17 to 19 years of age. At the end of the high school years, more serious romantic relationships develop. This stage is characterized by strong emotional bonds more closely resembling those in adult romantic relationships. These bonds often are more stable and enduring than earlier bonds, typically lasting one year or more.

C7, Q2: Explain several of the criticisms of Kohlberg's theory and discuss what research tells us about the validity of the criticism (if anything). There are seven; you should be able to write about at least five of them.

1. Jonathan Haidt argues that most moral thinking is a more intuitive gut reaction and that deliberative moral reasoning is often an after-the-fact justification, whereas Kohlberg's view is moral thinking is deliberative and individuals go around all the time contemplating and reasoning about morality. 2. Kohlberg argued that emotion has negative effects on moral reasoning, however, increasing evidence indicates emotions play an important role in moral thinking(Spinrad & Eisenberg). 3. Kohlberg emphasized his levels of moral reasoning are universal, but some critics claim his theory is culturally biased, both of which may be correct (Miller, Wice, Goyal, 2020). A review of 45 studies in 27 cultures provided support for the universality of the first two levels(Snary, 1987). Individuals in diverse cultures developed through four stages in the sequence as Kohlberg predicted. Level 3 has not been found in all cultures (Gibbs & others, 2007). 4. Kohlberg says peers provide opportunities for give-and-take whereas parents don't as much, developmentalists emphasize that parents play more important roles in children's and adolescents' moral development. They stress parents' communication, disciplinary techniques, and other aspects of parent-child relationships influence moral development. 5. Carol Gilligan argues that the theory is gender biased, based on the male norm that puts principles above relationships and concern for others and sees individuals as stand-alone. Meta-analysis casts doubt on the claim of substantial gender differences in moral judgment.

C7, Q1: Explain (more than just a single sentence) and give examples of Kohlberg's three levels of moral reasoning. Why is peer interaction thought to be a critical part of moral development?

1. Preconventional reasoning- the lowest level of theory; moral reasoning is strongly influenced by external punishment and reward. Example: children and adolescents obey adults because adults tell them to obey, or they may be nice to others because they are told to be nice. 2. Conventional reasoning: second/intermediate; individuals develop expectations about social roles of good behavior within the society of friends and family. Example: Heinz and the druggist story, wouldn't a "good" husband steal the drug to save his wife's life? 3. Postconventional reasoning: highest level; convention considerations now judged against moral concerns such as liberty, justice, and equality, with the idea that morality can improve the laws, fix them, and guide conventional in the direction of a better world. People are aware that moral principles make demands on them. Example: Heinz should steal the drug because the value of life trumps the druggists' right to property. Peer relations: Give-and-take provides the child with an opportunity to take the role of another person and to generate rules democratically. More advanced moral reasoning takes place when peers engage in challenging, moderately conflicting, conversations.

C10, Q8: Explain the seven strategies listed in your textbook for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students.

1. Turn the class into a jigsaw classroom. Aronson (1986) developed the concept of the jigsaw classroom, in which students from different cultural backgrounds are placed in a cooperative group in which they have to construct different parts of a project to reach a common goal. 2. Encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse other students. Contact alone does not do the job of improving relationships with diverse others. • 3. Encourage students to engage in perspective taking. Exercises and activities that help students see others' perspectives can improve interethnic relations. 4. Help students to think critically and be emotionally intelligent about cultural issues. 5. Reduce bias. Teachers can reduce bias by displaying images of people from diverse ethnic and cultural groups, selecting classroom activities that encourage cultural understanding, helping students resist stereotyping, and working with parents. 6. View the school and community as a team.

C7, Q3: Describe the social cognitive theory of moral development. Give an example. How does Bandura support this view?

Bandura concluded that moral development is best understood by considering a combo of social and cognitive factors, especially self-control. He proposes that, " a moral self, individuals adopt standards of right and wrong that serve as guides and deterrents for conduct. They refrain from behaving in ways that violate their moral standards due to self-condemnation. He also discusses various easy people morally disengage themselves from reprehensible actions and still feel good about themselves, and may use worthwhile ends to justify means. Example: events committed by ISIS in which religious ideology is used to justify behavior. Moral behavior includes positive and negative behavior.

