AHIS 102 Exam 3

Charles Baudelaire, on Delacroix

"Delacroix was passionately in love with passion, and coldly determined to find the ways of expressing passion in the most visible manner. In these two characteristics we find. . . the two signs which mark the most robust geniuses, extreme geniuses who are not really made to please timorous, easily satisfied souls . . ."

Gustave Courbet

"Every age should be represented only by its own artists, that is to say, by the artists who have lived in it. I hold that the artists of one century are totally incapable of representing the things of a preceding or subsequent century, in other words, of painting the past or the future. It is in this sense that I deny the possibility of historical art applied to the past. Historical art is by nature contemporary. Every age must have its artists, who give expression to it and reproduce it for the future. An age that has not managed to find expression in the work of its own artists has no right to be expressed by later artists. That would be falsifying history. . . . "I also maintain that painting is an essentially concrete art form and can consist only of the representation of real and existing things. It is an entirely physical language that is composed, by way or words, of all visible objects. An abstract object, not visible, nonexistent, is not within the domain of painting."

Die Brücke

"the bridge" founded in Dresden in 1905 by a group of students. A German expressionist art group that rejected realism and created new art including some based off of primitivism. Metaphor for uniting people through art, use both old and new media

"Return from Cythera"

(Antoine Watteau, Rococo) entry piece for the academy, termed "fête galante." He is a Rubenist. References sacred island of Venus where she washed up, where lovers court each other (derived from a play). Figures looking back shows nostalgia

"Abbey in the Oak Forest"

(Casper David Friedrich, Romanticism) a dead body is being carried into a graveyard as night descends. Medieval landscape piece, takes place in winter. Desolate, dark thoughts of death. Unknown meaning, possibly about religion (ruins of Catholicism in the face of Lutheranism)

"Monk by the Sea"

(Casper David Friedrich, Romanticism) sublimity of God in the vastness of the sky and in nature. Darkness and light, largeness of the world in comparison to the figure. Limitless expanse of sky, sublime.

"Impression: Sunrise"

(Claude Monet, Impressionism) gives impressionism its name (use of unblended pure colors, use of visible brushwork, creation of seemingly "uncomposed composition" (doesn't immediately make sense, unplanned look), gives an IMPRESSION of life at one point in time

"St-Lazare Train Station"

(Claude Monet, Impressionism) new types of architecture to paint (glass, iron). Unusual modeling. Part of a series of paintings (he often painted various impressions of the same location at different times)

"Ballet Rehearsal (Adagio)"

(Edgar Degas, Impressionism) well known for drawing horses and dancing. Light basks in, colors, brushwork. No center, largely empty (allows a play on light to take place).

"Olympia"

(Edouard Manet, Realism) caused issues when shown at Salon because it showed a recognizable woman (model for other Manet pieces) in questionable circumstances, it was an obviously modern setting rather than a historical one (commonplace for nudes), and it emulated from a famous Renaissance painting "Venus of Urbino" (thought to be mocking posture). She looks directly at us (common for Manet), suggesting she may want money. Flat painting and surface, juxtaposing colors (white on white, black on black)

"Saturn Devouring his Children"

(Francisco de Goya, Romanticism) made to show that time (Saturn is Father Time) destroys all things that it creates (as he eats his son, who was prophesied to overthrow his father). Monstrous, repulsing imagery

"The Apparition"

(Gustave Moreau, Symbolism) tells the story of Solomé seeing the head of St. John the Baptist (her father promised it to her if they could dance) found in the Book of Matthew. Seems mysogynistic and bizarre. Byzantium architecture, glowing halo. May me trying to find a deeper meaning in this work other than religion.

"La Bonheur de Vivre"

(Henri Matisse, Expressionism) was known for paintings that bring joy or intend to express the joys of life.

"Artist Contemplating Ancient Ruins"

(Henry Fuseli, Romanticism) shows an artist despairing over a destroyed colossus. This could either be because of the recognition that all things are ruined by time or that the creations of the past put the present to shame

"Portrait of Charles LeBrun"

(Nicolas Largilliere, Classicism) created for admission into the French Royal Academy (1648), depicted the leader of the academy. He is gesturing towards his paintings and sculptures showing his passion for art.

