American and Public Policy exam 1
contexts of public policy (what you have to think about when it comes to public policy)
social economic political governing cultural
social contexts
societal changes..as society changes so does public policy
state and local levels
state constitutions and local statues
equity and freedom
- consideration of what constitutes a fare and equitable policy choice. how costs and benefits are distributed and who is allowed in policy making process.
what is critical to how the US institutions function and to public policy?
- the way institutions are designed and structured - the rules they adopt for decision making.
18th - 19th century dual federalism
- theory that states that the functions or responsibilities of each level of government are distinct, little integration of the two levels of government exists had distinct functions and responsibilities of each level of government (ex: state- education and transportation vs. national - defense and international trade) little integration limited federal government activities
how do the federal courts shape public policy?
-Gatekeepers (by deciding who has standing to sue, the right to appeal to the federal courts, or if a dispute is ready for review) -Setting standards for review -Interpretation of constitution -Final say on law -Discretion in choosing a judicial remedy (e.g., imposition of fines, probation, or incarceration)
problem definition distinct biases
-a persons background and perspectives -framed or spinned - those who favor one problem reflect their views in language that describe the problem or policy in a framework that reflects their view -making comparisons (gas prices in US vs. Europe)
what are the advantages of fragmentation?
-contributions of many decision makers reduces error -multiple decision makers encourage innovation -diffusion of power
policy analysis
-examining public policy and the policy process or both. Once we find problems with better solutions it goes into public debate. -the study of the causes and consequences of policy decisions.
what are the disadvantages of fragmentation?
-lack of policy productivity -Stalemate or gridlock (1980s, 1990s, 2001-2005): Generally, makes difficult to respond to most public problems in a timely and coherent manner. -Conflicts between federal and states governments (e.g., Civil Rights Act 1964 => Southern states refuse to implement) -lack of coordination and coherence. taxation: progressive federal taxes; regressive state taxes...antismoking campaigns versus tobacco subsidies -Most of time, Incremental policymaking: small, slow adjustments at the margins of existing policies vs. Dramatic change (Medicare by Pres. Johnson, Dept. of Homeland Security after 9-11)
roles of public opinion
-major force in policy making, although indirect and passive -sets the boundaries of public policy, although not determinate
ways of analyzing policies
1. Effectiveness 2. Efficiency 3. Equity and freedom 4. Political feasibility
what are the effects of government growth?
1. everyday life 2. entire occupational sector (ex: government as main employer and procure) 3. likelihood of conflicting public policies and greater difficulty in addressing societies problems 4. Taking more time and effort in policy making
where do we see the elements of public policy?
1. legal expressions - laws, executive orders, regulations, and judicial rulings 2. actions of policy makers - presidents, governors, or legislators (ex: direct government payments like social security)
what is the current structure of the US government
15 departments, 435 representatives, and 100 senators numerous bureaus and agencies 2.7 million federal employees (extra) federal expenditures - steady until about 1920. 3 high bumps in 1920, 1944, and then in 1958.
what is the presidents job?
Agenda setting, policy formulation, adoptions, and implementations. policy leadership.
what is the subsidiary agencies within the departments job?
FAA (transportation department), FDA (health and human service), FBI (justice department) Politicized (Clinton--> Bush, conservative appointees) political conflicts over qualifications for the head of agency
what is the white house staff and executive office of the presidents job?
Involved in policy development and assisting implementation mini-bureaucracy (ex: office of management budget) council of economic affairs, national security council, council on environmental quality, office of science and technology policy
what is policy capacity?
The governments ability to identify, assess, and respond to public problems
20th century cooperative federalism
Theory that states that the national government is more involved in different policies through collaboration between the national and state government. -great depression 1930 - New Deal by Roosevelt - breaking down the barriers between national and state policy -collaboration between the government increased -large scale federal programs begun in the 60's and 70's (federal clean air and clean water program) -interdependence among levels of the government
3. information failures
To have perfect competition, willing buyers and sellers must have all of the information needed to enter in a transaction or exchange.
when would the government intervene in market failure? (1-4)
a situation in which the private market is not efficient
federalism definition
a system of government in which power is divided between the national government and the states. both have the authority to enact laws or public policy.