C9, Q1: Explain 5 ways social media has transformed adolescent peer relationships.

Changing the frequency or immediacy of experiences (potential for immediate, frequent social support, reassurance, negative feedback, and co-rumination), amplifying experiences and demands (heightened feedback seeking and expectations for relationship maintenance and access), altering the qualitative aspects of interactions (less rich social support, increased comfort in interactions), facilitating new opportunities for compensatory behaviors (possible exclusive online relationships and communication with geographically distant friends), and creating completely novel behsviors (new opportunities to publicize "top friends" and relationships).

C7, Q6: Describe five ways that schools can influence moral development. Give an example of each. (Do not include the integrative approach as one of these).

Character education- a direct approach involving teaching students basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves/others. There is encouragement to develop a care perspective for students to engage in prosocial behaviors such as considering others' feelings, being sensitive to others, and helping others. Values clarification-an educational approach that focuses on helping people clarify what is important to them, what's worth working for, and what is their purpose in life. Students are encouraged to define their own values and understand others' values. Service learning- a form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community. This would include tutoring, helping older adults, working in a hospital, assisting at a child-care center, or cleaning a vacant lot to make a play area. Cheating- moral education concern is how extensive cheating is and how to handle it if it's detected. Cheating can include plagarism, using cheat sheets, copying from a neighbor, purchasing papers, falsifying lab results. Over half of students have reported cheating. Hidden curriculum- this is conveyed by the moral atmosphere that is a part of every school. This is created by school and classroom rules, the moral orientation of teachers and school administrators, and curriculum materials. Teachers serve as models of ethical or unethical behavior. Rules transmit attitudes about cheating, lying, stealing, and consideration for others. By enforcing rules and regulations, the school administration infuses the school with a value system.

C8, Q5: Explain the complexity of adolescent autonomy. Why is it so complicated?

Defining autonomy brings on the question since it can be applied to different things on different levels, especially for those who are developing autonomy. A study showed 13-year-olds who engaged in fewer problem behaviors had both parents who were autonomy supportive. A different study found those aged 16-20 reported they had increasing independence and improved relationships with their parents. 23-year-olds reported autonomy influences from peer influences predicted success in avoiding problematic behavior, and more difficulty in establishing strong friendships in emerging adulthood.

C9, Q8: What are some of the positive and negative links between adolescent romantic relationships and adjustment?

In one study the more romantic experiences 10th graders ad, the more likely they were to report high levels of social acceptance, friendship competence, and romantic competence. Having more romantic experience was linked to higher levels of substance use, delinquency, and sexual behavior. Experiencing unrequited love can lead to depression, obsessive thoughts, sexual dysfunction, inability to work effectively, difficulty making new friends, and self-condemnation.

C9, Q9: Explain some of the research suggesting that experiences with family and peers contribute to the ways that adolescents construct their romantic relationships. Be sure to consider parents, parenting styles, attachment, divorce, gender, among others.

Individuals who had an authoritative relationship with their parents in adolescence were more likely to have te highest levels of support, intimacy, and passion with their romantic partners in emerging adulthood. One study found that greater attachment insecurity with parents and peers at age 14 was linked to having a more anxious attachment style at age 22. Adolescents with a secure attachment to parents are likely to approach romantic relationships expecting closeness, warmth, and intimacy this are likely to feel comfortable with developing close, intimate romantic relationships. those witha dismissing/avoidant attachment to parents are likely to expect romantic partners to be unresponsive and unavailable which might tend to behave in ways that distance themselves from romantic partners. Those with preoccupied/ambivalent attachment to parents are likely to be disappointed and frustrated with intimacy and closeness in roatnic relationships. In a study divorce was associated with a stronger interest in boys on the part of adolescent daughters than was the death of a parent or a livng in an intact family. Daughters of divorced parents had a more negative opinion of males than did the girls from other family structures. Girls were more likely to marry those in the image of their father with divorced or widowed parents. Parents are more likely to be involved in their daughters dating patterns and relationships than those of their son. It is not unusual for parents to interfere with their dating choices and relationships.