"Et in Arcadia Ego"

(Nicolas Poussin, French Baroque) may translate to "I too in Arcadia" which could refer to death. Three shepards and a woman, all in different stages of knowledge (one man has no idea it is a grave, one is reading the engraving, one is questioning the grave, and the woman knows about death). Use of detailed scenery to depict it as "paradise." Allegorical, shows beauty and importance of life. Figures may function as "words," pointing figure casts shadow which reflects back

"Burial of Phocion"

(Nicolas Poussin, French Baroque) story: General was accused of treason and sentenced to death, does not fight it because he is virtuous. Schema of Athens, centered bodies carry out Phocion (can follow a path clearly, realistic measurement shows clarity.) Nature is geometric and classicized (perfect, despite true nature being imperfect [God-->Mother Nature])

"Les Demoiselles d'Avignon"

(Pablo Picasso, Cubism) somewhat of a joke: Avignon is both a place in France and the name of a brothel where Picasso lived. Cézanne modeling of bodies (defined structures), primitive face structures (very interested in primitive African art), random dabs of color, sliced up planes that don't make sense

"Girl with a Mandolin"

(Pablo Picasso, Cubism) use of analytical cubism

"Mt. St.-Victoire"

(Paul Cézanne, post-impressionism) obvious brushstrokes. Dabs of color suggest solidarity, mysterious distances

"Three Bathers"

(Paul Cézanne, post-impressionism) one of many bathing paintings done by Cézanne. Dabs of color next to each other

"Vision After the Sermon"

(Paul Gauguin, post-impressionism) scene from Old Testament suggesting simple piety. Bright colors, similar compositional structure as Japanese art. Transformed space

"Japonaiserie: Bridge in the Rain"

(Vincent Van Gogh, post-impressionism) copy of a woodblock painting from Japan, start of japonisme time period. Interested in the visual qualities of Japanese art but also a spiritual meaning to style

"Improvisation #28"

(Wassily Kandinksky, Expressionism) from the German group Der Blaue Reiter. Transitioned from creating pieces that made some sense to ones that made none at all. Objects do not make sense together. Terms such as "composition" and "improvisation" are also termed in music, suggesting the quickness in which it was made. No subject matter. Color may be used to emulate sound and music (synesthesia)

Wassily Kardinksky

Finally, our hearing of colors is so precise that it would perhaps be impossible to find anyone who would try to represent his impression of bright yellow by means of the bottom register of the piano, or describe dark madder [red] as being like a soprano voice.

japonisme

French term used to describe the interest in japanese arts and crafts that flourished among artists in the second half of the 19th century. Japanese art became known in the West after the 1854, when Japan was opened up to Western commercial interests.

synesthesia

When one kind of sense stimulus produces effects associated with a different sense

Prix de Rome

award given to the winner of the French Royal Academy competition each year, based on a historical painting and given a scholarship to Rome

fête galante

courtship party where couples are enjoying themselves outdoors ("Return from Cythera")

Poussinists vs. Rubenists

debate that took place in the French Academy in which artists argued over who to emulate. Poussinists use line and drawing to convey intellect, while Rubenists use color to please the senses (Rubenists triumph)

Salon

exhibition shown every few years at the Louvre to showcase French Royal Academy members' work.

camera obscura

small light-tight chamber which has a small hole in one side that can be fitted with a lense. Light enters the hole and makes an inverted image from the outside world on a surface opposite the hole

Hierarchy of Genres

some subject matters of painting are more worthy than others either because of difficulty or importance: history (allegory, religious, mythology), portraiture, genre painting, landscape

Salon des Refusés

special exhibition held in 1863 to showcase pieces that were rejected from the Salon

Impressionist "Techniques of Spontaneity"

use of unblended pure colors, use of visible brushwork, seemingly "uncomposed composition" with figures not centered and sometimes cropped strangely.

sublime

works of art or nature that inspire awe in, or even repel the viewer (excessive size, extreme darkness, infinite extensions). Common in Romanticism

Paul Cézanne

"The Louvre is the book from which we learn to read. We must not, however, be satisfied with retaining the beautiful formulas of our illustrious predecessors. Let us go forth to study beautiful nature, let us try to free our minds from them [our predecessors], let us strive to express ourselves according to our personal temperaments. Time and reflection, moreover, modify our vision little by little, and at last comprehension comes to us." Also said something about using only cones and shapes

Paul Gauguin

"The impressionists study color exclusively insofar as the decorative effect, but without freedom, retaining the shackles of verisimilitude. For them the dream landscape, created from many different entities, does not exist. They look and perceive harmoniously, but withou any aim. . . . They heed only the eye and neglect the mysterious centers of thought, so falling into merely scientific reasoning."