lobbying
activities through which interest groups attempt to persuade policy makers to agree with their points of view or support policy proposals they favor, oppose those the group does not, or keep certain issues or policy alternatives off the legislative agenda
ways to asses public policy (policy analysis)
assessing problems - looking at what the problems are developing alternatives - ways to fix those problems evaluating implemented programs - evaluate who is fixing those problems
rational choice theory
assumes that in making decisions, individuals are rational actors; that is, they seek to maximize attainment of their preferences or further their self-interest. suggest that analyst consider what individuals value, how they perceive a given situation, the information they have about it, various uncertainties that might effect the outcome, and how a particular context or the expectation of others-for example rules and norms-might effect their actions.
Legislature
bicameral (two house) consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate
what is the lawmaking procedure of the Legislative committee?
bills are introduced to committee-->public hearings-->committee accepts, modify, or rejects--> committee reports to full chamber-->bills pass through both chambers-->president signs or vetos (-->overriding with 2/3 votes in both houses)
state and local governments depending on federal financing
block grants categorical grants
fragmentation of authority in congress
can pose an obstacle to policy making but there is an upside: multiple venues for highlighting public problems and proposals which can then gain attention in capitol hill and possibly the media gaining increased visibility. the downside includes:policy gridlock due to disagreements between committees or the house and senate divided parties, ideologies (health care, social security) electoral incentives or pressure --> political individualism
Federal mandates
complicate the relationships between national and state governments The no child left behind program is an example of an approved mandate with insufficient funding.
what was the structure of the first US government?
congress -13 states, 65 representatives, and 26 senators bureaucracy -3 departments: war, treasury, and foreign affairs
Policy subgovernments and issue networks
congressional subcommittees, an executive agency, and an outside economic interest group such as cotton farmers or oil companies ▫Informal settings in which policies are made ▫Include particular issue areas (national defense, agriculture, forestry, or energy) ▫Have been called many different things: Subgovernments, Issue networks, Iron triangles. ▫Why Work or Powerful? - Complexity of Public Problems -> Requires detailed knowledge -> Specialization -> Empowering "Subsystems" due to their specialization
2. externalities
decisions and actions of those involved in the market exchange that effect others. third part - negative externality (pollution) positive externality (education)
intergovernmental relations
describes the overlapping authority and interdependence among the government
what is the 15 cabinet level departments job?
developing and implementing policy in specialized areas -managed by secretary
group theory
sees public policy as the product of a continuous struggle among organized interest groups. Believe that pluarism in the US political system
efficiency
different from effectiveness. Bang for your buck. •What a policy or policy proposal costs in relation to its expected benefits to society ("affordable" or "good use") - Donald Trumps wall relates to the effectiveness and efficiency. People have different views of the effectiveness and efficiency of it...will it work will it be efficient
what are the actors of elite theories
economic elites, cultural elites, and elected officals
what is the relationship between politics and public policy?
electoral process: we choose our own representatives political survival: desire for winning election or reelection by showing the population what they want.
Theories of public policy
elite theory group theory institutional theory rational choice hteory
elite theory
emphasizes how the values and preferences of governing elites affect public policy development. it focuses on the role of leaders and leadership in the development of public policy. -assumes that values and preferences of the general public are less influential in shaping public policy than those of smaller unrepresented groups of people or elites.
critics of group theory
exaggerate the role of interest groups underestimate the leadership of public officials and their discretion
what is the independent executive and regulatory agencies job?
executive (EPA, NASA, CIA, NRC): responsibilities for more focused policies Regulatory (FCC, SEC): fixed terms for insulation from political pressure
what is the definition of the government?
federal constitution: congress, president, various executive branches, and the federal court system.
the constitutional allocation of powers between the federal and state governments
former allocation reserves all powers not specfically granted to the federal government to the states: ninth and tenth amendments. supremacy to federal law: article 5
what are the elements of public policy?
goals plans or proposals programs - more specific then plans and goals decisions or choices - where the actions are taken
what are the reasons for government growth?
growth of nation and population increased complexity of society regulation of business protection of social welfare role of US in the world market failure (chp 1) citizen demands
salience
how centrally important an issue is for an individual (ex: environment)
rational choice theory actors
individuals
who's involved in problem definition?