C7, Q5: Describe three types of parental discipline that affect moral development. Give an example of each, and discuss Hoffman's conclusions regarding the effectiveness of each type. What does the research say about this?

Love withdrawal- comes closest to psychoanalytic emphasis on fear of punishment and losing parental love; a disciplinary technique where a parent withholds love or attention, when the parent refuses to talk to the child or states a dislike for them. Power assertion- disciplinary technique where a parent attempts to gain control over the adolescent or their resources. This includes spanking, threatening, or removing privileges. Induction- the disciplinary technique where a parent uses reason and explains how the adolescent's antisocial actions are likely to affect others. Examples include comments such as, "Don't hit him. He was only trying to help" and "Why are you yelling at her? She didn't mean to hurt your feelings." Hoffman shares that love withdrawal and power assertion create high levels of emotional arousal where love withdrawal creates higher anxiety and power assertion creates hostility. Induction is more likely to produce moderate levels of arousal, this allows adolescents to attend to cognitive rationales parents offer. If there is high arousal among adolescents they may become overwheled and be unable to attend and understand a parents explanation. Adolescents may imitate parents who display power assertion- the parents may be perceived as individuals who are unable to control emotions when they face stressful situations. Hoffman recommends induction to encourage adolescents moral development.

C9, Q6: Explain several ways that your textbook indicates how gender influences friendship.

Number of other-sex friendships increases in early adolescence, with girls reporting more other-sex friendships than boys. Other-sex friendships are linked to increases in alcohol use, delinquency, and sexual intercourse. Parents likely monitor daughters' other-sex friendships more closely than those of sons because boys are perceived to have a more negative influence. One study found that a higher level of parental monitoring of young adolescent girls led to girls having fewer friendships with boys, turn was associated with a lower level of alcohol use by girls in late adolescence.

C7, Q7: Explain how religion has been shown to have positive influences in adolescents' lives.

One study revealed that a higher level of church engagement was related to higher grades for male adolescents. Churchgoing may benefit students because religious communities encourage socially acceptable behavior, which includes doing well in school. Churchgoing may also benefit students since churches often offer positive role models for students... Religion also plays a role in adolescents' health and whether they engage in problem behaviors. A meta-analysis found that spirituality/religion was positively associated to well-being, self-esteem, and three of the big five factors (conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness). The meta-analysis was negatively associated with risky behavior and depression. A recent study found religiosity was linked to delayed onset of alchol use, more for girls than boys. There is also a link to less drug use.

C9, Q5: Explain three studies that document how friends' characteristics can influence adolescent development. What are some of the negative links?

One study- friends' grade point average was consistent predictor of positive school achievement and linked to less drug abuse and acting out. Second- non-latinx white and asian americans, higher academic achievement was linked to having same-ethnic friends but for african american and latinx adolescents, higher academic achievement was associated with having more cross-ethnic friendships. Third- friends' social support was linked to greater engagement in physical activity during adolescence. Not having a close relationship, having less contact with friends, having depressed friends, experiencing rejection all increase depressive tendencies in adolescents. Girls who had fewer friends had more depressive symptoms than those with more than two close friends. Interacting with delinquent peers and friends increases the risk of becoming delinquent. Another study found adolescents adapted their smoking and drinking behavior to match that of their best friends. Same for women could be said about dieting trends.

C9, Q2: Describe the research on positive and negative peer relations and peer pressure. What factors are associated with increased likelihood of conforming to peers?

Positive- explore the principles of fairness and justice by working through disagreements with peers, learn to be keen observers of peers' interests and perspectives in order to integrate themselves, and learn to be skilled and sensitive partners in intimate relationships by forging closing friendships, these skills are a help to form foundation of later dating and marital relationships. Negative- peer relationships are linked to patterns of drug use, delinquency, depression, sexual activity, and self-injury. One study showed that peers have a more powerful influence on smoking than parents.