Henri Matisse

"What I dream of is an art of balance, of purity and serenity devoid of troubling or depressing subject matter, an art which might be for every mental worker, be he businessman or writer, like an appeasing influence, like a mental soother, something like a good armchair in which to rest from physical fatigue."

Vincent Van Gogh

"[W]hat I learned in Paris is leaving me, and I am returning to the ideas I had in the country before I knew the impressionists. And I should not be surprised if the impressionists soon find fault with my way of working, for it has been fertilized by Delacroix's ideas rather that by theirs. Because instead of trying to reproduce exactly what I see before my eyes, I use color more arbitrarily, in order to express myself forcibly. Well, let that be, as far as theory goes, but I'm going to give you an example of what I mean. I should like to paint the portrait of an artist friend, a man who dreams great dreams, who works as the nightingale sings, because it is his nature. He'll be a blond man. I want to put my appreciation, the love I have for him, into the picture. So I paint him as he is, as faithfully as I can, to begin with. But the picture is not yet finished. To finish it I am now going to be the arbitrary colorist. I exaggerate the fairness of the hair, I even get to orange tones, chromes and pale citron-yellow. Behind the head, instead of painting the ordinary wall of the mean room, I paint infinity, a plain background of the richest, intensest blue that I can contrive, and by this simple combination of the bright head against the rich blue background, I get a mysterious effect, like a star in the depths of an azure sky."

beau désordre

"beautiful disorder" refers to the quality of disarray that was considered pleasing in Rococo art

rocaille

"rockwork," ornamental design in the 18th Century because it favored irregular edges and shapes

Der Blaue Reiter

"the blue rider" founded in Munich to create art that was spiritual, expressionist, and sometimes abstract

"Rouen Cathedral"

(Claude Monet, Impressionism) series painting (painted at various times of day, allows for different lights to play tricks on the surface. Plein-Air painting

"Las Meninas"

(Diego Velázques, Spanish Baroque) group portrait and self-portrait (he is painting in the corner, admission to Knighthood). People in the midst of reacting to seeing the king and queen (everyone is looking at audience), one can see their reflections in the mirror in the back. Venetian colorito, curved body placement surrounding mirror, puts painting in our space (disembodied=divinity)

"The Tub"

(Edgar Degas, Impressionism) one of many paintings Degas does of women in tubs. Set in the interior of a home (unusual) and is very close up, suggesting the viewer is spying or standing above figure. Shown in a very ungraceful pose unlike past pieces, suggesting she is unaware anyone is watching. No faces are shown, possibly for modesty

"Déjeuner sur l'Herbe"

(Edouard Manet, Realism) modern apparel makes painting "unacceptable" and "inappropriate" because it is unknown exactly when it takes place. Similar to those from the Renaissance, which were praised despite this one being criticized. Woman looking directly at viewer, very little modeling (not trying to show 3D). Spatial relation between objects is off, less illusionistic

"The Scream"

(Edvard Munch, Symbolism) color is expressive, less about representation. Internal feelings are externalized (his anxiety projected through all the world). Curved coloring suggest sound waves (of the scream). Munch was out with his friends on a boardwalk when he was overcome with anxiety and saw the world like this.

"Street, Dresden"

(Ernest Ludwig Kirchner, Expressionism) from the German group Die Brüke. Painting of a street in Germany the artist frequented and noticed while it was always busy, everyone seemed alienated and alone. Use of bright colors, basic shapes, and harsh brushstrokes emphasizes the incomplete feelings.

"Death of Sardanapalus"

(Eugène Delacroix, Romanticism) History: based off the murder-suicide of King Sardanapalus (King of Luxury) while under siege. Rubenist in style with impasto and visible brushwork. "Lost" in the surface, the structure does not really make sense. Makes him look melancholy or pondering in his relaxed posture.