individuals civilians interest groups politicians
actors of the political systems theory
institutions and activities of government
actors of group theory
interest group
political feasibility
is it politically correct How government officials and their policy actors (the public, interest groups) appraise the acceptability of a proposal) •May be others as well, such as ethical acceptability, civil liberties, extent of public participation or flexibility of a policy •Each criteria may not carry equal weight in each decision
systematic agenda
issues the public is aware of and may be discussing
institutional / government agenda
issues to which policy makers give active and serious consideration
the attentive public
less than 10% of the public, those who are apt to take an interest in the problem at hand
Judicial branch - law interpreting
made up of member supreme court (9), circuit courts of appeals (13), and ninety four federal district courts (94), as well as special courts (such as bankruptcy, a court of appeals for the armed services, and a federal claims)
lobbying provides
money for elections use of media (commericals to win the public) information (substantive and political) litigation ( American trucking association vs. EPA) Direct contact with policy makers (ex: labor union vs OSHA)
critics of rational choice theory
narrow assumptions (information asymmetry, not self-interested norms)
what were some early history disputes of the federal government?
national bank - early on they wanted everyone to have their money in a bank interstate commerce - money (gold/silver/dollars/exchange) within different states slavery and civil war.
problem stream
o About magnitude of problem (gov't report; airline security, nuclear plants) o Failure or inability of private sector (e.g., poverty, Social Security o Issue with spillowver impacts o Focusing events (e.g., Sept 11, Love Canal
institutional theory
o Emphasize the formal and legal aspects of government structure (e.g., the arrangement of legal powers and rules for decision making) o Rules are important: Degree of access, availability of information, sharing of authority o Structures and rules make a big difference inpolicy process o Complex in institutional analysis, but it matters (e.g., public hearing, filibuster)
institutional theory actors
o Institution as "both the organizations and the rules" (e.g., markets; firms; governments in different levels; parties and interest groups, foreign political regimes
Political systems theory
o More comprehensive, more general, than other o "A biological model of politics" :Emphasizes the way political system responds to demands arising from environment (e.g., public opinion or group pressures) o Interrelationships of institutions and policy actors and the role of the larger environments (e.g., Larger social, economic, and cultural contexts) o Useful terms: input, demands, support, policy outputs, policy outcomes, and feedback
Rational choice theory characteristics
o Public policy as actions of self interested individual policy actors (e.g., members of Congress with electoral incentive) o Consider values, perceptions, information, uncertainties o Useful for designing public policies (e.g., reducing fuel consumption)
agenda setting
o The subjects or issues that gain attention and became possible objects of policy action o No formal or official listing
characteristics of group theory
oPublic policy as the product of a continuous struggle among organized interest groups (e.g., labor unions vs. manufacturing interests) oWays of influence: Lobbying or appealing to the public through issue advocacy campaigns oGroups with more resources have greater influences -> 'special interests' oAdvocacy Coalition Framework
elite theory emphasis is on
oValues and preferences of concerning elites oRole of leaders and leadership in policy development oDifferent elites tend to dominate in different policy areas (e.g., foreign policy vs. health care) oNot democratic oParticularly evident in subgovernment or issue networks, plus the low salience of policymaking (e.g., FCC regulation on TV)
federalism
sharing authority between national, states, and local governments.
policy outputs vs. policy outcomes
output: the formal action the government takes to pursue goals outcome: the effects the actions have on society
roles of the judicial branch
pivotal role by interpreting policy decisions - last word on policy - reactive rather than proactive: ruling and opinion rather than initiating policy
cultural context
political culture - widely held values, beliefs, and attitudes such as trust variation - blue and red states cultural perspectives
why does government intervene?
political reasons: changes in public opinion moral/ethical reasons: doesn't matter what the public opinion may be economics and market failure: government in the market is a bad thing because it makes the economy inefficient.