C8, Q4: How do psychologically healthy and unhealthy families vary in their responses to autonomy demands as adolescents get older? How can these changes affect the people involved? What about during the transition to college?

Psychologically healthy parents adjust to adolescents' push for independence by treating the adolescents in more adult ways and including them more often in family decision-making. Psychologically unhealthy parents often remind locked into power-oriented parental control, and parents move even more heavily toward an authoritarian posture in their relationships with adolescents.

C8, Q6: Explain secure attachment and three different styles of insecure attachment, and what it looks like when an adolescent has each style. What are some of the research findings regarding attachment and well-being?

Secure attachment- involves a positive, enduring emotional bond between two people. In infancy, childhood, and adolescence, the formation of a secure bond with a caregiver benefits the child's exploration of the environment and subsequent development. Research has found that securely attached adolescents are less likely than those who are insecurely attached to have emotional difficulties and less likely to engage in issues like drug abuse or delinquency. A research analysis concluded that the most consistent outcomes of secure attachment involve positive peer relations and the development of the adolescent's capacity for emotion regulation. Dismissing/avoidant attachment- insecure in which individuals deemphasize the importance of attachment. This is associated with consistent experiences with the rejection of attachment needs by caregivers. An outcome of this is the distancing between caregiver and child, a state that lessens parental influence. Preoccupied/ambivalent attachment- Insecure in which adolescents are hyperattuned to attachment experiences. This is thought to occur mainly if parents are inconsistent with availability to the adolescent. Insecurity may be evident in a high degree of attachment-seeking behavior, mixed with angry feelings. The conflict between parent and child may be too high for healthy development. Researchers have found that adolescents who are less securely attached to parents are more likely to attempt suicide. Unresolved/disorganized attachment- Insecure where the child has an unusually high level of fear and might be disoriented which can result from traumatic experiences where a parent died or there was abuse by a parent.

C9, Q3: What is sociometric status and how is it measured? What skills and social outcomes are associated with popularity? What does research show about neglected and rejected children?

Sociometric is defined as the extent to which children and adolescents are liked or disliked by their peer group; typically assessed by asking children and adolescents to rate how much they like or dislike each of their classmates. Low peer status in childhood was associated with increased probability of being unemployed and having mental health problems in adulthood. Being popular contributes to skills that include reinforcements, listening carefully, maintaining open lines of communication with peers, being happy, controlling their negative emotions, showing enthusiasm and concern for others, and being self-confident without being conceited. Neglected adolescents engage in low rates of interaction with peers and are often described as shy peers. Rejected adolescents often have more serious adjustment problems than those neglected. Peer rejection frequently preceded by either aggression or depression. Peer rejection is consistently linked to the development and maintenance of conduct problems and antisocial behavior.

C9, Q4: Describe Sullivan's ideas about intimacy in friend relationships. Are his ideas withstanding the test of time (explain your answer)?

Sullivan said everyone has basic social needs sich as the need for secure attachment, playful companionship, social acceptance, intimacy, and sexual relations. Whether or not these are met determine our emotional well-being. If adolescents fail to forge an intimate relationship they experience loneliness and reduced sense of self-worth. Sullivan's ideas have withstood the test of time; adolescents report depending more on friends than their parents to satisfy their needs of companionship, reassurance of worth, and intimacy; and disclose intimate and personal information to their friends more than younger children report.

C7, Q4: According to Freud, what are the divisions of the superego and how do they affect moral feelings?

The ego ideal is the component of the superego that involves ideal standards approved by parents, and the conscience is the component of the superego that involves behaviors not approved of by parents. Gratitude is a feeling of thankfulness and appreciation, especially in response to someone doing something kind or helpful.

C10, Q2: What are some of the approaches that schools might take in improving middle school education in the US?

​​• Develop smaller "communities" or "houses" to lessen the impersonal nature of large middle schools. • Reduce student-to-counselor ratios from hundreds-to-1 to 10-to-1. • Involve parents and community leaders in schools.