"Portrait of Paganini"

(Eugène Delacroix, Romanticism) Paganini was a virtuoso on violin that Delacroix saw preform in Paris. He is strangely figured, with abnormally large hands and nose). Usually, he is depicted as attractive, but Delacroix paints him realistically and gives him more passionate features. He plays the violin in the piece, and it appears to be painted fast (mirroring the speed of Paganini playing)

"Third of May, 1808"

(Francisco de Goya, Romanticism) part of a pair of large paintings done to commemorate the uprisings in Spain after Napoleon put his brother in charge of their throne. On the 2nd, the Spanish killed many French soldiers. The next day they retaliated. The two sides are easily separated into the good (Spanish) and the evil. The Spanish are being massacred, the focal point being the man in white (glowing, similar stance as Jesus on the cross). The soldiers are standing exactly the same and seem like killing-machines

"Portrait of Madame de Pompadour"

(François Boucher, Rococo) mistress of the King who stayed on court after their relationship ended (intellectual). Posed like Venus. Not on central axis, bookshelf is to represent intellectual interest. Artiface flowers sewn on dress (actual dress), mirror reflects bookshelf and head. Disheveled books reflect Rococo style (beau disordre)

"La Grande Jatte"

(Georges Seurat, post-impressionism) use of pointillism and divisionism. Depicts modern life on the Seine with people of various genders, ages, and social classes enjoying a day off. Extreme attention to color theories, figures and objects are more geometrically shaped as opposed to realistically shaped.

"Burial at Ornans"

(Gustave Courbet, Realism) artist paints his own era (painting of funeral in his hometown). Considered by Courbet as the death of romanticism because there is nothing sublime or exotic about it. Modern group photo, blank space in the center suggest absence after death. Little difference between figures' stances.

"Stone Breakers"

(Gustave Courbet, Realism) storytelling painting (breakout of the time). Figures turned away, unaware of one another. Shows two different moments in a similar life. True to life (mechanical poses, lack of communication, landscape). Much is left up to suggestion and assumptions. Courbet says he painted this exactly like he saw it in real life.

"The Nightmare"

(Henry Fuseli, Romanticism) Woman lies on her back with her hair unkempt and a gargoyle on top of her, and a horse with glowing eyes is hidden behind red curtains. This is most likely a suggestion of passion (red, horse, flowing hair, dangling hand). Although there is some suggestion that the creature is an incubus and is sitting on her chest, causing a nightmare. (Mare=demon, horse)

"Apotheosis of Homer"

(J.A.D. Ingres, Romanticism) Homer is "becoming a god" because of his creations of the Iliad and the Odyssey (who are sitting below him personified). Other poets and artists surround them, all considered "geniuses." Classical antiquity in the architecture.

"The Slave Ship"

(J.M.W. Turner, Romanticism) History: in 1781 an african slave ship Zong departed and an epidemic swept through the slaves. The captain threw the dead and alive overboard for an insurance claim (132 people drown). Shows a storm at vast sea (sublime), shows fallacies of hope. Impasto of paint, ship is barely defined. Sky and sea melt together, shark frenzy in the foreground

"Death of Marat"

(Jacques Louis David, Neoclassicism) Marat was a supporter of the Terror and editor of the French newspaper "L'ami du Peuple." He was executed in his bathtub (skin disease) by royalist Charlotte Corday. Neoclassic because the murder is not shown, only the aftermath. Reminiscent of "piéta" works, showing him as a martyr (like Jesus). Note Corday used to get in was in his hand in this piece with blood on it. Hand still has pen in it suggesting his writing will live on. Inscribed with "à Marat, David" and dated "J'an deux"

"Napoleon Crossing the Alps"

(Jacques Louis David, Neoclassicism) Napoleon crossed the alps for a surprise attack. Pointing up=virtue. Some false aspects in order to depict a stronger leader (horse instead of donkey), signatures in the rocks show everyone who has crossed the Alps, suggesting strong leadership.