political context
political/ideological issues. >Looking at the strength of the two major parties >Looking at the influence of the minor parties >Differences between liberals and conservatives - how well they can compromise in the middle >Ability of organized interest groups (ex: military industrial context: business groups that make money out of selling weapons. Eisenhower) - 99.9% of interest groups are located in DC >Public opinion, expectation, and level of trust >Caveat: are the political labels (conservative, republican, democratic, liberal) reliable? No >US with a weak party system: when we select the candidate of each party we allow anyone to be a candidate there is no strong pressure from the political leaders but in Europe the party leaders collect information and decide who the candidates should be for elections.
streams of agenda
problem stream policy stream political stream
increase of state and local government autonomy
proliferation of local governments (an average of 500 governments are created every year during the 1980s and 1990s) 70's-80's: toward block grants and away from categorical grants to give states more autonomy Ronald Reagan and George Bush gave trend to restore greater authority to states
The unfunded mandates reform act (1995)
required estimates of the costs of mandates to be disclosed to limit future financial impacts on the states
executive branch -
responsible for carrying out the laws enacted by congress. Made up of the president, vice president, white house staff, and federal bureaucracy.
why are states better equipped than federal at defining citizens needs?
state legislatures and bureaucracies have become more skilled growth in professional staffs and expertise sufficient funds (federal transfer dollars and state taxation) many innovation and effective measures (ex: highway safety, such as seat belt and speed limit)
economic contexts
state of the economy. this could include welfare policies and borrowing money for wars.
governing context
structure of government-separation of power: the authority to act is widely dispersed among constitutional institutions and policy actors therefore both the president and congress must find common ground. Consequence of separation of power - lengthy process and less focused or coherent policy due to inevitable compromise
stability
the continuation of an opinion over time (often fleeting) ▫"Rally-'round-the-flag" - when we face external threat people ▫rally effect usually happens when a country or nation facts a crisis like war and then the general public tends to increase their general support for the president ▫can have an impact, if people willing to take the time/effort ▫can lead to interest group formation and activity
1. oligopolies
the market is dominated by a few small suppliers
1. monopolies
the market is dominated by one monopoly supplier
policy stalemate
the result of political process in which political decision makers are unable or unwilling to compromise in a way that permits public polity action (ex: health care policy in early Clinton, prescription drugs in 2002, energy policy during 2001-05)
problem defintion
the step in the policy process whereby a particular issue is defined or explained in a particular way that people can understand. problems can be defined in a number of ways.
intensity
the strength of opinion, or how firmly it is held
what are the complexities and fragmentation's as basic characteristics of the US government?
the structure of policy making in the US is intentionally fragmented checks and balances (division of authority, separation of power, federal systems)
where is power shared within the government?
three branches: legislature, executive, and judiciary. This caused the founders to be concerned with the possibility of a government tyranny (ex: british monarch)
categorical grants
transfers of federal dollars to the states where the funding must be used for specific purposes
block grants
transfers of federal dollars to the states, where the states have substantial discretion in how to spend the money to meet the needs of their citizens
4. inability to provide public or collected goods
two criteria: exclusion & joint consumption pg. 23
public opinion definition
what the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time
effectiveness
whether it will work
types of interest groups
•Citizen groups (public interest groups): Sierra Club, NRA, Christian Coalition, Mothers Against Drunk Driving •Special interest groups: organized labor, business groups, or professional groups (influential in formal public hearings)
seperation of powers
•Founders were concerned with possibility of government tyranny (e.g. British monarch) •Has added to the complexity and difficulty of governing (e.g., 9-11 terrorist threats vs. lack of cooperation between FBI and other agencies) •Has added to the challenge of building consensus for policy action, especially between the legislature and executive (veto, gridlock)
why does stalemate occur?
•High level of partisanship and ideological conflict •Constitutional design and divided government (divided gov: when 2 branches of government have 2 different branches of parties) •Complex problems •Public opinion and its lack of consensus •Organized interests •Ineffective political leadership
why are analyst skeptical of decentralization?
•Policy performance varies and citizens may suffer the consequences (e.g. some states fail to test drinking water or to enforce clean and air laws) •More money and greater expertise vs. less money and few expertise? •More influence from business and industry interest groups than national (e.g., automobile in Michigan) •Less open and less visible decisions at state level •Many public problems are cross-state boundaries (e.g. air and water pollution) •Only federal gov't has sufficient resources to support policy activities such as environmental protection and health care.