"Oath of the Horatii"

(Jacques Louis David, Neoclassicism) story of early ancient Rome where three sons take on three other sons from an opposing side. Battle is not portrayed, but the oath they take is. Divided into threes (sons, columns, sisters, swords). Sons are stretched in a straight angle to contrast the women (who are curved and supposedly unvirtuous), creating an antithesis

"Young Woman with a Water Jug"

(Jan Vermeer, Dutch Baroque) genre painting with very little to suggest what is happening. Mostly interior (like many Vermeer paintings), clean. Open window allows a play on light, reflects off of objects and creates highlights. Viewer must make sense of the portrait

"Grand Odalisque"

(Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Romanticism) made for the King of Nepal as an antithesis to another piece showing a reclining nude from the front. Exotic and erotic (fan, curtain, hookah, turban). Very curved body, many unrealistic aspects (not cohesively structured). Feminine ideals, keeps Renaissance ideas in mind ("Venus of Urbino", "Madonna of the Chair," medievalism)

"The Swing"

(Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Rococo) Clergyman pushing swing, unaware of affair. Man on the other side can see up the woman's skirt as she kicks off her slipper in excitement. Angel and dolphin statues allude to his ignorance

"Bathers"

(Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Rococo) Rubenist style of french women in water, can easily tell what brush is used. Butt is center of painting, glowing skin.

"Hannibal Crossing the Alps"

(Joseph Mallord William Turner, Romanticism) ancient roman story of Hannibal invading Italy by crossing through the Alps by surprise. Blizzard is approaching, figures try to set up camp. Nature is large, humans are small (sublimity of nature)

"The Cupid Seller"

(Joseph-Marie Vien, Neoclassicism) rococo themes, some classicism (based off of Ancient Roman fresco). Cupid makes obscene gesture

"The Loge"

(Mary Cassatt, Impressionism) theatre location (space of modern life), shows woman watching a play. Uncommon to use a woman because they are usually the one being watched, not watching.

"Spirit of the Dead Watching"

(Paul Gauguin, post-impressionism) story: Gauguin moved to Polynesia in order to study primitive art. He meets a mistress there, and one day finds her laying naked on her stomach in complete fear of a "spirit of the dead." He paints this, using terror. Use of purple to evoke fear, uses colors to elicit emotional responses. No modeling, like in "Olympia."

"Outbreak of War"

(Peter Paul Rubens, Baroque) dynamic, tragic narrative. Personification of people as war with Venus and Mars in the center (Cupid tries to keep them "in love". Europe is personified in front of open Rome doors. Bodies slowly go from standing to laying down. Reflectives in the eyes and armor, blood dripping down. Allegory to war, Venetian flesh and baroque dynamics

"Arrival of Maria de' Medici at Marseilles"

(Peter Paul Rubens, Baroque) part of painting series to propagandize her life as the Queen of France. Shows her arriving in France, personification of France, fame, and Neptune (everyone is welcoming unlike reality). Depiction of the female body as full and strong. Northern style of ornate details (water), Venetian impasto (oil sketch)

"Elevation of the Cross"

(Peter Paul Rubens, Baroque) triptych for Antwerp Altarpiece, story of cross being put up (tension). Emotional response by the side panel, ornate scenery and reflection (Baroque illusion, romanist). Realistic, twisting bodies imply movement. Jesus is looking up supposedly at God, takes us out of the painting. Body is used as diagonal, goes back in space

"Le Moulin de la Galette"

(Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Impressionism) patches of light, bursts of color everywhere. No particular focus point, showing space of modern life. Plein-Air painting

"Hundred Guilder Print"

(Rembrandt, Dutch Baroque) etching, drypoint, and engraving. No halos, but light that convincingly fades away. Not a particular story (Book of Matthew?) Rhetorical gestures (Christ scolds St. Peter for blocking woman and child). Use of light and shadow, camel in back may reference bible

"The Night Watch"

(Rembrandt, Dutch Baroque) painting of the Militia Company of Frans Banning Cocq. Heavy shadow to illuminate details, selective light (leaves out setting to emphasize people). Plaque in the shadows has names of members. Foreshortening of hand in center space is Baroque. Female not in militia hit by light, one child has a chicken on dress (emblem to Cocq, or to guild [claw])

"Raft of the Medusa"

(Théodore Gericault, Romanticism) History: unqualified boat captain hits a reef as he takes settlers to Senegal and is unable to fix the boat. 2/3 are crammed onto life boats while the other third makes a raft out of wood from the boat and plans to be pulled along. They are cut loose however and are stranded for 13 days, facing many ordeals. He did many sketches of the huge painting before deciding to depict the first time they see their rescue, and didn't leave his shop for a long time. Shows pyramid of figures trying to wave down a ship, father and dead son alludes to cannibalism.

"Night Café"

(Vincent Van Gogh, post-impressionism) calls this his "ugliest piece yet" in a good way, using red and green to convey "terrible passions of humanity." Sees colors as expressive means of the painting, communicates to the viewer. Van Gogh says night seems more alive to him than the daytime.

Baroque

17th Century art movement characterized by use of light and shadow (formally and symbolically), use of illusion with connection to the viewer, and engaging the senses beyond vision. Intro to allegories and narrative paintings

Classicism

18th Century art movement marking the renewal of classical forms and subjects, focuses on elegance and symmetry

French Rococo

18th Century art movement that is a whimsical and elaborately decorative style of art, whose name derives from the French word 'rocaille' meaning, rock-work after the forms of sea shells.

Realism

19th and 20th century art movement that focused on genre scenes and moving away from painting the "idea." Painted more real scenes of true life

Neoclassicism

Late 18th and early 19th century art movement characterized by being serious, unemotional, and sternly heroic. Neoclassical painters depicted subjects from Classical literature and history, as used in earlier Greek art and Republican Roman art, using sombre colours with occasional brilliant highlights, to convey moral narratives of self-denial and self-sacrifice fully in keeping with the supposed ethical superiority of Antiquity

Romanticism

Late 18th and early 19th century art movement that was notoriously hard to define. It was a response to the enlightenment and focused on the individual, emotion, and modernity. A return to nature - exemplified by an emphasis on spontaneous plein-air painting - a belief in the goodness of humanity, the promotion of justice for all, and a strong belief in the senses and emotions, rather than reason and intellect.

pastel

Pastel crayons are drawing sticks fashioned out of finely-ground pigments mixed with a binder such as gum arabic (a plant-based glue). These crayons may contain pure pigments (in which case they produce intense colors), or they may include a filler such as chalk or gypsum to dilute the color. Can be blended together or left intact.

"primitivism"

Term used to describe the interest in supposedly primitive non-western cultures and their art, as well as the interest in early periods of western culture and art. Prominent in Expressionism

Pointillism and divisionism

Terms used to describe Georges Seurat's method of applying paint (in small strokes made by the point of the brush; hence pointillism) and the color theory behind it. According to the scientific theories followed by Seurat, each color is affected by the color placed next to it. It was believed that if primary colors are set side by side on the canvas, they are blended by the eye into a secondary color that appears more intense than it would were it blended on the palette and applied as a single color. Similarly, if a color is placed next to its complement, the line where the two meet will display an intense contrast.

Claude Monet

When you go out to paint, try to forget what objects you have before you--a tree, a house, a field, or whatever. Merely think, here is a little square of blue, here an oblong of pink, here a streak of yellow and paint it just as it looks to you, the exact color and shape, until it gives your own naive impression of the scene before you.'"

genius

a special person, who was born with particular powers of observation and creativity. His nature was marked by enthusiasm, and his achievements tended toward the sublime. Genius was thought sometimes to border on madness, since the genius might see things as no one else saw them, speak his own special "language" and consequently suffer fits of melancholy. Romantic era

medievalism

an interest in the art and literature from the middle ages. Common in Romanticism

French Royal Academy

founded in 1648, proposed by artists to elevate their status. King approved at age 10, reconstructed in 1663 when he was of age. Curriculum focused on life drawings and educational lectures at the Louvre. Semi-annual public exhibitions called salons showcased members' work.

analytical cubism

monochromatic, and breaks down ("analyzes") form into component parts or planes, which are then recombined on the pictorial surface.

The Enlightenment

name given to the 18th century, with reference to the dominant philosophy of the time which was rationalist and believed in perfectibility of mankind through education

plein-air painting

painting outdoors, made possible by the ability to store oil pain in a tin tube. Common in impressionism.

oil sketch

preliminary study for painting, done with oil paint often times on panel. Perfected by Peter Paul Rubens when used in combination with colorito and designo

etching

printmaking technique: cover metal plate with acid-resistant resin, scratch design with etching needle, placed in acid bath where the acid "bites" away at metal, removed from bath and coating is removed, cover in ink then run through the printing press

drypoint

printmaking technique: metal plate is scratched with a needle to create burrs

Spaces of modern life

public spaces where impressionists would draw. This included the redesigned paths in Paris that allowed for open grand boulevards

French Revolution

revolution undertaken in France between 1789 and 1799 to abolish absolute monarchy

The Terror

second phase of the French Revolution, where harsh measures (executions of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette) were taken to ensure the success of the newly formed Republic